Battey Testing

Guide
Contents
Stationary battery testing...................................... 4 Impedance test........................................................ 15
Why perform impedance testing?.................................... 4 Impedance theory.......................................................... 15
Why perform discharge testing?...................................... 5 Intercell connection resistance.................................... 16
Testing and electrical paths......................................... 17
Why backup batteries are needed......................... 6 Voltage...................................................................... 17
Why test battery systems................................................. 6 Specific gravity .......................................................... 17
Why batteries fail............................................................ 6 Float current.............................................................. 18
Ripple current............................................................ 18
Battery types........................................................... 7
Temperature............................................................... 18
Lead-acid overview.......................................................... 7
Data analysis............................................................ 19
Nickel-Cadmium Overview............................................... 7
Locating ground faults on DC systems without
Battery construction and nomenclature...................... 8 sectionalizing........................................................... 22
Configurations................................................................ 8 Overview.................................................................... 22
Single post batteries..................................................... 8 Current test methods................................................. 22
Multiple post batteries................................................. 8 A better test method.................................................. 22

Failure modes.......................................................... 9 Frequently asked questions................................. 23

Lead-acid (flooded) failure modes.................................... 9 Battery technology summary................................... 23
Lead-acid (VRLA) failure modes........................................ 9
Megger products overview.................................. 24
Nickel-Cadmium failure modes...................................... 10
Impedance test equipment....................................... 24
Maintenance philosophies................................... 11 BITE®3........................................................................ 24
BITE®2 and BITE®2P.................................................... 24
How to maintain the battery.................................... 11
BITE® accessories........................................................... 25
Standards and common practices.................................. 11
BITE®3 Accessories.................................................... 25
IEEE 450..................................................................... 11
BITE®2 and BITE®2P Accessories............................... 25
Inspections............................................................. 11
TORKEL 860............................................................... 26
Capacity test (discharge test) should be done.......... 11
BVM.......................................................................... 26
IEEE 1188................................................................... 12
TORKEL 900............................................................... 27
Inspections............................................................. 12
Capacity test (capacity test) should be done............ 12 Ground fault tracing equipment............................... 27
Battery Ground Fault Tracer (BGFT)............................. 27
Battery replacement criteria.................................... 12
Battery Ground-fault Locator (BGL)............................ 28
IEEE 1106................................................................... 12
Inspections............................................................. 12 Digital Low Resistance Ohmmeters (DLRO®)
Capacity test (discharge test) should be done.......... 12 and Microhmmeters (MOM)..................................... 28
DLRO200 and DLRO600............................................. 28
Summary of best way to test and evaluate DLRO 247000 series................................................... 28
your battery................................................................... 12
DLRO10 and DLRO10X............................................... 29
Test intervals.............................................................. 12 MJÖLNER 200 and MJÖLNER 600.............................. 29
MOM200A and MOM600A....................................... 29
Practical battery testing....................................... 13
MOM690................................................................... 29
Capacity test............................................................ 13
Insulation Resistance Test Equipment........................ 30
Battery testing matrix – IEEE recommended
practices........................................................................ 13 MIT400/2 series insulation resistance testers............... 30

Procedure for capacity test PowerDBTM............................................................... 31

of vented lead acid battery............................................ 14 Acceptance & Maintenance Test Data
Management Software.................................................. 31
Test forms............................................................... 31

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STATIONARY BATTERY TESTING
The stationary backup batteries are the life line in any critical
system, a life line that simply cannot fail. In order to ensure
continuous operation, it is recommended to implement a
sound and solid battery maintenance program.
Each of the various standards (IEEE 450, IEEE 1188, IEEE 1106)
have their own best practices for battery maintenance, which
we have summarized into the following:
■■ Perform a capacity test when the battery is new as part of the
acceptance test.
■■ Perform an impedance test at the same time to establish baseline
values for the battery.
■■ Repeat the above within 2 years for warranty purposes.
■■ Perform an impedance test every year on flooded cells and quarterly
on VRLA cells.
■■ Perform capacity tests at least for every 25% of expected service life. Batteries are not resistors. They have capacitance due to a
■■ Perform a capacity test annually when the battery has reached 85% double layer effect that occurs when liquids come in contact
of expected service life or if the capacity has dropped more than with solids (plates and electrolyte). This value changes earlier in
10% since the previous test or is below 90% of the manufacturer‘s
the battery aging process. DC testing ignores this parameter.
rating.
■■ Perform a capacity test if the Impedance value has changed VLA batteries are typically large batteries with low impedance.
significantly from the initial baseline value. You need adequate current to test these large low impedance
■■ Follow a given practice (preferably from the IEEE standard) for all
batteries. Small hand-held testers do not have the current. The
temperature, voltage, gravity measurements etc. and create a report. BITE2 tests with a full 10 A of current. More than enough to
This will be a great help for trending and fault tracing. get reliable repeatable measurements on large flooded cells.
This document provides an example of a thorough VRLA batteries typically fail in what is referred to as an open
maintenance program that will ensure high reliability for state. This means current cannot pass through the cell. For this
a stationary battery string. Some critical locations might reason, parallel strings are recommended in critical systems
need more attention, and some rural environments less, the when using VRLA batteries.
condition of the environment of the battery and the condition
You can get false measurements in the parallel path unless you
of the battery itself are important parameters to set up a
sectionalize the string. The Megger BITE3 is the only battery
suitable and solid maintenance program.
tester designed to measure the escape current on parallel
strings, avoiding the need to sectionalizing the string.
Why perform impedance testing?
Batteries can fail between discharge tests. This quick and easy
test will increase reliability for your critical loads.
Not only will this inform you about chemical changes in your
batteries but it will also test your inter-cell connections, the
battery charge balance as well as the state of health of the
charger.
The AC impedance measurement has a distinct advantage over
the DC resistive measurement.

1 = 1 + 1 1 = 1 + 1
R T
R R 1 2
R 1
R R T 2

4 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com

Why perform discharge testing?
Capacity test is the only way to get an accurate value on the
actual capacity of the battery. When used regularly it can
be used for tracking the battery’s health and actual capacity
and estimate remaining life of the battery. During the test it
is measured how much capacity (current x time expressed in
Ah) the battery can deliver before the terminal voltage drops
to the end of discharge voltage x number of cells. The current
shall be maintained at a constant value. If the battery reaches
the end of discharge voltage at the same time as the specified
test time the battery’s actual capacity is 100% of the rated
capacity. If it reaches the end of discharge at 80% (8h), it shall
be removed.
It is important to measure the individual cell voltages. This
has to be made a couple of times during the test. It is most
important to measure the cells at the end of the discharge test
in order to find the weak cells. It is also very important that
the time OR the current during a discharge test is adjusted
for the temperature of the battery. A cold battery will give
less Ah than a warm one. Temperature correction factors and
methods are described in the IEEE standards.
Batteries can also be tested at a shorter time than their duty
cycle, for instance at 1 hour. Then the current rate has to be
increased. The advantage is that less capacity is inconvenient
and quite possibly very expensive in time, resources and
money to rectify.

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Why backup A battery is two dissimilar metallic materials in an electrolyte.
In fact, you can put a penny and a nickel in half of a grapefruit

batteries are
and you now have a battery. Obviously, an industrial battery
is more sophisticated than a grapefruit battery. Nonetheless,
a battery, to work the way it is supposed to work must be
needed maintained properly. A good battery maintenance program
may prevent, or at least, reduce the costs and damage to
Batteries are used to ensure that critical electrical equipment critical equipment due to an AC mains outage.
is always on. There are so many places where batteries are
Even though there are many applications for batteries,
used – it is nearly impossible to list them all. Some of the
standby batteries are installed for only two reasons:
applications for batteries include:
■■ To protect and support critical equipment during
■■ Electric generating stations and substations for protection and
an AC outage
control of switches and relays
■■ To protect revenue streams due to the loss of service
■■ Telephone systems to support phone service, especially emergency
services The following discussion about failure modes focuses on the
■■ Industrial applications for protection and control mechanisms and types of failure and how it is possible to
■■ Back up of computers, especially financial data
find weak cells. Below is a section containing a more detailed
and information discussion about testing methods and their pros and cons.
■■ “Less critical” business information systems
Without battery back-up hospitals would have to close their
Why batteries fail
doors until power is restored. But even so, there are patients In order for us to understand why batteries fail, unfortunately
on life support systems that require absolute 100% electric a little bit of chemistry is needed. There are 2 main battery
power. For those patients, as it was once said, “failure is not chemistries used today in standby applications, lead acid and
an option.” nickel cadmium. Other chemistries such as lithium ion are
prevalent on portable and cyclic applications, but are not ideal
Just look around to see how much electricity we use and then
for non-cyclic stationary applications.
to see how important batteries have become in our everyday
lives. The many blackouts around the world show how critical Volta invented the primary (non-rechargeable) battery in 1800.
electrical systems have become to sustain our basic needs. Planté invented the lead-acid battery in 1859 and in 1881
Batteries are used extensively and without them many of Faure first pasted lead-acid plates. With refinements over the
the services that we take for granted would fail and cause decades, it has become a critically important back-up power
innumerable problems. source. The refinements include improved alloys, grid designs,
jar and cover materials and improved jar-to-cover and post
Why test battery systems seals. Arguably, the most revolutionary development for the
lead acid battery was the valve-regulated development. Many
There are three main reasons to test battery systems:
similar improvements in nickel-cadmium chemistry have been
■■ To insure the supported equipment is adequately developed over the years.
backed-up
■■ To prevent unexpected failures by tracking the battery’s health
■■ To forewarn/predict death
And, there are three basic questions that battery users ask:
■■ What is the capacity and the condition of the battery now?
■■ When will it need to be replaced?
■■ What can be done to improve / not reduce its life?
Batteries are complex chemical mechanisms. They have
numerous components from grids, active material, posts,
jar and cover, etc. – any one of which can fail. As with all
manufacturing processes, no matter how well they are made,
there is still some amount of black art to batteries (and all
chemical processes).

6 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com

Battery types Nickel-Cadmium Overview
Nickel-Cadmium chemistry is similar in some respects
There are several main types of battery technologies with to lead-acid in that there are two dissimilar metals in an
subtypes: electrolyte. The basic reaction in a potassium hydroxide
■■ Lead-acid (alkaline) electrolyte is:
■■ Flooded (wet): lead-calcium, lead-antimony 2 NiOOH + Cd +2 H2O Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2
■■ Valve Regulated Lead-acid, VRLA (sealed): However, in NiCd batteries the potassium hydroxide (KOH)
lead-calcium, lead-antimony-selenium does not enter the reaction like sulphuric acid does in lead-
■■ Absorbed Glass Matte (AGM) acid batteries. The construction is similar to lead-acid in that
there are alternating positive and negative plates submerged
■■ Gel
in an electrolyte. Rarely seen, but available, are sealed NiCd
■■ Flat plate batteries.
■■ Tubular plate
■■ Nickel-cadmium
■■ Flooded
■■ Sealed
■■ Pocket plate
■■ Flat plate

Lead-acid overview
The basic lead-acid chemical reaction in a sulphuric acid
electrolyte, where the sulphate of the acid is part of the
reaction, is:
PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4 2PbSO4 + 2H2 + 1⁄2 O2
The acid is depleted upon discharge and regenerated upon
recharge. Hydrogen and oxygen form during discharge and
float charging (because float charging is counteracting self-
discharge). In flooded batteries, they escape and water must
be periodically added. In valve-regulated, lead-acid (sealed)
batteries, the hydrogen and oxygen gases recombine to form
water. Additionally, in VRLA batteries, the acid is immobilized
by an absorbed glass matte (AGM) or in a gel. The matte
is much like the fibre-glass insulation used in houses. It
traps the hydrogen and oxygen formed during discharge
and allows them to migrate so that they react back to form
water. This is why VRLA never needs water added compared
to flooded (wet, vented) lead-acid batteries.
A battery has alternating positive and negative plates
separated by micro-porous rubber in flooded lead-acid,
absorbed glass matte in VRLA, gelled acid in VRLA gel
batteries or plastic sheeting in NiCd. All of the like-polarity
plates are welded together and to the appropriate post.
In the case of VRLA cells, some compression of the plate-
matte-plate sandwich is exerted to maintain good contact
between them. There is also a self-resealing, pressure relief
valve (PRV) to vent gases when over-pressurization occurs.

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Battery construction posts and intercell connectors are not sufficiently large enough
to safely carry the electrons, then overheating may occur
and nomenclature (i2R heating) and damage the battery or in the worst cases,
damage installed electronics due to smoke or fire.
Now that we know everything there is to know about battery
chemistry, except for Tafel curves, ion diffusion, Randles To prevent plates from touching each other and shorting the
equivalent cells, etc., let’s move on to battery construction. A battery, there is a separator between each of the plates. Figure
battery must have several components to work properly: a jar 1 is a diagram of a four-post battery from the top looking
to hold everything and a cover, electrolyte (sulphuric acid or through the cover. It does not show the separators.
potassium hydroxide solution), negative and positive plates,
top connections welding all like-polarity plates together and Configurations
then posts that are also connected to the top connections of Batteries come in various configurations themselves. Add to
the like-polarity plates. that the many ways that they can be arranged, the number of
All batteries have one more negative plate than positive plate. possible configurations is endless. Of course, voltage plays the
That is because the positive plate is the working plate and if biggest part in a battery configuration. Batteries have multiple
there isn’t a negative plate on the outside of the last positive posts for higher current draws. The more current needed from
plate, the whole outer side of last positive plate will not have a battery, the bigger the connections must be. That includes
anything with which to react and create electricity. Hence, posts, intercell connectors and buss bars and cables.
there is always an odd number of plates in a battery, e.g., a
100A33 battery is comprised of 33 plates with 16 positive Single post batteries
plates and 17 negative plates. In this example, each positive Smaller battery systems are usually the simplest battery systems
plate is rated at 100 Ah. Multiply 16 by 100 and the capacity and are the easiest to maintain. They usually have single post
at the 8-hour rate is found, namely, 1600 Ah. Europe uses a batteries connected with solid intercell connectors. Frequently,
little different calculation than the US standards. they are quite accessible but because they are small and can
be installed in a cubby hole occasionally, they may be quite
In batteries that have higher capacities, there are frequently inaccessible for testing and maintenance.
four or six posts. This is to avoid overheating of the current-
carrying components of the battery during high current draws Multiple post batteries
or lengthy discharges. A lead-acid battery is a series of plates Batteries with multiple posts per polarity start to become
connected to top lead connected to posts. If the top lead, interesting quickly. They are usually larger and frequently are
more critical.

Figure 1 Battery construction diagram

8 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com

Failure modes Corrosion of the top lead, which is the connection between
the plates and the posts is hard to detect even with a visual
inspection since it occurs near the top of the battery and is
Lead-acid (flooded) failure hidden by the cover. The battery will surely fail due to the high
current draw when the AC mains drop off. The heat build-up
modes when discharging will most likely melt then crack open and
■■ Positive grid corrosion then the entire string drops off-line, resulting in a catastrophic
■■ Sediment (shedding) build-up failure.
■■ Top lead corrosion Sulphation is the process of converting active plate material to
■■ Plate sulphation inactive white lead sulphate. Plate sulphation occurs when a
■■ Hard shorts (paste lumps) battery is discharging.
Each battery type has many failure modes, some of which are As the battery is charged this process reverses. If a charger
more prevalent than others. In flooded lead-acid batteries, the voltage is set too low or a recharge is incomplete then the
predominant failure modes are listed above. Some of them plates remain partially sulphated. The longer they remain this
manifest themselves with use such as sediment build-up due way the more difficult it will be to reverse the process. As
to excessive cycling. Others occur naturally such as positive the plates sulphate, they lose active material so the internal
grid growth (oxidation). It is just a matter of time before the impedance of the cell increases while the capacity of the cell
battery fails. Maintenance and environmental conditions can drops.
increase or decrease the risks of premature battery failure.
Positive grid corrosion is the expected failure mode of flooded Lead-acid (VRLA) failure modes
lead-acid batteries. The grids are lead alloys (lead-calcium, ■■ Dry-out (Loss-of-Compression)
lead-antimony, lead-antimony-selenium) that convert to lead ■■ Plate Sulphation (see above)
oxide over time. Since the lead oxide is a bigger crystal than
■■ Soft and Hard Shorts
lead metal alloy, the plate grows. The growth rate has been
■■ Post leakage
well characterized and is taken into account when designing
batteries. In many battery data sheets, there is a specification ■■ Thermal run-away
for clearance at the bottom of the jar to allow for plate growth ■■ Positive grid corrosion (see above)
in accordance with its rated lifetime, for example, 20 years. Dry-out is a phenomenon that occurs due to excessive
By the designed end of life, the plates may have grown heat (lack of proper ventilation), over charging, which can
significantly. If they grow too much, they can pop the top off cause elevated internal temperatures, high ambient (room)
the battery or crack the jar. Excessive cycling, temperature and temperatures, etc. At elevated internal temperatures, the
over-charging can increase the speed of positive grid corrosion. sealed cells will vent through the PRV. When sufficient
Impedance will increase over time corresponding to the electrolyte is vented, the glass matte no longer is in contact
increase in electrical resistance of the grids to carry the current. with the plates, thus increasing the internal impedance
Impedance will also increase as capacity decreases as depicted and reducing battery capacity. In some cases, the PRV can
in the graph in figure 2. be removed and distilled water added (but only in worst
case scenarios and by an authorized service company since
Sediment build-up (shedding) is a function of the amount
removing the PRV may void the warranty). This failure mode is
of cycling a battery endures. This is more often seen in UPS
easily detected by impedance and is one of the more common
batteries but can be seen elsewhere. Shedding is the sloughing
failure modes of VRLA batteries.
off of active material from the plates, converting to white
lead sulphate. Sediment build-up is the second reason battery Soft (a.k.a. dendritic shorts) and Hard shorts occur for a
manufacturers have space at the bottom of the jars to allow number of reasons. Hard shorts are typically caused by paste
for a certain amount of sediment before it builds-up to the lumps pushing through the matte and shorting out to the
point of shorting across the bottom of the plates rendering adjacent (opposite polarity) plate. Soft shorts, on the other
the battery useless. The float voltage will drop and the amount hand, are caused by deep discharges. When the specific
of the voltage drop depends upon how hard the short is. gravity of the acid gets too low, the lead will dissolve into it.
Shedding, in reasonable amounts, is normal. Since the liquid (and the dissolved lead) are immobilized by the
glass matte, when the battery is recharged, the lead comes
Some battery designs have wrapped plates such that the
out of solution forming threads of thin lead metal, known as
sediment is held against the plate and is not allowed to
dendrites inside the matte. In some cases, the lead dendrites
drop to the bottom. Therefore, sediment does not build-up
short through the matte to the other plate. The float voltage
in wrapped plate designs. The most common application of
may drop slightly but impedance can find this failure mode
wrapped plates is UPS batteries.
easily but is a decrease in impedance, not the typical increase
as in dry-out. See figure 2, Abnormal Cell.

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Thermal run-away occurs when a battery’s internal Gradual loss of capacity occurs from the normal aging process.
components melt-down in a self-sustaining reaction. It is irreversible but is not catastrophic, not unlike grid growth
Normally, this phenomenon can be predicted by as much as in lead-acid.
four months or in as little as two weeks. The impedance will Carbonation is gradual and is reversible. Carbonation is caused
increase in advance of thermal run-away as does float current. by the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air into the
Thermal run-away is relatively easy to avoid, simply by using potassium hydroxide electrolyte which is why it is a gradual
temperature-compensated chargers and properly ventilating process. Without proper maintenance, carbonation can cause
the battery room/cabinet. Temperature-compensated chargers the load to not be supported, which can be catastrophic to
reduce the charge current as the temperature increases. supported equipment. It can be reversed by exchanging the
Remember that heating is a function of the square of the electrolyte.
current. Even though thermal run-away may be avoided by
temperature-compensation chargers, the underlying cause is Dendrites formation occurs naturally in the cadmium of a
still present. NiCd battery. Over time, the dendrite will pierce the separator.
This leads to micro-shorts that increase the self discharge rate
of the battery. This appears as a loss in capacity and is often
Nickel-Cadmium failure modes referred to as memory effect or floating effect. Deep cycling
NiCd batteries seem to be more robust than lead-acid. They the battery can help reverse these effects. The heat created
are more expensive to purchase but the cost of ownership is during the recharge process of a deep cycle burns out the
similar to lead-acid, especially if maintenance costs are used dendrites. However, the damage to separator will provide a
in the cost equation. Also, the risks of catastrophic failure are path for future dendrite growth.
considerably lower than for VRLAs.
NiCd batteries, with their thicker plates, are not well-suited
The failure modes of NiCd are much more limited than lead- for cycling applications. Shorter duration batteries generally
acid. Some of the more important modes are: have thinner plates to discharge faster due to a higher surface
■■ Gradual loss of capacity area. Thinner plates means more plates for a given jar size and
■■ Carbonation capacity, and more surface area. Thicker plates (in the same jar
■■ Dendrite formation
size) have less surface area.

■■ Cycling Iron poisoning is caused by corroding plates and is irreversible.

■■ Iron poisoning of positive plates

Figure 2 Changes in impedance as a result of battery capacity

10 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com

Maintenance How to maintain
philosophies the battery
There are different philosophies and ambition levels for Standards and common practices
maintaining and testing batteries. Some examples: There are a number of standards and company practices
■■ Just replace batteries when they fail or die. Minimum or no for battery testing. Usually they comprise inspections
maintenance and testing. (observations, actions and measurements done under normal
Obviously, not testing batteries at all is the least costly with float condition) and capacity tests. Most well-known are the
considering only maintenance costs but the risks are great. The IEEE standards:
consequences must be considered when evaluating the cost-risk
analysis since the risks are associated with the equipment being ■■ IEEE 450 for flooded lead-acid
supported. Batteries have a limited lifetime and they can fail ■■ IEEE 1188 for sealed lead-acid
earlier than expected. Time between outages is usually long and
if outages are the only occasions the battery shows its capability ■■ IEEE 1106 for nickel-cadmium
risk is high that reduced or no back-up is available when needed.
Having batteries as back-up of important installations without IEEE 450
any idea of their current health spoils the whole idea of a reliable IEEE 450, “IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance,
system. Testing and Replacement of Vented Lead-acid Batteries for
■■ Replace after a certain time. Minimum or no maintenance and Stationary Applications” describes the frequency and type of
testing. measurements that need to be taken to validate the condition
This might also be a risky approach. Batteries can fail earlier than
of the battery. The standard covers Inspections, Capacity test,
expected. Also it is waste of capital if the batteries are replaced
earlier than needed. Properly maintained batteries can live longer Corrective actions, Battery replacement criteria etc.
than the predetermined replacement time. Below is a summarized description for the maintenance, for
■■ A serious maintenance and testing program in order to ensure the the full instructions see the IEEE450 standards.
batteries are in good condition, prolong their life and to find the
optimal time for replacement . Inspections
A maintenance program including inspection, impedance and ■■ Monthly inspection include appearance and measurements of string
capacity testing is the way to track the battery’s state of health. voltage, ripple voltage, ripple current, charger output current and
Degradation and faults will be found before they become serious voltage, ambient temperature, voltage and electrolyte temperature
and surprises can be avoided. Maintenance costs are higher but at pilot cells, battery float charging current or specific gravity at pilot
this is what you have to pay for to get the reliability you want for cells, unintentional battery grounds etc.
your back-up system.
■■ Quarterly inspections include same measurements as monthly
The best testing scheme is the balance between inspection and in addition, voltage of each cell, specific gravity
maintenance costs and risks of losing the battery and the of 10% of the cells of the battery and float charging current,
supported equipment. For example, in some transmission temperature of a representative sample of 10% or more of the
substations, there is upwards of $10 million per hour battery cells.
flowing through them. What is the cost of not maintaining ■■ Once a year a quarterly inspection should be extended with, specific
battery systems in those substations? A $3000 battery is gravity of all cells of the battery, temperature of each cell, cell-to-
cell and terminal connection resistance are performed on the entire
fairly insignificant compared to the millions of dollars in lost
string.
revenues. Each company is different and must individually
weigh the cost-risk of battery maintenance. Capacity test (discharge test) should be done
■■ At the installation (acceptance test)
■■ Within the first two years of service
■■ Periodically. Intervals should not be greater than 25% of the
expected service life.
■■ Annually when the battery shows signs of degradation or has
reached 85% of the expected service life. Degradation is indicated
when the battery capacity drops more than 10% from its capacity
on the previous capacity test or is below 90% of manufacturers
rating. If the battery has reached 85% of service life, delivers 100%
or greater of the manufacturer's rated capacity and has no signs
of degradation it can be tested at two-year Intervals until it shows
signs of degradations.

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IEEE 1188 IEEE 1106
IEEE 1188, “IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance, IEEE 1106, “IEEE Recommended Practice for Installation,
Testing and Replacement of Valve-Regulated Lead- Maintenance, Testing and Replacement of Vented Nickel-
Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications” defines the Cadmium Batteries for Stationary Applications”.
recommended tests and frequency. Below is a summarized description for the maintenance, for
Below is a summarized description for the maintenance, for the full instructions see the IEEE1106 standards.
the full instructions see the IEEE1188 standards.
Inspections
Inspections ■■ Inspection at least once per quarter include battery terminal float
■■ Monthly inspection include battery terminal float voltage, charger voltage, appearance, charger output current and voltage, pilot-cell
output current and voltage, ambient temperature, visual inspection electrolyte temperature.
and DC float current per string. ■■ Semi-annually general inspection and measurement of voltage of
■■ Quarterly same measurements as for monthly inspection shall each cell shall be done.
be done and additionally cell/unit impedance value, temperature
of negative terminal of each cell and voltage of each cell. For Capacity test (discharge test) should be done
applications with a discharge rate of one hour or less, resistance of ■■ Within the first two years of service
10% of the intercell connections shall be measured. ■■ At 5-year intervals until the battery shows signs of excessive
■■ Semi-Annual same measurements as for quarterly inspection shall capacity loss.
be done and additionally a check and record of voltage of each cell/ ■■ Annually at excessive capacity loss
unit, cell/unit internal ohmic values, temperature of the negative
terminal of each cell/unit of battery.
■■ Yearly and Initial above measurements should be taken and in
Summary of best way to test
addition, cell-to-cell and terminal connection resistance of entire and evaluate your battery
battery and AC ripple current and/or voltage imposed on the
battery. Test intervals
1. Make a capacity test when the battery is new as part of the
Capacity test (capacity test) should be done
acceptance test.
■■ At the installation (acceptance test)
■■ Periodically. Intervals should not be greater than 25% of the 2. Make an impedance test at the same time to establish
expected service life or two years, whichever is less. baseline values for the battery.
■■ Where impedance values has changed significantly between 3. Repeat the above within 2 years for warranty purpose.
readings or physical changes has occurred
4. Make an impedance test every year on flooded cells and
■■ Annually when the battery shows signs of degradation or has
quarterly on VRLA cells.
reached 85% of the expected service life. Degradation is indicated
when the battery capacity drops more than 10% from its capacity 5. Make capacity tests at least for every 25% of expected
on the previous capacity test or is below 90% of manufacturers service life.
rating.
6. Make capacity test annually when the battery has reached
Battery replacement criteria 85% of expected service life or if the capacity has dropped
Both IEEE 450 and IEEE 1188 recommend replacing the more than 10% since the previous test or is below 90% of
battery if its capacity is below 80% of manufacturer’s the manufacturers rating.
rating. Maximum time for replacement is one year. Physical
7. Make a capacity test if the Impedance value has changed
characteristics such as plate condition or abnormally high cell
significantly.
temperatures are often determinants for complete battery or
individual cell replacements. 8. Follow a given practice (preferably from the IEEE standard)
for all temperature, voltage, gravity measurements etc. and
fill in a report. This will be a great help for trending and for
fault tracing.

12 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com

Practical battery Capacity test
Capacity test is the only way to get an accurate value on the
testing actual capacity of the battery. While used regularly it can be
used for tracking the battery’s health and actual capacity and
The Battery testing matrix below may help guide even the estimating remaining life of the battery. When the battery is
most skilled battery testing technician and will help simplify new its capacity might be slightly lower than specified. This is
the recommended practices. normal.
The following is a description of some of the tests or There are rated capacity values available from the
maintenance parameters. manufacturer. All batteries have tables telling the discharge
current for a specified time and down to a specific end of
discharge voltage. Table below is an example from a battery
manufacturer
End 8h Nominal rates at 25º C (77º F)
Volt. Model Ah Amperes (includes connector voltage drop
/Cell Ratings 1 h 2 h 3 h 4 h 5 h 6 h 8 h 10 h
DCU/DU-9 100 52 34 26 21 18 15 12 10
1.75 DCU/DU-11 120 66 41 30 25 21 18 15 13
DCU/DU-13 150 78 50 38 31 27 23 19 16

Common test times are 5 or 8 hours and common end of dis-

charge voltage for a lead acid cell is 1.75 or 1.80 V.
During the test it is measured how much capacity (current
x time expressed in Ah) the battery can deliver before the
terminal voltage drops to the end of discharge voltage
x number of cells. The current shall be maintained at a
constant value. It is recommended to select a test time
that is approximately the same as the battery’s duty cycle.

Battery testing matrix – IEEE recommended practices

Instrument BITE3 BITE2 DLROs MOM/ BGFT BGL DMA35 TORKEL BVM Visual
Mjölner
Parameter
Capacity ■■

Internal ohmic value ■■ ■■

Intercell connection
■■ ■■ ■■ ■■
resistance
Voltage of each
■■ ■■ ■■
cell / pilot cell
Spec. grav. and temp.
■■
of each cell / pilot cell
Corrosion at Terminals ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■

DC Float Voltage ■■ ■■

Unintentional Battery
■■ ■■ ■■
Grounds
Battery ripple current ■■ ■■

Charger DC
■■
float current
Cycling of Ni / Cd
■■
batteries
Structural integrity of
■■
rack / cabinet
Spectrum Analyzer ■■

www.megger.com 13
Common test times are 5 or 8 hours and common end of the test have special importance since weak cells are
of discharge voltage for a lead acid cell is 1.75 or 1.80 indicated here.
V. It is recommended to use the same testing time during the 13. Calculate the actual battery capacity
battery’s lifetime. This will improve accuracy when trending
how battery’s capacity changes. It is important to measure the individual cell voltages.
This has to be made a couple of times during the test. Most
If the battery reaches the end of discharge voltage at the same important is to measure the cells at the end of the discharge
time as the specified test time the battery’s actual capacity is test in order to find the weak cells.
100% of the rated capacity. If it reaches the end of discharge
at 80% (8 h) or before of the specified 10 h it is shall be It is also very important that the time OR the current during a
replaced. See figure 3. discharge test is adjusted for the temperature of the battery.
A cold battery will give less Ah than a warm. Temperature
correction factors and methods are described in the IEEE
Procedure for capacity test standards.
of vented lead acid battery Manufacturers can also specify their batteries at constant
1. Verify that the battery has had an equalizing charge if power discharge. This is used where the load has voltage
specified by the manufacturer regulators. Then the current will increase when the voltage
2. Check all battery connections and ensure all resistance drops. Procedure for testing these batteries is the same but
readings are correct the load equipment must be able to discharge with a constant
3. Record specific gravity of every cell power.

4. Record the float voltage of every cell Batteries can also be tested at a shorter time than their duty
cycle, for instance at 1 hour. Then the current rate has to be
5. Record the temperature of every sixth cell in order to get increased. Advantage is that less capacity is drained from the
an average temperature battery (valid for lead-acid) and it requires less time to recharge
6. Record the battery terminal float voltage it. Also less man-hour is needed for the test. Contact your
battery manufacturer for more information.
7. Disconnect the charger from the battery
At higher rates it is more important to supervise the battery’s
8. Start the discharge. The discharge current should be temperature.
corrected for the temperature obtained at point 5 (not if
Between load tests, impedance measurement is an excellent
capacity is corrected afterwards) and maintained during
tool for assessing the condition of batteries. Furthermore, it is
the entire test.
recommended that an impedance test be performed just prior
9. Record the voltage of every cell and the battery terminal to any load test to improve the correlation between capacity
voltage in the beginning of the discharge test and impedance.
10. Record the voltage of every cell and the battery terminal
voltage one or several times at specified intervals when the
test is running
11. Maintain the discharge until the battery terminal voltage
has decreased to the specified end of discharge voltage
(for instance 1.75 x number of cells)
12. Record the voltage of every cell and the battery terminal
voltage at the end of the test. The cell voltages at the end

Figure 3 If the battery reaches the end of discharge at 80% Figure 4 Replacement of battery is recommended when the
(8 h) or before of the specified 10 h it is shall be replaced. capacity is 80% of rated.

14 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com

Impedance test then the entire string goes off line and the load is no longer
supported. Therefore, it is important to find the weak cells
Impedance, an internal ohmic test, is resistance in AC terms. before they cause a major failure.
With regard to DC battery systems, impedance indicates the
The graph in figure 5 shows the effect of decreasing capacity
condition of batteries. Since it tests the condition of the entire
on impedance. There is a strong correlation between
electrical path of a battery from terminal plate to terminal
impedance and capacity so that weak cells are ably and
plate, impedance can find weaknesses in cells and intercell
reliably found in sufficient time to take remedial action. The
connectors easily and reliably.
graph shows the reorganized impedance data in ascending
Basically, impedance test is determined by applying an AC order with each cell’s corresponding load test end voltage.
current signal, measuring the AC voltage drop across the (Impedance in milliohms coincidentally is the same scale as
cell or intercell connector and calculating the impedance the voltage, 0 to 2.5). This view, that is ascending impedance/
using Ohm’s Law. In practice, not only is the AC voltage drop descending voltage, groups the weak cells on the right side of
measured but so is the AC current. The AC current is measured the graph to find them easily.
because of other AC currents in a battery that are additive
(subtractive). Other AC currents are present from the charger
Impedance theory
system. The test is performed by applying an AC test signal to
A battery is not simply resistive. There is also a capacitive term.
the terminal plates. Then measure both the total AC current
After all, a battery is a capacitor, a storage device, and resistors
in the string and the voltage drop of each unit in the string by
cannot store electricity. figure 6 shows an electrical circuit,
measuring each cell and intercell connector consecutively until
known as the Randles Equivalent Circuit, that depicts a battery
the entire string is measured. The impedance is calculated,
in simple terms. There are those who would have people
displayed and stored. As the cells age, the internal impedance
believe that the capacitive term is not necessary and that the
increases as depicted in figure 2. By measuring impedance,
resistance is the only part that needs measuring.
the condition of each cell in the string can be measured and
trended to determine when to replace a cell or the string Impedance measures both the DC resistance (the real
which helps in planning for budgetary needs. component in impedance) and the reactance (the imaginary
components in impedance). Only by measuring both can the
The impedance test is a true four-wire, Kelvin-type
capacitive term start to be understood. The other argument
measurement that provides excellent reliability and highly
used against impedance is that frequency is a variable in the
reproducible data on which to base sound decisions with
reactance part of the impedance equation. That is true except
regard to battery maintenance and replacement. Impedance is
that since Megger uses a fixed frequency, namely 50 or 60
able to find weak cells so that proactive maintenance can be
Hz depending upon geography, it is always the same. This
performed. After all, the battery is a cost but it is supporting
variable, ω, now becomes a constant and, therefore, frequency
a critical load or revenue stream. If a single cell goes open

Figure 5 Ascending impedance with corresponding end voltage

www.megger.com 15
does not affect the final result in any way. The only parts that DLRO® or a MOM which can easily verify that all connections
affect the final result are the parts that vary within the battery, have been made properly. It can even find minor errors before
namely resistance and capacitance, which paint the whole the battery is commissioned, preventing possible causes of
capacity/condition picture. failure or damage to supported equipment.
In the diagram shown in figure 6, Rm is the metallic resistance, Testing intercell connection resistance performs two functions:
Re is the electrolyte resistance, Rct is the charge transfer ■■ Validates intercell connection resistance
resistance, Wi is the Warburg impedance and Cdl is the
■■ Finds possible gross errors with top lead internal to the cell
capacitance of the double layer. Rm includes all of the metallic
components one post to the other post, i.e., post, top lead and By following IEEE Recommended Practices, intercell connection
grids and to a certain degree, the paste. Re is the resistance of resistance can be validated. Those recommended practices
the electrolyte which doesn’t vary that much on a bulk basis. specify that the variation of intercell connection resistance
But at the microscopic level in the pores of the paste, it can be less than 20%. This translates into 14 micro-ohms on a
be significant. Rct is the resistance of the exchange of ions 70-micro-ohm intercell connection resistance. This method can
from the acid to the paste. If the paste is sulphated, then Rct even find a washer stuck between the post and the intercell
increases or if that portion of the paste is not mechanically connector whereas torquing will not. They also specify that
(electrically) attached to the grid so that electrons cannot flow 20% of the intercell connectors be measured quarterly and all
out of the cell. Warburg impedance is essentially insignificant intercell connectors annually.
and is a function of the specific gravity. Cdl is what probably In multiple post batteries, it is possible to find those rare gross
makes the most important contribution to battery capacity. By errors in a cell’s top lead. (See multiple post battery diagram in
only measuring DC resistance, capacitance, an important part figure 1). On multiple-post cells, measure straight across both
of the cell, is ignored. Impedance measures both DC resistance connections, then measure diagonally to check for balance in
and capacitance. the cell and connections. Measuring only straight across does
A battery is complex and has more than one electrochemical not adequately test for either intercell connection resistance or
process occurring at any given time, e.g., ion diffusion, charge for gross top lead defects. This is due to the parallel circuits for
transfer, etc. The capacity decreases during a discharge due the current.
to the conversion of active material and depletion of the The graph in figure 7 shows the data obtained from an actual
acid. Also, as the plates sulphate, the resistance of the charge 24-cell telephone (CO) battery The peak at connector #12
transfer increases since the sulphate is less conductive than the (cell 12 to 13) is an intertier cable connection. Connector #3
active material. (See discussion about the differences between was out of specification and it was determined that one of
the thickness of the plates in long-duration versus short- the two bolts was not properly torqued. It was retorqued and
duration batteries.) retested. It came within ten percent of the string average after
retorquing.
Intercell connection resistance
The negative plates (odd-numbered plates #1 through 15) are
Intercell connection resistance is the other half of the battery.
all connected through negative top lead which is connected
A battery is comprised of cells connected in a series path. If
to both negative posts. Positive plates (even-numbered) are
any one component fails the entire series connection fails.
connected to each other through positive top lead which
Many times batteries fail, not because of weak cells, but due
is connected to both positive posts. There are two intercell
to weak intercell connections, especially on lead posts which
connectors between neg post 1 and pos post 1 and between
can cold-flow. Generally, hardware should be tightened to
neg post 2 and pos post 2.
the low end of the torque scale that is recommended by the
battery manufacturer. But torque wrenches are a mechanical The higher the current draw the more critical is the proper
means to verify low electrical resistance. It is far better to sizing of current-carrying components both internal to the cell
actually perform an electrical test using an appropriate and external. UPS batteries are usually designed for a high
instrument. It is a low electrical resistance that is desired. This rate discharge lasting typically only 15-20 minutes. However,
test should be performed before the battery is commissioned. a telecommunications CO battery may have only a 500 Amp
Proper intercell connections are necessary to ensure that draw but can discharge for up to eight hours. So either
discharge rates can be met. The instrument of choice is a

Figure 6 Randles equivalent circuit Figure 7 Intercell connection resistance bar graph

16 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com

combination can have disastrous effects due to improperly A similar example can be found in VRLA when it comes to
sized and maintained cells and intercell connectors. dry-out or loss-of-compression. Voltage will not find this
condition until it is far later in the battery’s life, until it is too
Testing and electrical paths late. Impedance finds this condition much earlier so that
In order to properly test a multiple post cell, one must remedial action can be performed.
understand its construction. Based on the diagram in
So don’t confuse fully charged with full capacity.
figure 1, it can be seen that there are two parallel paths
for the test current to travel. If the test leads are placed on As said above, cell voltage divergence can be caused by
neg post 1 and pos post 1, the two parallel paths are (1) a number of factors and one way to solve this problem
directly from neg post 1 to pos post 1 through their intercell could be to make an equalization charge. In an equalization
connectors and (2) neg post 1 down to the top lead, up to charge procedure, the entire battery is charged at a higher
neg post 2 and across the intercell connectors to pos post (than normal) voltage for several hours to balance the
2 down to the pos top lead and back up to pos post 1.The voltage in all the cells. The procedure can lead to heating
two paths are parallel circuits and hence indistinguishable. If and possibly water loss. It is recommended to follow the
one bolt is loose, there isn’t any way to determine that since manufacturer’s procedure to avoid damaging the battery.
the test current will follow the path of least resistance. The
better method to measure intercell connection resistance Specific gravity
is to measure diagonally from neg post 1 to pos post 2 Specific gravity is the measure of the sulphate in the acid of
and again from neg post 2 to pos post 1. Compare the a lead-acid battery. It is also the measure of the potassium
two readings for highest confidence. Admittedly, diagonal hydroxide electrolyte in nickel-cadmium battery but since the
measurements are still parallel but the comparison becomes potassium hydroxide electrolyte isn’t used in the chemical
more interesting due to the increased influence of top lead reaction, it is not necessary to measure it periodically.
and loose hardware. Diagonal measurements do not allow Specific gravity traditionally has not provided much value in
for a direct connection from post to post. In the case of determining impending battery failure. In fact, it changes
six-post cells, measure diagonally across the farthest posts in very little after the initial 3 to 6 months of a battery’s life.
both directions. This initial change is due to the completion of the formation
process, which converts inactive paste material into active
Voltage material by reacting with the sulphuric acid. A low specific
Float voltage has traditionally been the mainstay of any gravity may mean that the charger voltage is set too low
testing procedure. What is voltage? Voltage is the difference, causing plate sulphation to occur.
electrically speaking, between the lead and the lead oxide
In a lead-acid battery the sulphate is a closed system in that
on the plates or between the nickel and the cadmium. The
the sulphate must be either on the plates or in the acid. If
charger is the item that keeps them charged. The sum of
the battery is fully charged then the sulphate must be in
all of the cell voltages must be equal to the charger setting
the acid. If the battery is discharged, the sulphate is on the
(except for cable losses.) This implies then that voltage
plates. The end result is that specific gravity is a mirror image
merely indicates the state-of-charge (SOC) of the cells. There
of voltage and thus state-of-charge. Specific gravity readings
is no indication of a cell’s state-of-health (SOH). A normal
should be taken when things are amiss in the battery to
cell voltage doesn’t indicate anything except that the cell
obtain as much information about the battery as possible.
is fully charged. An abnormal cell voltage, however, does
tell you something about the condition of the cell. A low Different battery applications and geographies have varying
cell voltage can indicate a shorted cell but only when the specific gravities to accommodate rates, temperature, etc.
voltage finally drops to about 2.03. If a cell is low then other Following is a table that describes some applications and
cells must be higher in voltage due to the charger setting. their specific gravities.
Remember that the sum of all cell voltages must equal the
Specific gravities and their applications
charger setting. Those cells that are higher are counteracting
the low cell and generally speaking the higher cells are Specific gravity Percent acid Application
in better condition because they can tolerate the higher 1.170 25 Tropical stationary
voltage. But those cells are being overcharged which over- 1.215 30 Standard stationary
heats them and accelerates grid corrosion and water losses. 1.250 35 UPS/high rate
1.280 38 Automotive
Let’s say for the moment that the low voltage cell is not 1.300 40 VRLA stationary
yet at 2.03, it is at 2.13 V. At 2.13 V it is not low enough 1.320 42 Motive power
to flag a concern but it is degrading. It may or may not be 1.400 50 Torpedo
able to support the load when an outage occurs. Impedance
is able to find that weak cell sooner than voltage. In this
case, impedance will decrease since it is an impending short
circuit.

www.megger.com 17
Float current is the result of a battery problem, not the cause. Some of the
Another leg of the Ohm’s Law triangle is current. The charger causes that can lead to thermal runaway are shorted cells,
voltage is used to keep a battery charged but voltage is really ground faults, dry-out, excessive charging and insufficient
the vehicle to get current into the battery (or out of it during heat removal. This process takes anywhere from two weeks to
discharge). It is current that converts the lead sulphate back to four months to occur once the float current starts its increase.
active material on the grids. By measuring float current, it may be possible to avoid
catastrophic failure of the battery and damage to connected
There are two types of DC current on a battery: recharge
and nearby equipment. Impedance will find many of these
current which is the current applied to recharge a battery
same errors.
after a discharge and float current which is the current used
to maintain a battery in a fully charged state. If there is a
Ripple current
difference between the charger setting and the battery’s
Batteries, as DC devices, prefer to have only DC imposed
voltage, that difference will cause a current to flow. When
on them. The charger’s job is to convert AC into DC but
the battery is fully charged [1], the only current flowing is
no charger is 100% efficient. Frequently, filters are added
the float current which counteracts the self-discharge of
to chargers to remove the AC current from the DC output.
the battery (<1% per week). Since the voltage differential
The AC current on the DC is called ripple current. Battery
between the charger and the battery is small, the float current
manufacturers have stated that more than about 5 A rms
is small. When there is a large voltage difference such as after
of ripple for every 100 Ah of battery capacity can lead to
a discharge the current is high and is limited by the charger
premature failure due to internal heating. Ripple voltage is not
until the voltage difference becomes less. When the current
a concern since it is the heating effect of the ripple current
is on the plateau in the graph below, this is called current
that damages batteries. The 5% ripple current figure is a rough
limit. When the voltage differential becomes less, the charge
estimate and depends also on the ambient temperature. Ripple
current is reduced as depicted on the downward sloping
current can increase slowly as the electronic components in the
charge current line on the graph shown in figure 8. The charge
charger age. Also if a diode goes bad, the ripple current can
voltage is the voltage of the battery, not the charger setting
increase more dramatically leading to heating and premature
which is why it is increasing.
death without anyone knowing it. Although impedance is not
Float current will vary with battery size. The larger the battery a measure of ripple current, ripple current is measured because
is, the more float current it will take to keep it fully charged. of the way Megger designs its impedance instruments.
Float current can increase for a couple of reasons: ground
There is anecdotal evidence[4] that low frequency ripple
faults on floating battery systems and internal battery faults.
(<10Hz) may charge and discharge a battery on a micro-scale.
Ground faults are discussed later. As a battery’s internal
More research is necessary to prove this hypothesis. Excessive
impedance increases, it takes more current to pass through
cycling can lead to premature death of a battery regardless of
that higher impedance. The increase in float current can be an
the reasons for the cycling, be they outages, testing or maybe
indicator of battery faults. In lieu of measuring float current,
micro-cycling. One thing is true: the lower the AC is on the
many of the same conditions are found with impedance.
battery system, the less the damage is that can occur. VRLA
In VRLA batteries, float current[2,3] seems to be an indicator of batteries seem to be more sensitive to ripple current than their
battery problems, namely thermal runaway. Thermal runaway flooded counterparts. It is then advisable to filter their chargers
for ripple current/voltage.

Temperature
It is well known that low temperatures slow up the internal
chemical reactions in any battery; the degrees of reduced
performance vary according to the technology. For example,
at temperatures around freezing, a VRLA may need capacity
compensation of 20%. The lead-calcium cell using 1.215
specific gravity acid will require a doubling of capacity, while
the Ni-Cd will need about 18% increased capacity.
At the other end of the temperature range, high temperature
is the killer of all batteries. There will be no surprise to find out
Figure 8 Constant-voltage Constant-current charge charac- that this impact varies from one technology to another. Lead
teristics

[1] Cole, Bruce, et al., Operational Characteristics of VRLA Batteries Configured in Parallel Strings, GNB Technologies
[2] Brown, AJ, An Innovative Digital Flat Current Measurement Technique - Part Two, Proceedings of BattConn® 2000
[3] Boisvert, Eric, Using Float Charging Current Measurements to Prevent Thermal Runaway on VRLA Batteries, Multitel
[4] Ruhlmann, T., Monitoring of Valve Regulated Lead Acid Batteries, Proceedings of BattConn® 2000

18 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com

acid at 95˚F will experience a 50% shortened life, while Ni-Cd
will have a 16-18% shortening of life.
Data analysis
The essence of any testing methodology is how to interpret
By applying what Arrhenius learned about chemical reactions,
the data to make some sense of it all. The same is true of
for every 18º F (10º C) increase in battery temperature,
battery testing. If the data are to be hand-written and filed or
battery life is halved, battery life can start to be managed. The
if a printout from an instrument is reviewed then filed, then
increased temperature causes faster positive grid corrosion as
there is no useful analysis except if there is an emergency
well as other failure modes. By holding a lead-acid battery at
at that very moment. The real value in battery testing lies in
a temperature of 95º F (35º C) instead of the designed 77º F
the trending of data to determine if problems are imminent
(25º C), a 20-year battery will last only ten years, a ten-year
or a little farther out. Trending of battery data, especially
battery only five years and so on. Increase the temperature by
impedance and capacity, is an excellent tool for budgetary
another 18º F to 113º F (45º C), a 20-year battery will last only
planning. By watching the batteries degrade over time, a
five years!
decision can be made as to when to replace a battery. With
A battery is rarely held at a certain temperature for its entire trending, emergency replacements decrease dramatically.
life. A more realistic scenario is for a battery to heat during the
Like any other form of maintenance, battery testing and
day and cool down at night with higher average temperatures
maintenance over the years has typically been recorded on
in the summer and lower average temperatures in winter. It
some sort of data sheet. The data sheet was possibly reviewed
is unfortunate but cooling the battery off to below 77º F (25º
and then filed away, probably not reviewed again until a
C) will not gain back the life that was lost. Once the positive
problem arose, if it could be found. With the use of the PC,
grid corrodes, it cannot be converted back again. Furthermore,
that same data which was filed away can be converted to
positive grid corrosion occurs at all temperatures, it is merely
information which is useful and much easier to interpret. New
a matter of speed of the corrosion rate. The end result is
data collected can be easily stored in digital format rather
to control, as best as possible (back to cost versus risk), the
than on paper. It’s interesting to note that many maintenance
temperature of the batteries in the network.
programs still use paper with and without a PC. Still others are
IEEE 450, Annex H offers a method for calculating the impact filling out the same old data sheets in digital format on the PC
of high temperatures on a lead acid battery. and then just filing it electronically. It seems almost the same
as the paper method just a different filling cabinet. The key
to making data useful is the ability to graph and manipulate
the data. Do you think anyone in the stock market could make
money if they did not have all the charts and trends to view?
Do you think we could put anything into orbit without plotting
the orbit? Could you imagine looking at all the numbers
associated with an orbit and try to make sense of it with out
some sort of graphics? This point is illustrated in Figure 9.
The data is not complete due to space limitations but it is the
actual data of each sinusoid. It would be close to impossible
to see a difference between the two sets of data or the
notching going on in the bottom waveform when only the
data is viewed, but without the data the waveform could
not be plotted. So now the question is what do we do with
the data from battery tests? To begin with whether the data
is from one test or from several tests on the same battery
string the data should be trended. Now for some values like
ambient temperature it will be difficult to trend the data
from one test because it is only one point. So let us review
what types of things could be plotted that would make some
sense with respect to batteries. Table below lists the types of
measurements with respect to single tests or multiple tests
from the same string.
When looking at data from a single test, the data is plotted
against itself. Ideally when a string of batteries is installed they
are installed at the same time and are all of the same vintage
and should be somewhat homogenous. As the batteries age
they may all age the same but most likely there will be some
cells which begin to fail early. In either case new or old we
are looking for the differences. Below in the table are strap

www.megger.com 19
Figure 9 Waveform data vs. Waveform chart.

resistance measurements of a 60 cell string. It is easy enough

to look through the data and see a few numbers which do
not seem correct, but when you look at the graph of the
same data it is a lot clearer what needs to be looked at and
what does not.
When looking at impedances whether from a single test or
multiple tests it is often advantageous to plot the percent
deviation from average or the baseline. Figure 11 which
show the impedance plotted as percent deviation of average
allows the user to quickly identify which cells are near limits
which have been predetermined. In this example cells 1
and 3 which are both greater than ten percent above the
average should be investigated further. You may also want
to further investigate why the first seven cells are above
average and the rest are not. Any time you have a grouping Inter-cell Resistance Measurements
of measurements which corresponds to the physical location
of the cells it should be a cause for further investigation.

Single test of any stringMultiple tests of same string

Discharge Discharge
Internal impedance Internal impedance
Strap resistance Strap resistance
Cell voltage Cell voltage
Cell temperature Cell temperature
Cell specific gravity Cell specific gravity
Ambient temperature
Charger output voltage
Charger output current
Ripple current
Float current
Battery measurements that can be plotted
Figure 10 Inter-cell resistance graph

20 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com

Below are some suggested percentages to use as flags in All of the data presented thus far has been presented using
impedance testing. Over time, users will establish their own a standard Excel spreadsheet. Spreadsheets are very useful
percentage deviation warning values. and have been around almost as long as computers. There are
software packages presently available such as PowerDB that
automatically chart and trend the data for you. The important

Percent deviation

Percent deviation
Percent variation

Percent variation

from baseline

from baseline
step is to use graphics to help in the analysis of data that is

from string

from string
average

average
newly measured and possibly with data still contained in a
paper or electronic file.

Warning Alarm Warning Alarm

Lead-acid,
15 30 30 50
Flooded
Lead-acid,
10 30 20 50
VRLA, AGM
Lead-acid,
20 30 30 50
VRLA, Gel
NiCd, Flooded 10 20 15 30
NiCd, Sealed 10 20 15 30
Inter-cell
Connections 15 20
(Straps)

Another method which should be used is trending of historical

data. For example, if you perform tests every quarter on the
same cells, then you will want to chart the information with
respect to time. Figure 12 shows the impedance measurements
trended for one cell which were taken every quarter. The first ten
or eleven measurements seemed to be fine and then a steady
upward trend is very noticeable. This type of trend in impedance
should warrant further investigation as to the cause. This
method of trending over time can be used in all the data that is
measured.

Figure 11 Impedance percent deviation from average Figure 12 Single cell trending

www.megger.com 21
Locating ground faults on A better test method
DC systems without Developments have led to a better test method; injecting a
low-frequency AC signal and using that AC signal to locate
sectionalizing the ground in the DC system. This method can be performed
without sectionalizing the DC system and it reduces the fault
locating time from days to hours. Furthermore, it allows for
Overview system protection to be present at all times.
The main objective of a battery system is to provide standby
The AC injection method measures single or multiple
and emergency power to operate industrial, consumer,
ground faults by first injecting a low-frequency, 20 Hz
commercial or protective devices. Some of these devices
AC signal between the station ground and the battery
include emergency lighting units, uninterruptible power
system. Second, the resulting current is then measured by
supplies, continuous process systems, operating controls,
using a clamp-on sensing current transformer. From this,
switchgear components and protective relays.
the resistance value can be calculated using the in-phase
In emergency situations, it is essential that these devices component of the circulating current, thus rejecting the
be in proper operating condition. Failure of a DC system or effect of capacitive loads. Therefore, if the signal is injected
the battery can result in operational failure of the devices at the battery terminal and the clamp-on CT is connected
connected to that system. System failure can lead to loss of to the outgoing lead, the instrument will measure the total
revenue, damage to equipment and/or injured personnel. ground resistance present on the battery system. If the CT is
It is a common situation for a floating DC system to develop clamped on a feeder, then the instrument will measure the
grounds within it. When a battery system is partially or ground resistance on that feeder. Faults can be traced easily
completely grounded, a short circuit is formed across the regardless of the number of distribution panels or circuits
battery and consequently may cause the protective device to because the “tracer” is merely following the strength of the
fail to operate when needed. AC signal. System integrity is maintained because it is an on-
line AC test and is designed to prevent system trips.
Current test methods After injection of a low-frequency AC waveform, a resistive
Traditionally utilities and industrial complexes have gone to fault on a branch of the battery system will be indicated by a
great lengths to find ground faults within their battery systems. low-resistance value. For example, if the total resistance of a
However, locating these battery grounds proves to be a very battery system showed 10 kΩ, this would indicate a resistive
elusive and time-consuming process. The current ground-fault fault on the battery system. The resistive fault can be located
location method involves sectionalizing, or interruption, of DC by clamping on each individual circuit until a resistive value
branches to isolate the ground fault. Sectionalizing disables the of 10 kΩ is found.
system protection and has been known to cause inadvertent It is easy to see that this method can be adapted in a straight
line and generator tripping. For this reason, many utilities have forward manner to locate multiple faults by using the theory
banned sectionalizing. Until more recently, though, this had of parallel paths. For example, if the total system resistance
been the only method available to locate ground faults. indicates 1 kΩ and an individual branch indicates 10 kΩ
resistive fault, the user would know that the system has a
second fault because the total system resistance and the
branch resistance do not match. By using the AC injection
method, ground faults on ungrounded DC systems is easy,
straight-forward and safe.

22 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com

Frequently asked
How often should impedance readings be taken?
The frequency of impedance readings varies with battery type,

questions site conditions and previous maintenance practices. IEEE 1188

Recommended Practices suggests that a baseline shall be
taken six months after battery has been in operation and then
What does float voltage of a cell tell me? semi-annual quarterly. With that said, Megger recommends
Float voltage indicates that the charger is working, that that VRLA batteries are measured quarterly due to their
is, state-of-charge. It does not indicate the state-of-health unpredictable nature and semi-annually for NiCd and flooded
(condition) of the cell. It indicates that the cell is fully charged, lead-acid. Impedance reading should also be taken prior to
but don’t confuse fully charged with full capacity. There have every capacity test.
been many times that the float voltage is within acceptable
limits and the battery fails. A low float voltage may indicate At what point should I stop changing cells and replace the
entire battery?
that there is a short in the cell. This is evident by a float voltage
at about 2.06 or below for lead-acid (if the charger is set for In shorter strings (less than 40 cells/jars), the entire should be
2.17 V per cell) replaced when three to five units have been replaced. In longer
strings, a similar percentage that is replaced is the criterion.
In some cases, a cell floats considerably higher than the
average. This may be caused by the high float voltage cell How can I predict when I need to change a cell?
compensating for another cell that is weak and is floating low. Even though there is not a perfect mathematical correlation
It is possible that one cell floats much higher to compensate between battery capacity and impedance (or any other battery
for several cells floating a little low. The total of all cells’ test except a load test), the amount of increase in impedance
voltages must equal the charger setting. is a strong indicator of battery health. Megger has found that
a 20 percent increase in impedance for flooded lead-acid
What are the recommended maintenance practices for the dif-
ferent types of batteries? generally correlates to 80% battery capacity. In VRLA, that
increase is closer to 50% from the battery’s initial impedance
IEEE Recommended (Maintenance) Practices cover the three
or from the manufacturer’s baseline values.
main types of batteries: Flooded Lead-acid (IEEE 450),
Valve-Regulated Lead-acid (IEEE 1188) and Nickel-Cadmium Will capacity testing destroy my battery?
(IEEE 1106). Generally speaking, maintenance is essential to
The battery system is designed to provide back-up power
ensure adequate back-up time. There are differing levels of
during all outages that appear during its lifetime. Performing
maintenance and varying maintenance intervals depending
a capacity test is nothing else than simulating one outage but
upon the battery type, site criticality and site conditions. For
in a controlled way. Batteries can normally be deep discharged
example, if a site has an elevated ambient temperature, then
(discharged to manufacturer’s end-of discharge voltage) 100
the batteries will age more quickly implying more frequent
- 1000 times depending on type of battery. Using a few of
maintenance visits and more frequent battery replacements.
these cycles has no real impact on the battery’s lifetime. On
How important is intercell connection resistance? the other hand there is no reason to test more frequently than
recommended by the standards.
Our experience has found that many battery failures are due to
loose intercell connections that heat up and melt open rather Can I make a discharge test while my battery is still connected
than from cell failure. Whether a cell is weak or an intercell to the load (on-line)?
connector is loose, one bad apple does spoil the whole bushel. Yes it is possible to do. Megger has test equipment that
When lead acid batteries are frequently cycled, the negative automatically senses and regulate the discharge current even
terminal may cold flow, thus loosening the connection. when the batteries are connected to the ordinary load. Most
users choose to make a 80% discharge test when on-line in
The proper sequence of measuring multiple post batteries is
order to still have some backup time at the end of the test.
critical. Not all instruments provide valid intercell connection
resistances due to their method of testing. Megger instruments
provide valid data.

What are some common failure modes? Battery technology summary

Failure mode depends upon the type of battery, the site As you can see, there is a lot to a battery. It is a complex electro-
conditions, application and other parameters. Please refer the chemical device. There is much more information available that
summary on pages 7-8 or to the “Battery Failure Modes,” goes further into the details of Tafel curves and depolariza-
which can be found on the Megger website. Look under the tion but that is beyond this scope. Essentially, batteries need
maintenance and care to get the most of them which is the
Battery Test Equipment product section. In the upper right-
main reason people spend so much on batteries – to support far
hand column under “Documents click for Application Guides,
more expensive equipment and to ensure continuous revenue
Articles and FAQs. streams.

www.megger.com 23
Megger products BITE3

overview ■■ Determines the condition

of lead-acid batteries
Megger offers solutions to ensure system performance with ■■ On-line testing with Pass/
its comprehensive line of Battery Test Equipment, Low Warning/Fail calculations
Resistance Ohmmeters and Micro-ohmmeters, Insulation ■■ Measures impedance,
Testers, and Multimeters. intercell connection
resistance, cell voltage
An overview of the various products available is described
■■ Windows CE¨ Operating
below. For more information on these and many other Megger
System with more than 16
products, visit our web site www.megger.com for the most MB of memory
up-to-date news, product and service information.
■■ Measures float and ripple
currents

Impedance test equipment

Regardless of whether you are testing flooded lead-acid,
The BITE3 is a compact, battery-operated, instrument with
VRLA or Ni-Cd cells, Megger has the right equipment for
powerful on-board data analysis tools. It is the first of its kind
your battery maintenance requirements. The products and
of instrument in that PowerDB can download all previous
associated accessories provides meaningful data on battery
data to provide the best in on-site data analysis like no other
health without significant expense or any reduction in
instrument of its kind. The menus are easy to navigate with
remaining battery capacity.
a bright, backlit LCD. The data display includes the normal
Interruption in service can cause disaster to supported numeric arrangement but adds two graphical displays to help
equipment and facilities. Consequently, a dependable backup analyze weak cells.
power system is critical so that when AC mains fail, costly
service interruptions can be avoided. The battery impedance
test helps to identify weak cells before they cause problems. BITE2 and BITE2P
Taking the battery off-line for testing is time consuming and
adds risk to the process. This process is unnecessary with the
on-line testing capabilities of the Megger family of battery
test products. The highly repeatable instruments help reduce
downtime.

■■ Determines the condition of lead-acid and nickel-cadmium

batteries up to 7000 Ah
■■ On-board Pass/Warning/Fail indications
■■ On-line testing
■■ Robust, reliable instruments
■■ Built-in printer (BITE2P)

The BITE2 and BITE2P Battery Impedance Test Equipment work

by applying a test current across the battery string while on-
line, then measuring the impedance, cell voltage and intercell
connection resistance. They also measure ripple current which
indicates the condition of the charger. The instruments help
evaluate the condition of the entire string from terminal plate
to terminal plate and even the charger.

24 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com

BITE® accessories BITE2 and BITE2P Accessories

■■ Enhances the capabilities of the BITE line

Bar Code Scanner: Scan
■■ Full line of accessories your battery strings, no
■■ Designed for unique situations programming required.
■■ Great for non-standard installations

Megger offers a complete line of accessories to enhance

the capabilities of the BITE product line. There are extension
Flex CT: Measure ripple
cables, calibration shunts, etc. Even though we have
currents around large
many accessories, we are continually evaluating additional
buss bars.
products as interest arises.

BITE3 Accessories
Extension Probes: Ideal for
those tight areas.
Kelvin Leads: Easily
connect to terminal lugs.
Hydrometer: Measure
specific gravity of flooded
cells and import directly into
Flex CT: Measures escape your Power DB database.
current on parallel strings.
NO NEED TO SEGMENT
Mini CT: Measure ripple and
test current in tight locations.

Lighted Extension Probes:

Ideal for those tight dark
areas.

Expanded Duplex Pistol

Probes. Perfect for rooms
with split battery strings.
(6’ between pistols)

AC Power Supply. Operate

your BITE3 off of an AC
source.

The Current Transformer

kit for the BITE3 is for
measuring the current
in noisy battery systems
and to measure “escape
current” in parallel battery
strings.

www.megger.com 25
Capacity testing TORKEL Accessories
Torkel Viewer
TORKEL 900 Torkel viewer is a software used for test reporting. The user is
■■ Discharge testing for full insight into battery capacity able to edit and print out test reports. Tests are saved to USB
■■ Enhanced safety features including spark free connection and
stick on TORKEL and transferred to a PC.
emergency safety fuse Torkel viewer also includes calculation software that calculates
■■ Ability to test the battery without disconnecting it from TORKEL/TXL configurations, or calculates a current level for a
the system certain TORKEL/TXL configuration.
■■ High discharge capacity shortens the test time
■■ A complete stand-alone discharge test system

The TORKEL 900 series is used to perform load/discharge TXL830/850/865/870/890

testing which is the only way to determine battery system’s The TXL models are extra load units
actual capacity. Together with the optional cell voltage for providing higher load currents.
logger, BVM, connected directly to the TORKEL 900, it Together, TORKEL and the TXL extra
becomes a complete, stand-alone, discharge test system. loads form a system that can discharge
TORKEL comes in three models — 910, 930 batteries with currents up to kA.
and 950 — see table below.
The high discharge capacity of TORKEL gives the opportunity
to shorten the test time. Discharging can take place at up to
220A, and if higher current is needed, two or more TORKEL
units or extra load units, TXL, can be linked together. Tests can
be conducted at constant current, constant power, constant Battery Voltage Measurement (BVM)
resistance, or in accordance with a pre-selected load profile. The BVM is a battery cellblock voltage measurement system
Testing can also be carried out without disconnecting that is performed on battery banks. It can be used in
the battery from the equipment it serves. Via a dc clamp- conjunction with a load device such as the TORKEL.
on probe, TORKEL measures the total battery current The BVM system is designed in modular form where one BVM
while regulating it at a constant level. Battery systems unit is used for each cell or block in the battery string to be
can be plus or minus grounded or free floating. tested. One BVM unit for each cell or block connects to the
next in a daisy chain fashion.
Torkel 910 930 950
The included dolphin clip can easily be removed and
Current (max) 110A 220A 220A exchanged with different types of standard banana plug
clamps and/or extension cables to accommodate any batter
connection requirement.
Voltage (max) 300V 300V 500V
Up to 2 x
120 BVMs
BVM functionality No Yes Yes can be daisy
chained in a
Charging measurement No Yes Yes single battery
bank under
test.
Full report functionality No Yes Yes

26 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com

Ground fault tracing Battery Ground-fault Locator (BGL)
■■ Ground faults in ungrounded DC battery systems

equipment ■■
are easily located
Features an automatic bridge
■■ Battery operated
There are two ground fault locating instruments from which
to choose, the Battery Ground Fault Tracer (BGFT) and the ■■ Simplifies fault tracing by identifying fault characteristic
(resistive and capacitive) magnitudes
Battery Ground-Fault Locator (BGL). The BGFT has superior
noise elimination while the BGL has an automatic bridge to ■■ Locates faults up to 100K ohms
differentiate between high capacitance and low resistance.
Here is a brief description of each instrument. The Battery Ground-Fault Locator was developed to detect,
track and locate ground faults on battery systems, without
resorting to sectionalizing! The BGL tracks and locates ground
Battery Ground Fault Tracer (BGFT) faults on live or dead battery systems. To save hours of
■■ Locates faults up to 399K ohms unnecessary troubleshooting, the BGL readily differentiates
■■ Easily locates ground faults in ungrounded between the resistive fault currents and capacitive charging
DC battery systems currents. This feature allows the instrument to detect and
■■ Operates in high electrical noise environment track leakage paths, even in the presence of surge-suppression
capacitors.
■■ Simplifies fault tracing by identifying fault characteristic
(resistive and capacitive) magnitudes The BGL works by filtering and applying an AC signal to the
DC buss on-line. The low level output of the BGL allows it to
be battery-operated but is more sensitive to system noise. It
has a built-in automatic bridge to differentiate between real
(resistive) and phantom (capacitive) faults so only the real faults
are traced. The BGL is moved from panel to panel to continue
the tracing process until the fault is found. Since it has an
automatic bridge it is very easy to trace faults and as such is
better designed for the novice user.

The Battery Ground-Fault Tracer is an economical, manually

balanced instrument that identifies, tracks and locates ground
faults in ungrounded DC battery systems - on-line. It is
particularly effective in high electrical noise environments, as
the strength of the test current can be adjusted up to 80W.
The BGFT is particularly useful in any industry where supply
of power for operating measurement, communication and
control equipment is critical.
The Battery Ground-Fault Tracer accelerates fault location by
eliminating trial-and-error procedures and because faults can
be located without going off-line. It is line operated and has
a manual bridge. The manual bridge is used to differentiate
between true, resistive faults and phantom, capacitive faults by
using a feedback cable to null the capacitance. But the manual
bridge is not required in order to trace faults.
The BGFT works by converting line frequency to 20 Hz. It
then pushes the AC signal through some coupling capacitors
to prevent transients on the DC buss and applies the AC
signal into the DC system while on-line. Using the hand-held
tracer, follow the signals with the highest readings until the
fault is found.

www.megger.com 27
Digital Low Resistance DLRO10 and DLRO10X

Ohmmeters (DLRO) and ■■ Accurate results in under

three seconds
Microhmmeters (MOM) ■■ Fuse protected to 600 V
■■ Automatically detects
Many times batteries fail not because of weak cells but due to continuity in potential and
weak intercell connections. Torquing is a mechanical method current connections
to ensure that the electrical path resistances is very low. But ■■ Alpha-numeric keypad for
it does not truly indicate the quality of the electrical path entering test notes (DLRO10X)
resistance. The only true method is to measure each intercell ■■ User configurable high and

connection resistance. low limits (DLRO10X)

■■ Printer output and memory
Megger has several DLROs and MOMs that are appropriate (DLRO10X)
for intercell connection resistance. The portability of the
instruments allows effortless mobility around battery strings. The DLRO10 and DLRO10X are fully automatic instruments,
The instruments are built into strong, lightweight cases that selecting the most suitable test current, up to 10 A DC to
are equally at home in the field or in the laboratory. measure resistance from 0.1 µΩ to 2000 Ω on one of seven
ranges.

DLRO200 For users who desire more control over the measurement
■■ Small and weighs less than 15kg (33 lbs) process, DLRO10X uses a menu system to allow manual
selection of the test current. DLRO10X also adds real-time
■■ Test currents from 10A to
200 or 600 A DC download of results and on-board storage for later download
to a PC.
■■ 0.1 μΩ best resolution

MJÖLNER 200 and MJÖLNER 600

Megger DLRO200 measures resistances
between 0.1 µΩ and 1 Ω, at ■■ True DC ripple free current
high currents.This versatile ■■ Inaccuracy ±0.3 μΩ
instrument can provide test ■■ Two displays LED and LCD for visibility
currents from 10 amps up to in all conditions
200 amps subject to the load ■■ Low weight, 8.8 kg (19.4 lbs) and 13.8 kg (30.4 lbs)
resistance and supply voltage. ■■ Fully automatic testing
A large liquid crystal display
MJÖLNER is designed to measure the resistance of circuit
provides all the information
breaker contacts, bus-bar joints, contact elements in bus-bars
needed to perform a test.
and other high-current links. The product has been designed
with safety, ease of use and versatility in mind. There are two
DLRO 247000 series models, one 200 A output current and one 600 A.
■■ Resolution to 0.1µΩ on
With MJÖLNER it is possible to make measurements according
599.9 µΩ range
to the DualGround™ method. This means that the test object
■■ Standard inaccuracy of ±0.25% will be grounded on both sides throughout the test giving a
■■ Large, digital LED readout safer, faster and easier workflow.
The 247000 Series of DLROs are a family of highly
accurate instruments that
provide a simple, practical
and reliable means of
making low-resistance
tests in the field. They also
are ideal for production
quality control. They
operate on the four-wire
measurement principle,
thus eliminating lead and
contact resistances. With basic accuracies of ±0.25% and
resolution down to 0.1 µΩ, they are nonetheless designed to
be rugged and portable for use at the job site.

28 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com

MOM200A and MOM600A MOM2
■■ Up to 220 A
■■ Resolution 1µΩ on 1999 μΩ range ■■ Battery supplied
■■ Standard inaccuracy of ±1% ■■ Lightweight – 1 kg
■■ Auto range: 1 μΩ to 1000 mΩ
MOM200A/600A are ideal for
finding poor connections since
they can put out 100 A for Its ruggedness and lightweight makes MOM2, a handheld
extended periods. Its range instrument, very suitable for field work. The unit comes with a
extending up to 20 milliohms strong rubber holster accessory which makes it extra durable.
makes it ideal for measuring many MOM2 is dimensioned to make a full day’s work of testing
different types of connections. without recharge. It can store 104 test values and transfer test
data to a PC via Bluetooth.
MOM690
The unit uses an ultra capacitor to generate the high output
current. The ultra capacitor is able to store a huge amount of
■■ Resolution 1µΩ on 200 mΩ range
energy compared to conventional capacitors and can deliver
■■ Standard inaccuracy of ±1%
very high current during the discharge thanks to its very low
■■ MOMWin™ software internal resistance.
■■ AC output

In addition to high current

capacity, MOM690™ features
microprocessor-based measurement, storage and reporting.
The built-in software enables you to carry out an individual test
or an entire series of tests and store the results.
With the optional MOMWin™ software you can also
export the test results to a PC for further analysis and
reporting. Ranges are set automatically, resistances are
measured continually and test results can be automatically
captured at a preset test current.

www.megger.com 29
Insulation Resistance Test MIT400/2 series insulation
resistance testers
Equipment
Batteries are supposed to be well insulated from adjacent ■■ Choice of 4 models for commercial and
equipment and metallic objects. The insulation provides several plant applications: MIT Models 400/2,
benefits: 1) keeps the charge in the battery rather than letting 410/2, 420/2 and 430/2
it leak, 2) provides for normal float current, and 3) reduces ■■ Choice of 2 models for telecom
energy losses. If a battery is leaking electrolyte, then there may applications:
be a path to ground. When a path exists, the current needed MIT Models 480/2 and 481/2
to keep the battery fully charged increases. It also shortens
the length of back-up time of the battery depending upon the
severity of the leak. An insulation resistance test can identify The series consists of six instruments
whether there are leaks. The insulation resistance is measured
MIT400/2 250 V, 500 V and 1000 V
across one of the terminals of the battery to some ground,
presumably the battery rack or tray. It is a very easy test to MIT410 /2 50 V, 100 V, 250 V, 500 V and 1000 V plus
perform and provides for a lot of confidence in the overall PI, DAR and timed
state of electrical insulation. MIT420/2 Same as Model 410/2 plus result storage
and download
This test applies a DC voltage, say 500 Vdc, between the buss,
off-line and the rack. Then measures the DC leakage current MIT430/2 Same as Model 420/2 plus Bluetooth®
to calculate resistance in MΩ or GΩ. The higher the resistance download
is the better. This test is recommended at installation and MIT480/2 50 V, 100 V, 250 V, 500 V
whenever a leak may be suspected (from tell-tale signs such as MIT481/2 50 V, 100 V, 250 V, 500 V, result storage and
salt build-up.) Bluetooth®
Megger offers the MIT400/2 Series insulation and continuity
testers designed for electrical testing by power utilities,
industrials, telecommunication companies, commercial/
domestic electricians and anyone with unique test voltage
requirements. The wide range of features also makes the
MIT400/2 Series ideal for maintenance technicians and
engineers.
These instruments are available from as low as 50 V to as high
as 1 kV. For analytical applications, multiple test voltages are
desired.

30 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com

PowerDB
TM
Test forms are designed for the majority of the electrical
apparatus on the market today. PowerDB currently supports
the following devices:
Acceptance & Maintenance Test
Data Management Software ■■ Batteries
■■ Cables
■■ Circuit breakers ■■ Insulation fluids
■■ Windows-based PC software available in three versions
■■ Coordination data ■■ Loadbreak switches
■■ Interfaces to instruments via either Serial RS232, USB port, Ethernet,
or USB flash drive (depending on instrument) ■■ Disconnects ■■ Motor control centers

■■ Allows user to set up test routines in advance of testing ■■ Generators ■■ Power factor tests

■■ Allows analysis, comparison and trending of data ■■ Ground fault tests ■■ Relays

■■ User can customize the User Interface (test form view) with the ■■ Ground Mat/Grid tests ■■ Switchboards
ONBOARD and Full versions ■■ Instrument transformers ■■ Transfer switches
■■ Power transformers ■■ Watthour meters
PowerDB is a powerful software package providing data ■■ Transducers
management for each of your acceptance and maintenance
testing jobs. Data can be imported from various sources, The software will perform extensive information processing
acquired directly from test instruments, or entered manually. including equation calculations, temperature correction factors
Test results for all electrical apparatus are synchronized to your and charting. Data trending for predictive failure analysis is
company’s central database. Result and summary reports can accomplished by charting historical results, stored in PowerDB
be easily generated. or imported from other party’s proprietary database software,
for any piece of equipment.
PowerDB Lite is free software allowing you to use standard
PowerDB test forms with Megger instruments. It provides PowerDB provides a powerful editor to create or customize
a simple and consistent user interface to many Megger forms. No database knowledge is required. Simply drag-and-
instruments including the BITE2, BITE3 and Torkel instruments. drop tables, text boxes, images, charts, and more into a form.
VBScript® can be used to define calculations, use lookup
PowerDB ONBOARD runs directly on the Megger test
tables, and even interface with other applications. Sections
instrument, and the forms are the instrument’s user interface.
common to multiple forms, such as logos, headers and footers,
Test results are transferred with a standard USB drive and can
can be defined once and included in many forms. Also, one
then be read into PowerDB or PowerDB Lite.
change updates all forms where it is used.
Test forms
Designed from a ground up approach, PowerDB utilizes over
200 industry standard test forms that have been developed
and used over 20 years by industry specialists.
Test data entry screens and printed forms are identical allowing
intuitive operation. What you see on the screen is what is
printed in the reports. Entire test documentation packages
consisting of test reports, comment & deficiency summaries,
table of contents and field service reports are created
with a single step. Once created, reports can be delivered
electronically via email, CD-ROM, web server or
Adobe® Acrobat®.

www.megger.com 31
BATTERYTEST_AG_US_V03

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