WAVE OPTICS

Introduction:-

Optics is the branch of physics which involves the behavior and properties of light,
including its interactions with matter and construction of instruments that use or detect it.
So, what is light? Is it a particle or wave? According to R. Feynman “It is like neither”.
Simply light is a transverse Electromagnetic radiation.
Usually at the graduation level optics is classified as ray or geometrical optics and physical
optics.
In recent years, the field of optics has become extremely important because of its
applications in many diverse areas.

Some Basic Definitions:-

1. Refractive Index:-
The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of velocity of light in vacuum to the
velocity of light in medium.
velocity of light ∈vacuum
µ= = C/v. For air, µ=1.
velocity of light ∈medium
A homogeneous medium is one in which µ is everywhere the same.
In an inhomogeneous or heterogeneous medium the index varies with position
2. Rarer Medium:-
The medium with lesser refractive index or with high velocity of light is called rarer
medium.
3. Denser Medium:-
The medium with higher refractive index or less velocity of light is called denser medium.
4. Reflection:-
When a ray of light strikes on a surface and returns back in the
same medium, the phenomenon is called reflection.
Laws of reflection: i) the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection.
ii) The incident ray, the normal and reflected
ray lie in the same plane.
5. Refraction:-
When a ray of light travels from one medium to
another, the ray of light changes its direction of ray.
This phenomenon is called refraction.
Laws of refraction: - i) The incident ray, the refracted
ray and the normal to the surface at the point of
incidence all lie in one plane.
ii) For a monochromatic light sin
i ∝ sin r
sin i
so, =µ
sin r

6. Total Internal Reflection:-

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When a light ray, travelling from optically denser medium to optically rarer medium, if it is
incident at an angle greater than the critical angle for the two media, the ray is totally
reflected back into the same medium by obeying laws of reflection. This phenomenon is
called total internal reflection.

7. Wave
Front:-
A wavefront is the locus of the points which are in the same phase; for example, if we drop a
small stone in calm water, circular ripples spread out from the point of impact, each point on
the circumference of the circle oscillates with same amplitude and same phase and thus we
have a circular wavefront.
8. Huygen’s Theory:-
Huygen’s theory is essentially based on a geometrical construction which allows us to
determine the shape of the wavefront at any time.
According to Huygen’s Principle
1) Each point of a wave front
is a source of secondary
disturbance and the wavelets
emanating from theses points
spread out in all directions
with the speed of the wave.
2) The forward tangent
envelope to these wave lets
gives the direction of new
wave front.
According to Huygen’s
principle, each point of a
wave front is a source of
secondary disturbance and the
wavelets emanating from
theses points spread out in all
directions with the speed of the wave.
The envelope of theses wavelets gives the shape of the new wavefront.

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9. Principle of Superposition of Waves: -

When two or more waves travel simultaneously in a medium, the resultant displacement at
any point is due to the
algebraic sum of the
displacements due to
individual waves in the
absence of others. This is
the principle of
superposition of waves.
Let, y1 be the
displacement due to one wave at an instant and y2 be the displacement of another wave in
the absence of first wave. Then the resultant displacement due to the presence of both the
waves is given by y = y1  y2.
Positive sign has to be taken when both the displacements y1 and y2 are in the same
direction; negative sign has to be taken when they are in the opposite direction.

Interference: -

When two light

waves superimpose,
then the resultant
amplitude ( or
intensity*) in the
region of
superposition is
different than the
amplitude ( or
intensity) of
individual waves. This modification in the distribution of intensity in the region of
superposition is called interference.
When the resultant amplitude is the sum of the amplitudes due to two waves, the
interference is known as constructive interference and when the resultant amplitude is equal
to the difference of two amplitudes, the interference is known as destructive interference.
The adjacent figure shows the interference pattern in water.
During the interference of two waves if we assume ‘a’ as the amplitude of each wave then
the displacement is given by
y= a+ a = 2a, this is the case of constructive interference.
y= a-a – 0, is the case of destructive interference.
The regions of constructive interference and destructive interference does not change with
position and time, they change depending on the phase difference between the waves.

Coherence: -

Phase:- If we consider a wave, the displacement made by the wave from fixed reference point
after a time ‘t’ is called its Phase.

Two waves are said to be coherent if they have

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1. Same Wavelength
2. Same Amplitude and
3. Same phase or constant phase difference.
The property is said to be coherence

Young’s Double slit Experiment: -

 If we consider two sources of light with same power, they may emit waves of same
wavelength with same amplitude but since the waves are emitted spontaneously by two
different sources, they will have randomly varying phase i.e., they will not have constant
phase difference,
hence two
independent sources
of light can never be
coherent.
 This difficulty was
successfully
overcome by
Thomas Young, in
1801, he
demonstrated,
experimentally the
phenomenon of
light.
 He allowed sunlight
to pass through a pin hole S and then at some distance through two sufficiently close pin
holes s1 and s2 in an opaque screen. The interference pattern was observed on a screen XY.
He observed few colored bright and dark bands on the screen.
 Now a days for increased efficiency pin holes s1 and s2 are replaced with narrow slits and
sunlight is replaced by monochromatic light source.
 To explain the interference pattern Young’s considered Huygen’s wave theory.
 When a light of wave length ‘λ’ from a monochromatic source was illuminated on slit S, S 1
and S2 are two slits which are equidistant from each other, such that they are in phase with
each other.
 The secondary waves from S1 and S2 fell on the screen kept nearly at a distance of 1 m.
 In the regions of overlap, they produced bright and dark interference fringes.
 When slits S1 or S2 was closed, the fringes were disappeared and there was uniform
illumination on the screen.
 This clearly proved that the bright bands were due to constructive interference and dark
bands were due to destructive interference of light.

Conditions for sustained interference: -

Coherent Sources: The two waves must omit the waves with same amplitude, frequency and
constant phase difference between them.
Narrow Sources: The two sources must be very narrow. This avoids overlapping of
interference pattern.
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Small separations: The separation between the two slits must be very small.
Same direction of propagation: The two light beams must have same direction of
propagation.
Same state of Polarisation: Both light waves should have same state of polarization.

Types of interference: For light waves, due to the very process of emission, one cannot observe
interference between the waves from two independent sources, as they will not be in same phase.
Thus, one tries to derive interfering waves from a single wave so that phase relationship is
maintained. The methods to achieve this are classified as

Division of wave front: The incident wave front is divided into two parts by utilizing the
phenomenon of reflection or refraction. These two parts of the wavefront travel unequal
distances and reunite at some angle to produce interference bands. Ex: Fresnel Biprism
Division of wave amplitude: The amplitude of the incoming wave is divided into two parts
either by parallel reflection or refraction. These divided parts reunite after traversing
different paths and produce interference. In this case it is not essential to employ a point or a
narrow line source but a broad light source may be employed to produce brighter bands. Ex:
Newton’s rings

Interference in thin films (Reflected light):

In thin film interference is due to superposition of light reflected from the top and bottom
sources of the film.
In both reflected as well as transmitted light one can observe interference.
Let us consider a thin film of thickness t bound by two plane surfaces XY and X/Y/ and let µ
be the refractive index of the material of the film.
A ray of light AB incident on
the surface XY at an angle i is
partially reflected along BC and
partially refracted along BD.
Let the angle of refraction be r.
On the X/Y/ the refracted ray is
partly reflected along DE and
partly refracted along DK and
so on.
The rays BC and EF form the
reflected system.
To find the path difference
between these reflected rays we
draw perpendicular EP on BC.
Path difference = (BD+DE)µ -
BP
DQ t t
From ∆ BDQ, cos r = = or BD =
BD BD cos r
t 2 μt
Similarly DE = ; Hence path difference is – BP
cos r cos r
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BP
From ∆ BDE, sin i= or BP = BE sin i or BP = (BQ+QE) sin i
BE

BQ sin r sin i
From ∆ BDQ, tanr = or BQ = t tanr =QEor BP = 2ttanr sin i = 2t µsin r (since = µ)
QD cos r sin r
2 μt sin 2 r 2 µt (1−sin 2 r ) 2 µt (cos2 r )
Therefore, path difference = - 2t µ= = = 2µt cos r
cos r cos r cos r cos r
Since the ray BC is reflected at the air-medium (rarer-denser) interface, it undergoes a phase
change of π or path increase of λ/2. Hence the path difference between the ray BC and EP is
= 2µt cos r −¿λ/2
Condition for bright band

The film appear bright if the path difference 2µt cos r −¿λ/2 = nλ
Or 2µt cos r =¿(2n+1) λ/2 where n=0,1,2 ... etc.,

Condition for dark band

The film appear dark if the path difference 2µt cos r −¿λ/2 = (2n+1) λ/2
Or 2µt cos r =¿nλ where n=1,2 ... etc.,
If the film thickness is extremely small when compared to λ, then 2µt cos r can be neglected
and then the path difference is λ/2. Hence destructive interference will occur and the film
will appear dark.

Interference in thin films (Transmitted light):

The following figure shows the

interference due in thin films due to
transmitted light.
Due to simultaneous reflection and
refraction we obtain two transmitted
CT & ET1.
These rays have originated from same
point source, hence they have a
constant phase difference and are in a
position to produce sustained
interference when combined.
In order to calculate the path difference
between the transmitted rays, we draw
normal CQ and EP on DE and CT
respectively. Produce ED in the
backward direction and it meets CF at
I.
The effective path difference is ∆ = µ (CD+DE)-CP
sin i CP /CE CP
But, from Snell’s law µ = = =
sin r QE /CE QE
Therefore, CP= µ QE.
So, ∆ = µ (CD+DQ+QE)-µ QE

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= µ (CD+DQ) = µ (QI)
= 2µt cos r
The reflection at different points takes place at the surface backed by rarer medium thus, no
abrupt change of π takes place.
Condition for bright band

The film appear bright if the path difference 2µt cos r= nλ

where n=0,1,2 ... etc.,

Condition for dark band

The film appear dark if the path difference 2µt cos r =¿(2n+1) λ/2
where n=0, 1,2 ... etc.,
The conditions of maxima and minima in transmitted light are just reverse of the conditions
for reflected light.

Colours of thin films: -

When a thin film is exposed to a white light such as sun light, beautiful colours appear in the
reflected light.
For example, in the case of soap bubble, let the thickness of the film t is constant, then in the
formula 2µt cos r µ and r are variables. Since for white light µ varies and due to curved
nature of bubble r varies.
Hence in the formula 2µt cos r =¿(2n+1) λ/2 varying values of µ and r can satisfy the
condition for constructive interference for a particular wavelength only. So, that point will
appear bright in that particular colour only.
In a similar way different points satisfy the conditions for constructive interference for
different colours and hence appear multicoloured.
Similarly if we consider a thin layer of oil film floating on water, the film is perfectly flat
with varying thickness. Hence different points on the film satisfy the condition for
constructive interference for different colours depending on the values of t and hence appear
multicoloured.

Newton Rings:- If a Plano convex lens of

large radius of curvature is placed on a
plane glass plate a thin air film is formed
between the curved surface and the plane
glass plate. When this film is viewed
under the reflected light alternate dark and
bright rings are formed. These are called
Newton’s rings.

 Light from a monochromatic source

‘S’ is made parallel and allowed to fall
on a reflecting glass plate ‘G’.

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 The light then falls on the Plano-convex lens. The reflected light from the upper surface of
air film and the lower surface of air film interfere with each other.
 The path difference between these two beams is given by
∆=2µtcos (r +α )+λ/2

 For air µ=1, for normal incidence r=0, for large radius of curvature the angle α is very small.
Cos α is nearly equal to 1. Hence ∆=2t+λ/2
 At the point of contact the thickness of air film t=0.
∆=λ/2 at the point of contact.
 This is the condition for minimum intensity. So,
the central spot is dark.
 The condition for maximum intensity is
∆=2t+λ/2=nλ => 2t=nλ-λ/2. => 2t= (2n-1) λ/2 for
n=1, 2, 3...
 The condition for minimum intensity is ∆=2t+λ/2=
(2n+1) λ/2. => 2t=nλ. This is the condition for
darkness in reflected light.
 Hence the conditions for the maxima and minima
depend upon the value of thickness’t’.
 The point of equal thickness of air film lie on a circle, hence circular rings are going to be
formed.
 The radius of these rings can be obtained as follows.
 From the geometry we can write that
(2R-t)×t=r × r => 2Rt-t2= r2 as t is very small t 2 can
be neglected.

2Rt= r2 => r=√ 2 Rt

For dark ring we have 2t=nλ => r2/R = nλ

 Hence r2= nλR, so r is directly proportional to

square root of n for dark rings.
 For bright rings r2 = R(2n-1) λ/2, so r is
directly proportional to square root of
(2n-1).
Determination of R:

 We have rn2=nλR and rm2= mλR for dark rings n

and m respectively, such that m>n we know that
r=D/2.
 Dn2/4 = nλR and Dm2/4 = mλR
 (Dm2−Dn2)/4= mλR-nλR => (m-n)λR= (Dm2 - Dn2 )/4
 So, R= (Dm2- Dn2)/ 4(m-n)λ
 Where Dn is the diameter of the nth dark ring and Dm is the diameter of the mth dark ring. R is
radius of the curvature of the convex lens.

Newton’s Rings under Transmitted light:-

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 In the case of transmitted light there is no additional path difference λ/2 between the two
interfering beams hence the path difference is given by ∆=2t
 This makes the condition for dark and bright rings to be reversed.
 Hence the central spot in the transmitted light is bright.
 For the dark ring r2 = R(2n-1) λ/2
 For the bright ring r2= nλR,
 Hence the rings formed in the transmitted light are just opposite
to the rings formed in the reflected light.
Newton’s Rings with white light:-
 With white light coloured rings are formed with violet at the
inner end and red at the outer edge.
 This is because the radius of the ring is directly proportional to
the λ. But coloured rings are observed only upto 7 th or 8th order and beyond that colours will
overlap and white coloured rings are observed.

Diffraction: - The phenomenon of

bending of light round the corners
of obstacles and spreading of light
waves into the geometrical shadow
region of an obstacle placed in the
path of light is called diffraction.
 This can be explained
based on Huygen’s wave
theory of light.
 According to Huygen’s
wave theory every point on
the primary wavefront acts
as second source of
disturbance and secondary
waves are generated from
those points.
 When an aperture or obstacle is placed in the path of light, every point on the wavefront
reaching the aperture acts as secondary source of light and the secondary waves enter into
the geometrical shadow region.

Interference Diffraction
It is the phenomenon of non- The phenomenon of bending of light around
uniform distribution of light energy due to the super the corner of any obstacle (disobeying the
position of light waves coming from a coherent rectilinear propagation of light) is called
source. diffraction. 
 The intensity of all the bright bands is equal. The intensity of all the secondary maxima is not
  equal. 
The width of all the interference fringes is equal. The width of central maxima is large, and on
  increasing distance, the width
of maxima decreases. 
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The intensity of dark fringe is completely zero. The intensity of secondary minima is minimum,
  but not completely zero as in the case of
interference. 
It is the effect of superposition of light waves.  It is the super position of wavelets.

Types of Diffraction: -
1. Fraunhofer’s Diffraction: in this class of diffraction, source and screen are placed at infinity or
effectively at infinity from the aperture. In this case the wavefront which is incident on the
aperture or obstacle is plane.
2. Fresnel’s Diffraction:- In this class of diffraction, source and screen are placed at finite
distances from the aperture or obstacle having sharp edges. In this case no lenses are used for
making the rays parallel or convergent. The incident wavefronts are either spherical or
cylindrical.
Fraunhofer’s Fresnel’s
Wave fronts Planar wave fronts Cylindrical wave fronts
Observation distance Observation distance is infinite. In Source of screen at finite
practice, often at focal point of lens. distance from the obstacle.
Movement of Fixed in position Move in a way that directly
diffraction pattern corresponds with any shift
in the object.
Surface of calculation Fraunhofer diffraction patterns on Fresnel diffraction patterns
spherical surfaces. on flat surfaces.
Diffraction patterns Shape and intensity of a Fraunhofer Change as we propagate
diffraction pattern stay constant. them further ‘downstream’
of the source of scattering.

Fraunhofer’s Diffraction at Single Slit: -

 Let S be a point source of monochromatic light. L 1 and L2 are two lenses. AB is the single slit of
width a, and finally MN is the screen.

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 According to Huygen-Fresnel, every point of the wavefront in the plane of the slit is a source of
secondary spherical wavelets, which spread out in all directions.
 The secondary wavelets travelling normally to the slit i.e., along the direction OP 0, are brought
to focus at P0, thus it is a bright central image.
 The secondary wavelets travelling at an angle θ with the normal are focused at a point P1 on the
screen.
 The point P1 is of minimum intensity or maximum intensity depending upon the path difference
between the secondary waves originating from the corresponding points of the wavefront.
 To calculate this draw BL perpendicular to AR.
 From figure it is clear that the secondary waves starting from various points on BOA have
varying path difference to reach P1.
 This path difference varies from minimum value of zero at B to a maximum value of AL at A
let AL =δ.
 From ∆ ABL sin θ = AL/AB = δ/a or δ =¿a sin θ
Where a is slit width,
θ is angle of diffraction
δ is path difference between the secondary waves
originating from A and B.
 Let us assume that this path difference is λ . Let us divide the wavefront AB into two halves AO
and OB, and take the effect of interference of waves from these two wavefronts. The path
difference between waves from A and O and reaching P 1 will be λ /2 and hence interfere
destructively. Since AO = a/2, we can choose many points one on AO and another on OB all
separated by a/2. These points are all called corresponding points. The path difference between
waves from all such corresponding points is λ /2 on reaching P1 and hence they give rise to
destructive interference. Hence P1 will be of minimum intensity.
 If the angle of diffraction θ is such that the path difference δis 2λ , then the slit AB has to be
divided into four equal parts of width a/4 each. Then again the waves from corresponding points
chosen on first part and second part will have path difference λ/2 and hence undergo destructive
interference. Similarly waves from third and fourth parts will also interfere destructively. Hence
point P1 will have minimum intensity. Hence in general the condition for minimum intensity
can be written as a sin θn = n λ
Where n = 1,2,3 etc. i.e., n is an integer. θn Corresponds to the direction of nth minima.
 Similarly if the path difference is odd
multiple of λ/2, maximas are obtained.
 Thus the diffraction pattern due to a single
slit consists of a central bright maximum
with secondary maxima and minima on both
the sides as show in Fig.
Let us now calculate the
width of central maxima.
since θ is
small
sin
λ
θ = (for n=1)
a

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If x is the half width of central bright maxima and d is the distance between the slit and the
x λ dλ
screen then θ = = or x =
d a a
2d λ
Hence the width of central maxima 2x =
a
If the lens L2 is very near the slit or the screen is far away from the lens L2, then
x
sinθ =
f
Where f is the focal length of lens L2.
λ
But sinθ =
a

x λ fλ
= or a =
f a x

Fraunhofer’s Diffraction at circular aperture: -

 Let AB be a circular aperture of diameter d.
 A plane wavefront of monochromatic light of wavelength λ propagating normally to the
circular aperture incident on it.
 The diffraction beam is focused on the screen by a convex lens.
 Every point of the wavefront in the plane of circular aperture is a source of secondary
wavelets, which spread out to the right in all directions.
 The wavelets travelling along the normal to the circular aperture comes to the focus at P0.
Because all the normal wavelets travel the same distance before reaching the point P 0 and
hence they reinforce one another, hence the P0 corresponds to the central maximum.
 Let us consider the secondary waves travelling in a direction inclined at an angle θ with the
normal to the aperture, they meet at a
point P1 on the screen.
 Let P0P1 = x, the path difference
between the waves at the point A and B
is,
AC= AB sin θ = d sin θ
 Similar to the single slit, the point P1
will be of minimum intensity if the path
difference is an integral multiple of λ
and of maximum intensity if the path
difference is odd multiple of λ/2.
 So, d sin θ=nλ (minima)
λ
d sin θ=(2 n+1) (maxima)
2
where n=1, 2, 3, ……, the term n=0 corresponds to central maximum at P0.
 If the point of P1 is of minimum intensity, then all the points which are at the same distance
from P0 as P1, i.e., all points are lying on a circle of radius x, will be of minimum intensity.
 The diffraction pattern consists of a central bright disc, called Airy’s disc surrounded by
alternate dark and bright concentric rings called the Airy’s ring.

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 The intensity of dark rings is zero and that of the bright rings decreases gradually outwards
from P0.
 The angular radius θ of the Airy’s disc, i.e., the angular separation between the centre of the
bright disc and the first dark ring is given by
1.22 λ
θ=
d
Where λ is the wavelength of the incident light and d is the diameter of the circular aperture.
 If the collecting lens is very near to the circular aperture and the screen is a large distance x
x
from the lens. Then sin θ=θ = , when f is the focal length of lens.
y
 Further, for the first secondary minimum
λ
d sin θ=1. λ = sin θ=θ=
d
x λ fλ
Therefore, = = x= where x is the radius of the Airy’s disc.
f d d
It was shown by Airy, that the exact value of x is given by
1.22 fλ
x=
d

Fraunhofer Diffraction due to N-slits (Diffraction Grating): -

 A diffraction grating is a precision instrument which is widely used in the study of spectra
formed by light sources.
 An array of identical large number of parallel slits placed equidistant side by side is known
as grating obtained by ruling equidistant parallel lines on a glass plate by means of a fine
diamond point.
 The line acts like opaque substances and thus, the incident light cannot pass through them.
These are called opacities.
 The light passes through the spaces between the lines, the spaces are called transparencies,
that’s why this is known as plane transmission grating.
 Let the width of each slit is ‘a’ and ‘b’ is the separation between the slits.
 The distance (a+b) is known as grating element.
 The combined width
of a ruling and a slit is
called grating
element.
 Points on successive
slits separated by a
distance equal to
grating element are
called corresponding
points.

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 Consider a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength λ be incident normally on

the grating.
 The secondary wavelets which are travelling normal to the slits are focused at point ‘O’, on
the screen, which is the central maximum.
 Those secondary wavelets which are making an angle θ with the slits are focused at point P
on the screen on passing through a convex lens in different phases.
 The path difference between waves on reaching P is CK since they travel equal path beyond
AK.
 From ∆ AKC, sin θ = AK/AC => AK = (a+b) sin θ
 The superposition of these waves at P1 causes interference. P1 will be bright when (a+b)
sin θn = n λ
Where n= 0, 1, 2, 3 … and anglesθ1, θ2, θ3… correspond to the directions of the principal
nλ
maxima. Hence sin θn = = nN λ
(a+ b)

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1
Where = N is the number of grating elements or lines per unit width of the grating.
(a+ b)

For, n=1:

(a+b)sin θ1 = λ

For n=2;

(a+b)sin θ2 = 2 λ

Different order bright images are obtained both sides of the direct ray as shown in figure.
Instead of monochromatic source of light, if we use chromatic source, in each diffraction order
different colors are diffracted at different angles.
Because all grating spectra are similar, they are called Standard or Normal Spectra.

 Maximum Number of Orders possible with a grating can be obtained by taking the
diffraction angle θ as 900.
 Hence nNλ ≤ 1

Resolving power of a grating is defined as its power of distinguishing two nearby

λ
spectral lines and can be given as = R . P=nN .
dλ

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