Course Outcomes Lecture Plan per week: 3 Lectures 0 Tutorial 0 Practical Total: 42 Lectures

CO1: To realize and apply the fundamental concepts of physics such as superposition principle, simple harmonic motion to real world problems.
CO2: Learn about the quantum phenomenon of subatomic particles and its applications to the practical field.
CO3: Gain an integrative overview and applications of fundamental optical phenomena such as interference, diffraction, and polarization.
CO4: Acquire basic knowledge related to the working mechanism of lasers and signal propagation through optical fibers.

Syllabus
WAVES
Harmonic Oscillations
Linear superposition principle, Superposition of two perpendicular oscillations having same and different frequencies and phases, Free, Damped and forced vibrations,
Equation of motion, Amplitude resonance, Velocity resonance, Quality factor, sharpness of resonance, etc. [8 Lectures]
Wave Motion
Wave equation, Longitudinal waves, Transverse waves, Electro-magnetic waves. [3 Lectures]
Introductory Quantum Mechanics
Inadequacy of classical mechanics, Blackbody radiation, Planck’s quantum hypothesis, de Broglie’s hypothesis, Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle and applications,
Schrodinger’s wave equation and applications to simple problems: Particle in a one-dimensional box, Simple harmonic oscillator, Tunnelling effect. [8 Lectures]
OPTICS
Interference & Diffraction
Huygens’ principle, young’s experiment, Superposition of waves, Conditions of sustained Interference, Concepts of coherent sources, Interference by division of
wavefront, Interference by division of amplitude with examples, The Michelson interferometer and some problems; Fraunhofer diffraction, Single slit, Multiple slits,
Resolving power of grating. [13 Lectures]

Polarisation
Polarisation, Qualitative discussion on Plane, Circularly and elliptically polarized light, Malus law, Brewster’s law, Double refraction (birefringence) - Ordinary and
extra-ordinary rays, Optic axis etc.; Polaroid, Nicol prism, Retardation plates and analysis of polarized lights. [5 Lectures]
Laser and Optical Fiber
Spontaneous and stimulated emission of radiation, Population inversion, Einstein’s A & B co-efficient, Optical resonator and pumping methods, He-Ne laser. Optical
Fibre– Core and cladding, Total internal reflection, Calculation of numerical aperture and acceptance angle, Applications. [5 Lectures]
REFERENCE BOOKS:
Engineering Physics, H. K. Malik and A. K. Singh, McGraw-Hill.
Fundamental of Optics, Jankins and White, McGraw-Hill
Optics, A. K. Ghatak, Tata McGraw-Hill
 Huygens Wave theory of light
Christiaan Huygens 1678: Light is made up of longitudinal mechanical
waves moving in a completely elastic medium called Ether.
Hypothesis:
The light waves are similar to classically known sound waves/mechanical waves. Every point on the wavefront
is the source of a new disturbance. It sends secondary wavelets to propagate in the forward direction in a
homogeneous medium with the same velocity with which the original wave travels. The waves propagating in
the backward directions are attenuated.
At any instant, the position and shape of the new wavefront can be obtained by drawing a surface enveloping
these secondary wavelets. The lines normal to the wavefront are called rays, which represent the direction of
energy flow.
Different shapes of wavefronts
Point source: Spherical wavefront; Linear source: Cylindrical wavefront; Source at Infinite: Plane wavefront
He was able to explain Reflection, total internal reflection, refraction, double-refraction, dispersion,
interference and diffraction.
But fail to explain rectilinear propagation and polarisation.
Modification by Fresnel:
In 1817, Fresnel discovered that light is a transverse wave and presented his results on the basis of Huygens’s
principle. So, the final conclusion from the wave theory is “Wave theory of light - light was made up of waves
vibrating up and down perpendicular to the direction of the light travels”
Wave theory was not believed/accepted for next one century as Newton’s theory was ruling the entire world.
 Huygens Wave theory of light
Secondary Assume that it happens in all the directions.
sources So, light from a point source expands like a
Source sphere.
Similarly, Light from the line source will
expand like a cylinder.
If the sources are at infinite distances, the
primary wavefront will look like nearly parallel lines.
wavefronts
Secondary
wavefronts

Young’s Double hole experiment (1801)

A first proof for the wave nature of Light
In the very first experiment, Young used sunlight (polychromatic light)
with simple two small pinholes setup, to identify the interference
pattern as shown in the image. Later, he replaced the sunlight by a
monochromatic light in order to get the interference pattern with
good contrast .
 Interference & Superposition of Waves 1

Interference (of Light) is a phenomenon of redistribution of 1 λ/2

light energy due to super position of light waves from two or 2
more number of coherent sources.
2 λ/2
In the constructive interference, the amplitude of the resultant
wave is greater than that of either individual wave. 3

In destructive interference, the amplitude of the resultant 3 λ/2

wave is less than that of either individual wave. 4

4 λ/2
5

Superposition of Path difference Type of Interference

1 and 2 1 λ/2 Destructive
1 and 3 2 λ/2 Constructive
1 and 4 3 λ/2 Destructive
1 and 5 4 λ/2 Constructive
Here, S1 and S2 are two closely spaced narrow slits at equidistance from S. P
Further, a superposition of waves from S1 and S2 at an arbitrary point P on the screen is
considered. Y1 and Y2 represent waves from S1 and S2 given by Sinusoidal functions with the
same wavelength but with a phase difference 𝛿 due to the path difference (PD). r1 yn
Now, 𝑌1 = 𝑎1 sin(𝜔𝑡) and 𝑌2 = 𝑎2 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿) where 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 are the amplitude of waves S1
from S1 and S2 source, respectively. r2 S1’
According to the principle of superposition, the resultant wave at point P is d/2
S d S’
𝑌 = 𝑌1 + 𝑌2 = 𝑎1 sin(𝜔𝑡) + 𝑎2 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿).
𝑌 = 𝑎1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑎2 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝛿 + 𝑎2 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝛿. d/2
S2’
𝑌 = (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 cos 𝛿) sin 𝜔𝑡 + (𝑎2 sin 𝛿) cos 𝜔𝑡. S2
𝑌 = 𝐴 cos𝜑 sin𝜔𝑡 + 𝐴 sin𝜑 cos𝜔𝑡 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑). D
Take, 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 cos 𝛿 = 𝐴 cos𝜑 and 𝑎2 sin 𝛿 = 𝐴 sin𝜑
𝑌 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑).
Here, 𝐴2 = (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 cos 𝛿)2 + (𝑎2 sin 𝛿)2, and tan𝜑 = 𝑎2sin𝛿 /(𝑎1+𝑎2 cos𝛿)
𝐴2 = 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1𝑎2 cos 𝛿
Since the intensity of light 𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2, 𝐼 = 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1𝑎2 cos 𝛿 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√(𝐼1𝐼2) cos 𝛿.
By considering 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼0 we get 𝐼 = 2𝐼0(1 + cos 𝛿).
Constructive interference: Intensity is maximum. It happens when cos 𝛿 = 1 or 𝛿 = 2𝑛𝜋, where 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, ⋯. Thus
corresponding path difference is 𝑆2𝑃 − 𝑆1𝑃 = (𝜆/2𝜋)𝛿 = 𝑛𝜆 = 2𝑛(𝜆/2). Intensity is maximum when the path difference is even
multiple of half wavelength.
Destructive interference: Intensity is minimum. It happens when cos 𝛿 = −1 or 𝛿 = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋. Thus corresponding path
difference is 𝑆2𝑃 − 𝑆1𝑃 = (𝜆/2𝜋)𝛿 = (2𝑛 + 1)(𝜆/2). Intensity is minimum when the path difference is odd multiple of half
wavelength
 Conservation of Energy in Interference effect: P

By considering 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼0 we get 𝐼 = 2𝐼0(1 + cos 𝛿). This intensity pattern shows the r1
redistribution of light energy. But the average intensity over a period is yn
S1
r2 S1’
  d/2
S d M N S’
2I0 = total intensity of the waves that form the interference pattern d/2
S2’
S2
D
Path Difference (PD): the path difference is given by the difference in distance travelled by the
wavefronts, Therefore PD = r2 – r1
𝑑 2
From the triangle S1-S1’-P, we can write 𝑟12 = 𝐷2 + 𝑦𝑛 −
2
𝑑 2
similarly from S2-S2’-P triangle, 𝑟22 2
= 𝐷 + 𝑦𝑛 +
2
𝑑 2 𝑑 2
So, 𝑟22 − 𝑟12 = 𝑦𝑛 + − 𝑦𝑛 − = 2𝑦𝑛 𝑑
2 2
2𝑦𝑛 𝑑
(𝑟2 +𝑟1 )(𝑟2 −𝑟1 ) = 2𝑦𝑛 𝑑 ∴ (𝑟2 −𝑟1 ) = [Since d<<D, then 𝑟2 = 𝑟1 = D]
𝐷
𝑦𝑛 𝑑
So, the optical path difference between two interfering waves at yn is PD = (𝑟2 −𝑟1 ) =
𝐷
 Calculation of Fringe Position of Higher Order Interference
Since our assumptions for derivation of fringe positions are suitable for the lower order fringes, it is important to know the
calculation for the higher order fringes. For lower order fringes r1  r2, or the angle made by the sources with the point of our
interest is very small, hence we can assume sin in N-S1-S2 tringle is equal to tan of P-M-S’.
If  is large, we should take different approach as given below.
2 2 4𝑦𝑛2 𝑑2 𝑑 2
𝑑 𝑑 2
∆ + − 4𝑦𝑛 𝑑 = 4 𝑦𝑛 − 2 +4𝐷2
𝑟1 = 𝑦𝑛 − + 𝐷2 & 𝑟2 = 𝑦𝑛 + + 𝐷2 ∆2
2 2 4𝑦𝑛2 𝑑2
∆2 + − 4𝑦𝑛 𝑑 = 4𝑦𝑛2 + 𝑑 2 − 4𝑦𝑛 𝑑+4𝐷2
2 2 ∆2
𝑑 𝑑 4𝑦𝑛2 𝑑2
𝑟2 − 𝑟1 = ∆ = 𝑦𝑛 + + 𝐷2 − 𝑦𝑛 − + 𝐷2 2
∆ + = 4𝑦 2
𝑛 + 𝑑 2
+4𝐷 2
2 2 ∆2
2 2
Complete the derivation by yourself and bring the equation
𝑑 𝑑 of hyperbola.
∆+ 𝑦𝑛 − + 𝐷2 = 𝑦𝑛 + + 𝐷2
2 2 Refer Ajoy Ghatak “Optics” book
𝑑 2 𝑑 2 𝑑 2
∆2 + 𝑦𝑛 − + 𝐷2 +2∆ 𝑦𝑛 − + 𝐷2 = 𝑦𝑛 + 2 + 𝐷2
2 2
2 2 2
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
∆2 + 𝑦𝑛2 + − 𝑦𝑛 𝑑 + 2∆ 𝑦𝑛 − + 𝐷2 = 𝑦𝑛2 + + 𝑦𝑛 𝑑
4 2 4
2
𝑑
∆2 − 2𝑦𝑛 𝑑 = 2∆ 𝑦𝑛 − + 𝐷2
2
𝑑 2
∆4 + 4𝑦𝑛2 𝑑 2 − 4∆2 𝑦𝑛 𝑑 = 4∆2 𝑦𝑛 − +4∆2 𝐷2
2
 Fringe width & Angular Fringe Width
Fringe width: we known that if PD (𝑟2 − 𝑟1) is the even multiple of λ/2 then then a bright fringe is observed at
point P located at distance yn from the center of screen
𝑃𝐷 = (𝑟2 − 𝑟1) = 2𝑛 λ/2 . where 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, ⋯ then we get bright fringe at yn distance.

If this one is the nth order bright fringe then it must satisfy the condition
PD = (𝑟2 − 𝑟1) = 𝑦𝑛𝑑/𝐷 = 2𝑛.λ/2 gives 𝒚𝒏 = 𝒏 λD/𝒅 .
Therefore, for the (n+1)th order bright fringe we get 𝒚𝒏+𝟏 = (𝒏 + 𝟏)λD/𝒅 .
So the spacing between the nth and (n+1)th order bright fringe is 𝛽 = 𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑦𝑛 = λD/𝑑 .

Similarly, the condition to observe nth order dark fringe at yn distance is

𝑃𝐷 = (𝑟2 − 𝑟1) = 𝑦𝑛𝑑/𝐷 = (2𝑛 + 1)λ/2 . Where 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, ⋯.
Thus 𝒚𝒏 = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏)λD/𝟐𝒅.
Again, for the (n+1)th order dark fringe the condition should be 𝒚𝒏+𝟏 = {𝟐(𝒏 + 𝟏) + 𝟏}λD/𝟐𝒅 = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟑) λD/𝟐𝒅.
So the spacing between the nth and (n+1)th order dark fringe is 𝛽 = 𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑦𝑛 = 2. λD/2𝑑 = λD/𝑑
Angular fringe width: The angular fringe width is defined as angular separation between
consecutive bright or dark fringes and is denoted as 𝜔.
𝜔 = tan𝜃𝑛+1 − tan𝜃𝑛 = 𝜃𝑛+1 − 𝜃𝑛=(𝑦𝑛+1/𝐷) − (𝑦𝑛/𝐷) = (𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑦𝑛)/D = (λD/𝑑)/D = λ/𝑑.
So, red colour light will give better angular resolution than blue colour and d must be very
small.
 Conditions for Sustained/Stationary Interference Pattern
In sustained/stationary interference of light, the interference pattern should be stable and
observable. The conditions of sustained interference are
✓ The interfering waves must be coherent.
[Two sources of light are said to be coherent if they have a constant phase relationship between them.]
✓ The interfering waves must propagate in the same direction.
✓ The interfering waves must have same amplitude to get the maximum visibility (to achieve maximum contrast).
✓ The interfering waves must be monochromatic. (one of the condition for coherence)
✓ The interfering waves must have same state of polarization.
✓ The coherent sources must be narrow (width of the slit) and separation between them must be small.
Why no source is 100% monochromatic?
100% monochromatic source is possible only if the life time electron in it’s excited state is
very high! For any finite electron with finite life time (∆t) in the excited state, the emitted
photon will have small spread in it’s energy (∆E).
The product of uncertainty in energy and the uncertainty in life time of electron in excited
state is greater than or equal to half of reduced plank constant. The last statement is well
known as uncertainty principle. So, 100% monochromatic source is possible only if the
uncertainty principle is violated in any electronic transition which never happens.
This broadening in spectral line due to the uncertainty limits is called Natural broadening.
LASER is a good monochromatic source because the life of electron in metastable state is
much higher than life time of electron in a normal excited state. Natural broadening
 Why do we always produce an incoherent light from two different light source?
If we illuminate two holes with two different sodium vapour lamps, the interference pattern will not be
formed because the lights coming out from the two holes will not have a constant phase difference.
Atoms emit light for 10-10 seconds, which is very small compared as compared to the sense of our time
resolution, but this coherent time (τc) is 106 times larger than the time taken for one oscillation of an
optical wave with a frequency of 1015 Hz. So, in each pulse of light, there are 105 oscillations, that’s
why each purse is monochromatic. The length of this wave train is called coherent length (Lc); this is
mathematically given as Lc = cτc where c is the velocity of light. Even if the atoms are under similar
conditions, the waves from different atoms would differ in their initial phase. Consequently, light
coming out from the hole S1 and S2 will have a constant phase difference relationship. Hence, the
interference pattern will change every billionth of a second. We can observe this with a camera having
a shutter opening time of less than 10-10 s. This has been proved for two different light sources.
How to produce coherent light source? And Classification of Interference
Classification of interference: There are two types of interference based on the methods of obtaining coherent
sources.
(i) Division of wave-front: The wave-front originating from a source of light is divided into two parts, which serve
the purpose of coherent sources. Examples- Young’s double slits, Fresnel’s biprism, Lloyd’s single mirror, etc.
(ii) Division of amplitude: The amplitude of a light beam is divided into two parts by partial reflection or refraction
to obtain coherent sources. Examples- thin films, Newton’s ring, Michelson’s interferometer, etc.
 Division of Wavefront (Fresnel Biprism)
Base of two narrow angle prisms are fused to form a Fresnel Biprism.
A Fresnel Biprism is a thin double prism placed base to base and have very small refracting
angle (0.5o). This is equivalent to a single prism with one of its angle nearly 179° and other two
of 0.5o each.
D

θ This Fresnel Biprism experimental setup has a monochromatic

Image source S which is kept behind a narrow slit, as shown in the
sources figure. The wavefronts are expanding from this monochromatic
point source. On the path of this wavefront, we keep a biprism in
(monochromatic)
Real source

such a way that the fused base of the biprism is aligned with the
line connecting the slit and the centre point on the screen. When a
S

wavefront passes through the upper half of the biprism, it gets

deviated by the angle delta; similarly, the other half of the
wavefront, which is passing through the lower half of the
biprism, gets deviated by the same angle but in the opposite
θ direction. This is due to the symmetry of the biprism. Now, these
a two redirected wavefronts will share a common area on the
screen. Due to the interference between these two wavefronts, an
interference pattern will be produced on the screen.
 Division of Wavefront (Fresnel Biprism)
θ+δ
Since the experimental is setup is very similar to the YDSE, the condition for 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
constructive and destructive interference are same that of YDSE. The only 𝜇=
θ
difference is the virtual sources (S1) and (S2) are created due to refraction of 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
wavefront in opposite direction at the fused base of the individual prisms.
For small angles,
D θ+δ
2 δ δ
𝜇= =1+ → 𝜇−1=
θ θ θ
2
θ If θ = 30’ μ = 1.5 and a = 5
Image δ = (μ −1)θ cm, then the distance between
sources tanδ = (d/2)/a = d/(2a) the sources is 0.04 cm
S1 δ If δ is small, tanδ = δ
Real
source d 2δ δ
δ y δ = d/(2a)
S Total deviation or total angel subtended by the image
S2 δ sources S1 and S2 at the centre of the prism is, 2δ = d/a
(mono
chrom 2 (μ −1)θ = d/a
2a(μ −1)θ = d
atic) θ
a For constructive interference in nth order fringe, PD = 𝑦𝑛𝑑/𝐷 = 2𝑛.λ/2 gives 𝒚𝒏 = 𝒏 λD/𝒅
Therefore, for the (n+1)th order bright fringe we get 𝒚𝒏+𝟏 = (𝒏 + 𝟏)λD/𝒅
y = tanδ/(D-a) Similarly, the condition to observe nth order dark fringe is 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑦𝑛𝑑/𝐷 = (2𝑛 + 1)λ/2
Number of fringes on the screen is y/ 𝛽 Thus 𝒚𝒏 = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏)λD/𝟐𝒅
So the bright fringe is 𝛽 = 𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑦𝑛 = λD/𝑑.
 Stock’s law:
Principle of Reversibility of Light: When the path of light is reversed it will follow the same path.
According to the principle of
reversibility of light, the reflected and
refracted waves OB and OC, on Now change the
reversal, should give only the original direction of OB
ray AO which has amplitude 𝑎. and OC
So
𝑎𝑡𝑡′ + 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎 yields 𝑡𝑡′ + 𝑟 = 1
2 2

and 𝑎𝑡𝑟′ + 𝑎𝑟𝑡 = 0 yields 𝑟′ = −𝑟.

The –Ve sign indicates 𝜋 phase change
occurs due to reflection when light
reflected back by denser medium. No
such phase change occurs when light
Experientially borne out reflected back by rarer medium.
 Division of Wavefront Lloyd’s Single Mirror
The coherent source is produced by reflection
in plain mirror. The 0th order fringe (central
fringe) is dark due π phase shift of the refracted
ray backed by denser medium silver layer at the
back surface of the mirror.

S1 For constructive interference,

PD = 𝑦𝑛𝑑/𝐷 + λ/2 = 2𝑛.λ/2 which gives
h 𝒚𝒏 = (2𝒏-1) λD/2𝒅
θ θ  
d = 2h For destructive interference,
d d’
h PD = 𝑦𝑛𝑑/𝐷 + λ/2 = (2𝑛 + 1)λ/2 .
θ

Thus 𝒚𝒏 = 𝟐𝒏 λD/𝟐𝒅
S2 The fringe width is given by,
D 𝛽 = 𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑦𝑛 = λD/𝑑 for both bright and dark
fringes
Measurement of the thickness of a thin film:
P
t Let O be the position of the central bright fringe. So 𝑆1𝑂 =
O’ 𝑆2𝑂(there is no PD when no film inserted). That is yn=0 = 0.
yn
S1 yo’ Now if a thin film of thickness 𝑡 and refractive index μ is
inserted in the path of the ray 𝑆1𝑂. Due to the extra optical
d O
path travelled by the ray from S1, the central bright fringe
S2 will be shifted say to O’ at a distance yo’ from its original
position O. So we can write:
D 𝑆1𝑜′ − 𝑆2𝑜′ = (𝜇 − 1)𝑡 = y𝑜’𝑑/𝐷
𝑡 = y𝑜’𝑑/[(𝜇 − 1)𝐷]
Optical path travelled by light passing through the thin film Or
from S1 is S1P-t+𝜇𝑡
Optical path travelled by light from S2 slit is S2P If yo’ is the position of mth order bright fringe (ym)
⸫ The effective optical path difference PD is S2P-𝑆1𝑃+t-𝜇𝑡 in the absence of film.
Therefore, the PD = 𝑆2𝑃 − 𝑆1𝑃 − (𝜇 − 1)𝑡 𝑡 = ym𝑑/[(𝜇 − 1)𝐷]
If point P is the position of nth order bright fringe
then 𝑡 = m𝜆/(𝜇 − 1)
𝑆1𝑃 − 𝑆2𝑃 − (𝜇 − 1)𝑡 = n𝜆 or How to measure y𝑜’?
(𝑆1𝑃 − 𝑆2𝑃) − (𝜇 − 1)𝑡 = n𝜆 A white light can solve this problem. The
yn𝑑/𝐷 − (𝜇 − 1)𝑡 = n𝜆 or
yn = (𝐷/𝑑) [n𝜆 + (𝜇 − 1)𝑡]. center fringe will be always white if white
light is used.
Problems:
P1: Two sources of intensities 4I and I are used in an interference experiment. Calculate the resultant intensities at points
with phase difference 0, π/4 and π of the waves from the sources.
P2: The amplitude of light field of two slits in Young’s experiment are in ratio 1:2. Calculate the ratio of maximum
intensity and minimum intensity.
P3: The path difference at a point on screen is 2𝜆/7 in an interference experiment. Calculate its intensity with respect to
central bright fringe.
P4: A biprism is placed at a distance of 5 cm from the source of wavelength 589 nm. The width of 10 fringes on a screen
placed at a distance of 75 cm from the source is 0.9424 cm. Calculate the separation between the virtual sources formed by
biprism.
P5: A biprism of refracting angle 0.3333𝑜 and refractive index 1.5 is used in interference experiment. The source and
screen are placed at a distance of 20 cm and 80 cm from the biprism respectively. Calculate the fringe width when the
wavelength of light used is 690 nm.
P6: In double slit experiment eyepiece is placed at a distance of 1 m from the slits. The separation between slits is 0.75
mm. It is observed that the 20 fringes crosses the field of view when the crosswire moved 1.888 cm. Find the wavelength
of the light.
P7: When a thin sheet of transparent material of thickness 6.5 μm is introduced in the path of one of the interfering beam,
the central fringe shifted to a position of 6th bright fringe. Find the refractive index of the sheet when the used wavelength
of the light is 550 nm.
P8: A light of wavelength 500 nm is incident on two slits separated by a distance of 0.5 mm. The interference pattern is
observed on a screen placed at a distance of 1 m from the slits. If a glass plate of thickness 1.5 μm and refractive index 1.5
is placed in front of one of the slit then find the intensity of the central spot and lateral shifting of central maximum.
 Example: Interference due to a thin film of
Interference by Division of Amplitude uniform thickness
Thin film: A film with a thickness comparable to the
wavelength of light used in the thin-film Interference due to Reflected Ray.
experiment. The optical path difference between first two
𝜇2 −𝜇1 2
Reflectivity under normal incidence 𝑅 = interfering beam is given by
𝜇2 +𝜇1
If 𝜇2 = 1.52 & 𝜇1 = 1, R = 4.26% Δ𝑙𝑜𝑝=𝜇2(𝐵𝐸+𝐸𝐹)−𝜇1𝐵𝐶
3.9%
Δ𝑙𝑜𝑝=𝜇2(2𝑡/cos𝑟)−𝜇1𝐵F.sin𝑖
100 %  Phase change 4.26% 0.0007%
A D G
=𝜇2(2𝑡/cos𝑟)−𝜇1.2t(sin𝑟/cos𝑟).(𝜇2/𝜇1).sin𝑟
=𝜇2(2𝑡/cos𝑟)− 𝜇22t sin2𝑟/cos𝑟
i i Since, 𝐵𝐸 = 𝐸𝐹 = 𝑡/cos(𝑟) and
𝜇1 i
C BF = 2t 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑟) or BF = 2t (sin𝑟/cos𝑟)
B E’ F and μ2/μ1=sini/sinr (snell’s law for 𝜇1- 𝜇2 interface)

𝜇2 r tr r r Δ𝑙𝑜𝑝=𝜇2(2𝑡/cos𝑟)(1−sin2𝑟)=2𝜇2𝑡cos𝑟
K H
Considering π phase shift in CD, the condition of 𝑛𝑡ℎ
E
L
order bright fringe will be 2𝑡𝜇2cos𝑟=(2𝑛−1)𝜆/2
No Phase change Similarly, the condition for 𝑛𝑡ℎ order dark fringe will
J
I be 2𝑡𝜇2cos𝑟=2𝑛𝜆/2 . Where 𝑛=0,1,2,3
 Interference due to Transmitted Ray
The optical path difference between first two interfering beam
EI and HJ is given by Δ𝑙𝑜𝑝=𝜇2(EF+FH)−𝜇1EL
 Phase change Δ𝑙𝑜𝑝=𝜇22𝑡/cos𝑟−𝜇1(EH.sin𝑖) Since, EF=FH=𝑡/cos𝑟 and
A D G EH=2t 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑟=2t sin𝑟/cos𝑟
=𝜇22𝑡/cos𝑟−𝜇1.(2tsin𝑟/cos𝑟).(𝜇2sin𝑟/𝜇1)
i i
𝜇1 i
C
=𝜇22𝑡/cos𝑟−2𝜇2tsin2𝑟/cos𝑟 From snell’s law,
B E’ F μ2/μ1=sini/sinr.
Hence the optical path difference
𝜇2 r tr r r
Δ𝑙𝑜𝑝=𝜇2(2𝑡/𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟)(1−sin2𝑟)=2𝜇2𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟
K
𝜇1 E H So for 𝑛 order bright fringe the condition will be
L 2𝑡𝜇2cos𝑟=2𝑛.𝜆/2 and
I J
No Phase change
for dark fringe it is 2𝑡𝜇2cos𝑟=(2n+1)𝜆/2 . Where
𝑛=0,1,2,3…
The condition for maxima in reflected beams is same as the
condition for minima in transmitted beams and vice versa so
they are complementary to each other.
 Interference by Wedge-Shaped Thin Film
E 𝜇 = sin𝑖/sin𝑟 = (𝐵𝐾/𝐵𝐷)⁄(𝐵𝐽/𝐵𝐷)
K F
𝜇 = 𝐵𝐾/𝐵𝐽
⇒ 𝐵𝐾 = 𝜇𝐵𝐽
D
i From, △𝐶𝐼𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 △𝐶𝐼𝐻
CI is same for both △
G’ ∠𝐶𝐷𝐼 = ∠ 𝐶𝐻𝐼
𝑡
i ∠ 𝐶𝐼𝐷 = ∠ 𝐶𝐼𝐻 = 900
B
⇒△ 𝐶𝐼𝐷 ≅ △ 𝐶𝐼𝐻
𝛼 Take 𝐷𝐼 = 𝑡 thickness of the slab at point I
rJ I The optical path difference between interfering beam BE and DF is
𝛼C
PD = 𝜇(𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷) − 𝐵𝐾 = 𝜇(𝐵𝐽 + 𝐽𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷) − 𝜇𝐵𝐽 = 𝜇(𝐽𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷).
PD = 𝜇(𝐽𝐶 + 𝐶𝐻) = μ𝐽𝐻 [∵ 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝐽, 𝐶, and 𝐻 are 𝑖𝑛 𝑎
𝑡
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒. ]
From Δ 𝐽𝐷𝐻 we can write, cos(𝑟 + 𝛼) = 𝐽𝐻/𝐷𝐻 ⇒ 𝐽𝐻 = 𝐷𝐻 cos(𝑟 + 𝛼).
G PD = μ𝐽𝐻 = μ𝐷𝐻 cos(𝑟 + 𝛼) = 2μ𝑡 cos(𝑟 + 𝛼).
H
Considering π phase shift in BE, the condition of 𝑛𝑡ℎ order bright fringe will be
PD = 2𝜇𝑡cos(𝑟 + 𝛼) = (2𝑛 − 1)𝜆/2 and
the condition for 𝑛𝑡ℎ order dark fringe will be
PD = 2𝜇𝑡 cos(𝑟 + 𝛼) = 2𝑛𝜆/2 . Where 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3 Interference by Division of Amplitude
 Fringe Width Calculation
Fringe width: Consider two consecutive dark fringe at
positions 𝑋𝑛 and 𝑋𝑛+1 as shown in figure below.
For consecutive dark fringes, we know
2𝜇𝑡𝑛cos(𝑟 + 𝛼) = 𝑛𝜆
⇒ 2𝜇𝑋𝑛 tan𝛼 cos(𝑟 + 𝛼) = 𝑛𝜆.
𝑡n 𝑡n+1
2𝜇𝑡𝑛+1 cos(𝑟 + 𝛼) = (𝑛 + 1)𝜆 𝛼
⇒ 2𝜇𝑋𝑛+1 tan𝛼 cos(𝑟 + 𝛼) = (𝑛 + 1)𝜆. Xn
Xn+1
Subtracting above two equations we get,
2𝜇(𝑋𝑛+1 − 𝑋𝑛) tan𝛼 cos(𝑟+𝛼) = 𝜆.
By definition fringe width is
𝛽 = 𝑋𝑛+1 − 𝑋𝑛 = 𝜆/[2𝜇 tan𝛼 cos(𝑟+𝛼)] .

For normal incidence 𝑖 = 𝑟 = 0, so, cos(𝑟 + 𝛼) = cos𝛼.

Therefore, 𝛽 = 𝑋𝑛+1 − 𝑋𝑛 = 𝜆/[2𝜇tan𝛼cos𝛼]
𝛽 = 𝜆/[2𝜇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼]
𝛽 = 𝜆/(2𝜇𝛼) [for small angle α]
 Interference by Division of Amplitude
Newton’s Ring Experiment
Travelling microscope
The system of Newton’s ring experimental setup is shown here. Here, the source
and plano-convex lens arrangements are such that the light waves incident
normally on the plane surface of the plano-convex lens. If the curved surface of
the Plano-convex lens has a huge radius of curvature R, a very thin film of air
will be trapped between the glass plate and the plano-convex lens. The thickness
of the film will have circular symmetry. Due to this, we get an interference
pattern of alternate dark and bright concentric circular rings around the point of
contact. Each alternate bright and dark concentric circular rings represent the
locus of the points of equal film thickness, satisfying the conditions of
constructive and destructive interference. Therefore, these fringes are called
Monochromatic
light
Glass Plate
fringes of constant thickness.
S In this experiment, the interference pattern is formed due to the superposition of
the light waves reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of the air film.
Under these experimental conditions,
the optical path difference between these two waves is given by
2𝜇𝑡m cos(𝑟 + 𝛼) ± 𝜆/2 .
Therefore, the condition for mth order dark ring is 2𝜇𝑡𝑚=𝑚𝜆 [if i = 𝑟 = 0 and
Plano Convex Lens
Clamp Air film very small angle of wedge 𝛼 ≈ 0]
Glass Plate 𝑡𝑚=𝑚𝜆/(2𝜇)
 Newton’s Ring Experiment

From △QOP
𝑅2=(𝑅−𝑡m)2+𝑟𝑚2
⟹ 𝑟𝑚2= R2 – (R−tm)2 = 2𝑅𝑡m−𝑡m2
Since 𝑅≫𝑡, then 𝑟𝑚2=2𝑅𝑡m,
Substitute the value of 𝑡m for mth order
dark fringe,
O we can get 𝑟𝑚2= 2𝑅(𝑚𝜆/2𝜇) = 𝑅𝑚𝜆/𝜇
and
Similarly, for mth order bright fringe
R
R –t R –t 𝑟𝑚2=𝑅(2𝑚−1)𝜆/(2𝜇).
R
So the diameter of mth order dark fringe is,
𝐷𝑚2=4𝑚𝜆𝑅/𝜇
L L’
Q rm P Diameter of mth order bright fringe is
t
A C B 𝐷𝑚2=2(2𝑚−1)𝜆𝑅/𝜇
 Newton’s Ring Experiment
Spacing between the circular fringes
For Air 𝜇 = 1,
For a dark fringe,
𝐷𝑚2=4𝑚𝜆𝑅
Dm = √(𝑚4𝜆𝑅) = √m√(4𝜆𝑅)
If m = 1
D1 = √1√(4𝜆𝑅)
If m = 2
D2 = √2√(4𝜆𝑅 )
Distance between 2nd and 1st ring is
D2 − D1 = [√2 - √1] √(4𝜆𝑅) = 0.414 √(4𝜆𝑅)
D3 − D2 = [√3 - √2] √(4𝜆𝑅) = 0.318 √(4𝜆𝑅) Also, if a liquid with 1 < 𝜇 < 1.5, the spacing between
the fringes will decrease as 𝜇 is in the denominator.
D4 − D3 = [√4 - √3] √(4𝜆𝑅) = 0.268 √(4𝜆𝑅)………..
This clearly shows that the distance between the
fringes decreases with m or radius of the circle.
 Newton’s Ring Experiment
Fringe width: 𝛽 = 𝐷𝑚+1−𝐷𝑚= 4𝜆𝑅/2𝐷𝑚 taking 𝐷𝑚+1+𝐷𝑚=2𝐷𝑚.
Therefore, 𝛽∝1/𝐷𝑚. So, 𝛽 decreases as the diameter increases i.e., 𝑚 increases
Measurement of Wavelength:
For mth dark ring: 𝐷𝑚2=4𝑚𝜆𝑅.
For (𝑚+𝑝)th dark ring: 𝐷𝑚+𝑝2=4(𝑚+𝑝)𝜆𝑅 where p can be any integer
Therefore, 𝐷𝑚+𝑝2−𝐷𝑚2=4𝑝𝜆𝑅
⇒𝜆 = [𝐷𝑚+𝑝2−𝐷𝑚2]/(4𝑝𝑅)
Measurement of Refractive Index: If we fill a transparent liquid of refractive index 𝜇
(𝜇<𝜇𝑔) in between the glass plate and the plano-convex lens
then for mth dark ring 𝐷𝑚2=4𝑚𝜆𝑅/𝜇 and (𝑚+𝑝)th dark ring 𝐷𝑚+𝑝2=4(𝑚+𝑝)𝜆𝑅/𝜇. Therefore
[𝐷𝑚+𝑝2−𝐷𝑚2]𝑙𝑖𝑞=4𝑝𝜆𝑅/𝜇 .
But in case of air (𝜇 = 1) in between glass plate and the plano-convex lens we get
[𝐷𝑚+𝑝2−𝐷𝑚2]𝑎𝑖𝑟=4𝑝𝜆𝑅
By comparing these two equations we get
𝜇 =[𝐷𝑚+𝑝2−𝐷𝑚2]𝑎𝑖𝑟/[𝐷𝑚+𝑝2−𝐷𝑚2]𝑙𝑖𝑞
 Problems: Interference by Division of Amplitude
P9: A parallel beam of light of wavelength 589 nm is incident on a thin glass plate of refractive index 1.5 such that the angle of refraction is 60o.
Calculate the smallest thickness of the plate which will appear dark by reflection. Hint. 2𝜇𝑡cos𝑟=𝑛𝜆, take 𝑛=1
P10: A thin film of soap solution is illuminated by white light at an angle of incidence 𝑖=sin−1(4/5). In reflected light two dark consecutive
overlapping fringes are observed corresponding to wavelength 610 nm 600 nm. The refractive index of the soap solution is 4/3 . Calculate the
thickness of the film. Hint. 𝑛𝜆1=(𝑛+1)𝜆2 with 𝜆1>𝜆2. Find n then 2𝜇𝑡cos𝑟=𝑛𝜆
P11: A soap film of ri. 1.33 is illuminated with light of different wavelengths at an angle of 45o. There is complete destructive interference for
wavelength 5890 Å. Find the thickness of the film. Hint. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑cos𝑟, 2𝜇𝑡cos𝑟=𝑛𝜆, take 𝑛=1
P12: Light of wavelength 600 nm falls normally on a thin wedge-shaped film of ri. 1.4 forming fringes that are 2 mm apart. Find the angle of the
wedge. Hint. 𝛼=𝜆/(2𝜇𝛽)
P13: Interference fringes are produced with monochromatic light falling normally on a wedge shaped film of ri. 1.4. The angle of the wedge is 10
seconds of an arc and the distance between the successive fringes is 0.5 cm. Calculate the wavelength of light used. Hint. 𝜆=2𝜇𝛼𝛽
P14: In Newton ring experiment the diameter of the 15th ring was found to be 0.590 cm and that of the 5th ring was 0.336 cm. If the radius of the
plano-convex lens is 100 cm, calculate the wavelength of the light used. Hint. 𝜆=(𝐷𝑚+𝑝2−𝐷𝑚2)/(4𝑝𝑅)
P15: Newton rings are formed in refracted light of wavelength 6000Å with a liquid between the plane and curved surface. If the diameter of the
sixth bright ring is 3.1 mm and the radius of curvature of the curve surface is 1 m, calculate the ri. of the liquid. Hint. 𝐷𝑚2=2(2𝑚−1)𝜆𝑅/𝜇
P16: Newton rings are observed in reflective light of wavelength 5900Å. The diameter of 10th dark ring is 0.5 cm. Find the radius of curvature of
the lens and the thickness of the air film. Hint. 𝐷𝑚2=4𝑚𝜆𝑅 and 2𝑡=𝑛𝜆
P17: In a Newton’s ring experiment, the diameter of the 5𝑡ℎ ring is 0.3 cm and the diameter of 25𝑡ℎ ring is 0.8 cm. if the radius of curvature of the
plano convex lens is 100 cm, find the wavelength of light used.
P18: In Newton's ring experiment the diameters of the 5𝑡ℎ and 10𝑡ℎ dark rings are 0.450 cm and 0.700 cm respectively. Find the diameter of the 20𝑡ℎ
dark ring.
P19: In a Newton’s rings experiment the diameter of the 10𝑡ℎ ring changes from 1.40 cm to 1.27 cm when a liquid is introduced between the lens
and the plate. Calculate the refractive index of the liquid.
P20: Light containing two wavelengths λ1 and λ2 falls normally on a plano convex lens of radius of curvature R resting on a glass plate. If the 𝑛𝑡ℎ
dark ring due to λ1, coincides with (𝑛+1)𝑡ℎ dark ring for λ2. Find the radius of 𝑛𝑡ℎ dark ring for λ1.
 Diffraction of Light
Diffraction is a phenomenon of bending a light wave near a sharp obstacle or narrow aperture due to superposition of the infinite
number of secondary wavelets originating from the same wavefront. So interference is a special case of diffraction effect. To
observe clear diffraction, the dimension of the narrow gap should be in the range of wavelength of the light used.
Interference Diffraction
The interference occurs between two separate wave fronts The diffraction occurs between the secondary wavelets originating
originating from two coherent sources. from the exposed part of the same wave front.

The interference fringes can be equally spaced. Or may not The diffraction fringes are never equally spaced.
be equally spaced.
In interference, the maxima are of same intensity. In diffraction, the intensity of central maximum is maximum and
decreases on either side as the order of maxima increases.

Fresnel’s diffraction Fraunhofer’s diffraction

either source or screen or both are at finite source of light and the screen are at
distances from the obstacle/aperture infinite distances from the obstacle.
There are mainly two types of diffraction:
1) Fresnel diffraction the incident wave front is either spherical the incident wave front is generally plane
2) Fraunhofer diffraction. or cylindrical wavefront. wavefront
the center of diffraction pattern may be The center of the diffraction pattern is
bright of dark depending upon the number always bright.
of Fresnel’s zones
 Diffraction Theory

𝜃
na = d

a
𝜃
Sum of arn from n = 0 to n-1 (first n
terms) is equal to Sn = a(1-rn)/(1-r)
Here a = 1 and r = 𝑒𝑖𝛿

Let us consider the path difference between two consecutive interfering wavelets is ∆
∆ = 𝑎sin𝜃 where “a” is the distance between two points in the same wavefront and 𝜃 is the angle between the direct ray and the
diffracted ray.
So, the corresponding phase difference is 𝛿
𝛿 = 2𝜋(𝑎 sin 𝜃 )/𝜆
The resultant field at any point P on the screen due to the superposition of 𝑛 (𝑛 →∝) number of secondary wavelets is
𝐸 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 + ⋯ + 𝐸𝑛
𝐸 = 𝐸0𝑒−𝑖𝜔𝑡 + 𝐸0𝑒−𝑖𝜔𝑡𝑒𝑖𝛿 + 𝐸0𝑒−𝑖𝜔𝑡𝑒2𝑖𝛿 + ⋯ + 𝐸0𝑒−𝑖𝜔𝑡𝑒(𝑛−1)𝑖𝛿
E = 𝐸0𝑒−𝑖𝜔𝑡 (1+ 𝑒𝑖𝛿 + 𝑒2𝑖𝛿 + ⋯ + 𝑒(𝑛−1)𝑖𝛿)
E = 𝐸0𝑒−𝑖𝜔𝑡 (1−𝑒𝑖n𝛿)/(1 − 𝑒𝑖𝛿) = 𝐴𝑒−𝑖𝜔𝑡 where A = 𝐸0(1−𝑒𝑖n𝛿)/(1−𝑒𝑖𝛿)
 Diffraction Theory
Therefore, intensity at P is 𝐼 = 𝑘|𝐴|2
I = 𝑘𝐸02 (1−𝑒𝑖𝑛𝛿)(1−𝑒−𝑖𝑛𝛿)/(1−𝑒𝑖𝛿 )(1−𝑒−𝑖𝛿 ) = 𝑘𝐸02(1−cos𝑛𝛿)/(1−cos 𝛿)
I = 𝑘𝐸02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2(𝑛𝛿/2)/𝑠𝑖𝑛2(𝛿/2)

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 2,
𝐼 = 𝑘𝐸02𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛿/𝑠𝑖𝑛2(𝛿⁄2) 𝜃

na = d
a
I = 𝑘𝐸02{2sin(𝛿⁄2)cos(𝛿⁄2)}2/𝑠𝑖𝑛2(𝛿⁄2) 𝜃
I = 4𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠2(𝛿/2) = 2𝐼0 (1 + cos 𝛿)] – Interference results of YDSE d sin = 
Now, we take 𝛼 = 𝑛𝛿/2 ⇒ 𝛿/2 = 𝛼/𝑛 OR sin(𝛿/2) = sin(𝛼/𝑛) d sin = 3/2
When Lim 𝑛→  sin(𝛼/𝑛) = 𝛼/𝑛 d sin = 2

Therefore, I = 𝑘𝐸02𝑛2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼/𝛼2 = 𝐼0𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼/𝛼2

𝛼 = 𝑛𝛿/2 = (2𝜋𝑛/2𝜆) (𝑎sin𝜃) = (𝜋/𝜆)(n𝑎)sin𝜃 = (𝜋/𝜆)𝑑sin𝜃
Principle/Central maximum: When 𝛼 → 0, we get 𝐼 = 𝐼0; this is the maximum intensity in the diffraction pattern. Now, 𝛼 = 0
means 𝜃 = 0 (since 𝛼 = (𝜋/𝜆) 𝑑sin 𝜃), so the principle maximum is formed just opposite to the slit.

Condition for Minima: When sin𝛼 = 0 but 𝛼 ≠ 0, we get 𝐼 = 0, which means intensity is minimum. The position of minima is 𝛼 =
±𝑟𝜋, or, (𝜋/𝜆)𝑑 sin 𝜃 = ±𝑟𝜋, or, 𝒅𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = ±𝒓𝝀. Where 𝑟 = 1, 2 3,⋯
The positions of minima are 𝛼 = ±𝜋, ±2𝜋, ±3𝜋, ⋯.
Position of Secondary maxima: Therefore, in between two minima, there are weak maxima, known as secondary maxima. The
position of secondary maxima are 𝛼 = ±(3/2)𝜋, ±(5/2)𝜋, ±(7/2)𝜋, ±(9/2)𝜋, ……
 Problem on Single Slit
If I shine a narrow slit of width 0.1 mm by a light of wavelength 5000Å. Calculate the position of minima and maxima. If I reduce
the size of the slit to 10 m what would happen to the position of maxima and minima. Also calculate the width and angular width
of the central maxima for both the slit widths. If the screen is kept at 2 m distance what would be the position of maxima and
minima from the centre of central maxima.
For Minima, The condition is For Maxima, The condition is
𝒅𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽min = ±𝒓𝝀 𝒅𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽max = ±(2𝒓+1)𝝀/2 y
𝜽
𝑟𝜆 (2𝑟+1)𝜆
So, 𝜽min = sin−1 (in rad) So, 𝜽max = sin−1 (in rad)
𝑑 2𝑑
Width of the central maxima = 2*ymin of first order = 0.02 m when d = 0.1 mm
D
while it becomes 0.2 m when the slit width is reduced to 10 m
Order Width of the slit d = 0.1 mm Width of the slit d = 1 m
Minima Maxima ymin/D = ymax/D = Minima Maxima ymin/D = ymax/D =
Condition: Condition: tan(𝜽min) tan(𝜽max) Condition: Condition: tan(𝜽min) tan(𝜽max)
𝒅𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽min = ±𝒓𝝀 𝒅𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽max = 𝒅𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = ±𝒓𝝀 𝒅𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 =
±(2r+1)𝝀/2 𝜽 in rad ±(2r+1)𝝀/2
𝜽min in rad 𝜽max in rad ymin in m ymax in m 𝜽 in rad ymin in m ymax in m
1 0.005 0.008 0.010 0.015 0.143 0.215 0.100 0.150
2 0.010 0.013 0.020 0.025 0.286 0.358 0.200 0.251
3 0.015 0.018 0.030 0.035 0.430 0.501 0.301 0.352
4 0.020 0.023 0.040 0.045 0.573 0.645 0.403 0.454
5 0.025 0.028 0.050 0.055 0.716 0.788 0.505 0.557
 Diffraction Grating
Diffraction grating: Grating is an optical component which has periodic arrangement of large number of slits of same width and
separated by equal opaque spaces. 𝑒 db
The sum of total width of a slit (d) and an opaque space (b) is called grating element 𝑒 = 𝑑 + 𝑏

Figure below shows a plane grating consisting of “N” number of parallel slits.

Now, consider 𝑅 = 𝑅0 sin𝛼/𝛼 be the amplitude of light coming from a single slit normally, then each slit may be regarded as the
source of light with initial phase 𝛼 = (𝜋/𝜆)𝑑 sin 𝜃. The phase difference between two consecutive slits is given by 𝛾
𝛾 = 2𝜋/𝜆 (𝑑 + 𝑏) sin𝜃 = 2𝜋/𝜆 𝑒sin 𝜃.
Thus the resultant field at any point P on the screen due to superposition of N light waves is
𝐸 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 + ⋯ + 𝐸𝑁
𝐸 = 𝑅𝑒−𝑖𝜔𝑡 + 𝑅𝑒−𝑖𝜔𝑡𝑒𝑖𝛾 + 𝑅𝑒−𝑖𝜔𝑡𝑒2𝑖𝛾 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑒−𝑖𝜔𝑡𝑒(𝑁−1)𝑖𝛾
𝐸 = 𝑅[1 + 𝑒𝑖𝛾 + 𝑒2𝑖𝛾 + ⋯ + 𝑒(𝑁−1)𝑖𝛾]𝑒−𝑖𝜔𝑡 = 𝑅 𝑒−𝑖𝜔𝑡(1−𝑒𝑖𝑁𝛾)/(1−𝑒𝑖𝛾) = 𝐴𝑒−𝑖𝜔𝑡
The resultant complex amplitude at P is 𝐴 = 𝑅(1−𝑒𝑖𝑁𝛾)/(1−𝑒𝑖𝛾) . A
Therefore, intensity at P is 𝐼 = 𝑘|𝐴|2. P
W
∴ 𝐼 = 𝑘𝑅2[(1−𝑒𝑖𝑁𝛾) (1−𝑒−𝑖𝑁𝛾)]/[(1−𝑒𝑖𝛾 )(1−𝑒−𝑖𝛾)]
= 𝑘𝑅2(1−cos𝑁𝛾)/(1−cos𝛾)
= 𝑘𝑅2𝑠𝑖𝑛2(𝑁𝛾/2)/𝑠𝑖𝑛2(𝛾/2)  P0
= 𝑘𝑅2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑁𝛽/𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛽
∴ 𝐼 = 𝑘𝑅2𝑠𝑖𝑛2(𝑁𝛽)/𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛽 , where 𝛾 = 2𝛽 = 2𝜋/𝜆(𝑑 + 𝑏) sin𝜃 = 2𝜋/𝜆 𝑒 sin𝜃. W’ B
2 2 2 2 2
∴ 𝐼 = 𝑘𝑅0 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼/𝛼 )(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝛽/𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽) --- Intensity distribution in grating experiment.
 Diffraction Grating
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑁 = 2, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼/𝛼2)(𝑠𝑖𝑛22𝛽/𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛽)
= 𝐼0(𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼/𝛼2) {2sin𝛽 cos𝛽}2/𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛽 N=2 N=3 N=5
= 4𝐼0 (𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼/𝛼2) 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝛽
= 2𝐼0(𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼/𝛼2)(1 + cos2𝛽) }--> Double slit diffraction
N=1 /2 /3
e sin =  3/2  2/3 
Deduce the conditions for maxima and minima: b=0 e sin = 2 5/2 2 2
d sin = 4/3
𝐼 = 𝐼0 (𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼/𝛼2 )(𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑁𝛽/𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛽)
5/3
Principle maxima:
The condition for principle maxima is sin𝛽 tends to 0. If sin𝛽 tends to zero 𝛽 = ±𝑛𝜋 with 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3, ⋯. L'Hôpital's rule
In terms of path difference, the condition of principle maxima is 𝜋/𝜆 𝑒 sin𝜃 = ±𝑛𝜋 or, 𝒆 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜽 = ±𝒏𝝀.
Under this condition, the term 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑁𝛽/𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛽 reduces to 𝑁2 because Lim 𝛽→±𝑛𝜋 sin𝑁𝛽/sin𝛽 = Lim 𝛽→±𝑛𝜋 𝑁cos𝑁𝛽/cos𝛽 = ±𝑁.
So, the intensity of central maxima is 𝐼𝑝 = 𝑁2𝐼0𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼/𝛼2.
How many principle maxima can be observed?
𝑒sin𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆 ⇒ 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒/𝜆 . Considering both sides and the central maximum, there will be (2𝑒/𝜆 + 1) principle maxima.
Minima:
The values of 𝛽 for which sin𝑁𝛽 = 0 but 𝛽 ≠ 0 give the positions of minima.
Thus for minima 𝑁𝛽 = ±𝑚𝜋 ⇒ 𝛽 = ±(𝑚/𝑁)𝜋, but (𝑚/𝑁)≠ 𝑛.
In terms of path difference, the condition of minima is (𝜋/𝜆)𝑒sin𝜃 = ±(𝑚/𝑁)𝜋 or, 𝑒sin𝜃 = ±(𝑚/𝑁)𝜆.
Here, 𝑚 = 1, 2, 3, ⋯ ,(𝑁−1), (𝑁+1),⋯ but 𝑚 ≠ 0, 𝑁, 2𝑁, 3𝑁, ⋯.
If N = 3, m can be 1 and 2 but not 3 because if m = 3, the path difference 𝒆𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜽 = 𝝀, which is the condition for 1st order maxima n
= 1; so there will be 2 minima between the primary maxima.
Therefore, there are (𝑁 − 1) minima in between two principle maxima if there are N number of transparent regions.
 Diffraction Grating
Secondary maxima: Since there are (𝑁 − 1) number of minima in between two principle maxima, thus there must be some sort
of (𝑁 − 2) secondary maxima in between two principle maxima. When N is large, these secondary maxima are very weak.

Absent spectra:
If for some value of 𝜃 both the conditions [𝒅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = ±𝒓𝝀 (from slide 33) with 𝑟 = 1, 2, 3,⋯ for minima & 𝒆 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜽 = ±𝒏𝝀 (from slide
35) with 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3,⋯ for principle maxima] satisfied simultaneously then the corresponding principle maxima will be absent
from the intensity pattern. These absent or missing principle maxima are called absent spectra or missing order.

Here, 𝑒 /𝑑 = 𝑛/𝑟 ⇒ (𝑑+𝑏)/𝑑 = 𝑛/𝑟 ⇒ 𝑛 = (𝑑+𝑏)𝑟/𝑑.

For 𝑟 = 1, 2, 3, ⋯, 𝑛 = (𝑑+𝑏)/𝑑, 2(𝑑+𝑏)/𝑑, 3(𝑑+𝑏)/𝑑, ⋯ are the missing orders.

Note: for 𝑏 = 2𝑑, 𝑛 = 3, 6, 9, ⋯ this principle maxima will be missing.

Angular Width of principle maxima:

For nth order principle maxima, 𝑒 sin𝜃𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆 ----> (1).
If 𝜃𝑛 + ∆𝜃𝑛 be the angle of diffraction for the first minimum corresponding to the nth order principle maxima
then we have 𝑒 sin(𝜃𝑛 + ∆𝜃𝑛) = 𝑛𝜆 + 𝜆/𝑁, OR 𝑒(sin𝜃𝑛 + ∆𝜃𝑛 cos𝜃𝑛) = 𝑛𝜆 +𝜆/𝑁 ----> (2).
[Since sin(𝜃𝑛 + ∆𝜃𝑛) = sin𝜃𝑛 cos∆𝜃𝑛 + cos𝜃𝑛 sin∆𝜃𝑛 = sin𝜃𝑛 + ∆𝜃𝑛cos𝜃𝑛]
Compare equation (1) and (2), e∆𝜃𝑛cos𝜃𝑛=𝜆/𝑁 ⇒ ∆𝜃𝑛=𝜆/(𝑒𝑁cos𝜃𝑛). This is the half of the angular width of the nth order principle
maxima. As N increases ∆𝜃𝑛 decreases that is the principle maxima becomes more and more sharp.
 Resolving Power of Grating
Resolving power:
The resolving power of a grating is its ability to distinguish two nearby spectral lines with a small difference in wavelength ∆𝜆.
It is defined by the relation, 𝑃 = 𝜆/∆𝜆, where ∆𝜆 is the separation between the two closest wavelengths which the grating can
just resolve. The smaller the value of ∆𝜆 the larger the resolving power.

To obtain resolving power, we use Rayleigh’s criteria.

Rayleigh’s criterion states that if a principle maximum for wavelength 𝜆 + ∆𝜆 falls on the first minima of wavelength 𝜆 then
these two wavelengths 𝜆 and 𝜆 + ∆𝜆 will be just resolved.

Let 𝜃𝑛 be the angle of diffraction of nth order principle maxima for wavelength 𝜆 + ∆𝜆, then to resolve the first minimum
corresponding to order n for 𝜆 should also fall at this position.
So, we can write 𝑒 sin𝜃𝑛 = 𝑛(𝜆 + ∆𝜆): this is the condition for nth order maxima of 𝜆 + ∆𝜆
𝑒 sin𝜃𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆 + 𝜆/𝑁: this is the condition for nth order first minima of 𝜆

1st Minima of 
Comparing these two equations, we get,

𝑛 Δ𝜆 = 𝜆/𝑁 ⇒ 𝜆/∆𝜆 = 𝑛𝑁 . 1st Maxima of +d

So, resolving power 𝑃 = 𝜆/∆𝜆 = 𝑛𝑁.

 Problem on N Slit
If I shine a three slits with by a light of wavelength 4000 Å, calculate the position of primary and secondary maxima and minima.
If the width of the slit is 0.1 mm and the distance between the slit is 0.2 mm, calculate the missing orders spectra.

Given:
d = 0.1 mm N=3
b = 0.2 mm
𝝀 = 4000 Å
/3
e = 0.4 mm  2/3
2
4/3
For Primary/Principle Maxima, For Minima, The condition is 5/3
The condition is 𝑚
e 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜽min = ±( 𝑁 )𝝀 m is integer by m≠N For Secondary Maxima, is
ec𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜽min = ±n𝝀
𝑛𝜆
𝑚𝜆
So, 𝜽min = sin−1 ( 𝑁𝑒 ) (in rad) between two minima
So, 𝜽min = sin−1 𝑒 (in rad)

For N = 3, m/N values are

1/3, 2/3 are minima between central and 1st primary maxima because for 3/3 first primary maxima occurs.
So there is one secondary maxima at 1/2
4/3, 5,3 are minima between 1st and 2nd primary maxima because for 6/3 2nd primary maxima occurs.
Therefore, a secondary maxima is at 3/2

𝑛 = (𝑑+𝑏)/𝑑, 2(𝑑+𝑏)/𝑑, 3(𝑑+𝑏)/𝑑, ⋯ are the missing orders

 Problem on N Slit

For N = 4, m/N values are

1/4, 2/4, 3/4 gives the position of minima between central and 1st primary maxima because for 3/3 first primary maxima occurs.
So, 3/8, and 5/8 gives the position of secondary maxima.
5/4, 6/4, 7/4 are minima between 1st and 2nd primary maxima because for 6/3 2nd primary maxima occurs.
11/8 and 13/8 gives the position of secondary maxima.

Problems:
P1: In a diffraction grating the width of opaque space is 2.5μm and clear space is 1.5μm. Calculate the intensity ratio of 3rd and
4th order principle maxima for 𝜆 = 500 𝑛𝑚.

P2: Draw the diffraction pattern for N = 5, b = 3d, e = 10μm and 𝜆 = 500 𝑛𝑚. Find the intensity ratio of (i) 2nd and 3rd (ii) 3rd and
4th order principle maxima.
Hint: First calculate the 𝜃 of n = 2, 3, and 4. Use the theta to calculate the alpha value 𝛼 = (𝜋/𝜆)𝑑 sin𝜃. Substitute the 𝛼 value in
the intensity equation to calculate the intensity and then the ratios. Intensity of principle maxima is 𝐼𝑝 = 𝑁2𝐼0𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼/𝛼2.

P3: How many principle maxima can be observed for a diffraction grating with 2540 LPI and a light source of wavelength 0.6328
m?

P4: Calculate the angular separation between 3rd and 2nd order principle maxima located in same side of central maximum for a
grating of 2000 lines/inch with used wavelength 600nm.

P5: A diffraction grating of width 5 cm resolves sodium D-lines (589nm & 589.6nm) in its 1st order. Calculate the grating element.
 Problem on N Slit Maxima (Principle) Minima Secondary Maxima
For N = 5 Value of e sin Value of e sin Value of e sin
Central Maxima 0
1/5  3/10
In a five slit experiment, if the distance
between the slit is equal to the width of 2/5  5/10
the slit. calculate the absent. Assume 3/5  7/10
that the wavelength of light used in
your experiment is equal to the grating 4/5 
element (e). 
6/5  13/10
The total number of observed principle
maxima are 2(e/)+1 7/5  15/10
If e = , only three line including the 8/5  17/10
central maxima will be observed. So 9/5 
only n = 1 will be observed in the
experiment. Absent due to b = d and e =  2
11/5  23/10
The following lines will be absent for n
12/5  25/10
is integral multiples of (b+d)/d
n=2 13/5  27/10
n=4 14/5 
n=6
Absent due to e =  3
 Polarization Light
A normal source emits an unpolarized light as there is no specific direction for the vibration of atoms and molecule in its excited
state. However, these vibration can be controlled/restricted by various ways like reflection, refraction and scattering. Any such
optical phenomenon restricting the vibrations of light waves to happen in a particular plane is called polarization and the
emergent light after such optical treatment is called plane polarized light. The crystals that produce the polarized light is
called polarizers. In a plane polarized light, the vibration of light is only on one plane. If you see the wave from the opposite
direction, the vibrations will be seen in a line. Similarly, we can also produce a circularly and elliptically polarized light which are
produced by the superposition of two plane polarized lights, using phase retardation plate. In case of circularly/elliptically
polarized light, the locus of vibration seems like a circle/ellipse if you see the wave from the opposite direction.
Plane of vibration and polarization: y V-plane
In plane polarized light, the plane containing the direction of vibration and
propagation of light is called plane of vibration.
Plane which is perpendicular to the plane of vibration is called plane of polarization.
y
E
E
E
z
x P-plane
z
x
 Types of Polarized Light
There are three type of polarized light
1) Plane Polarized Light
2) Circularly Polarized Light
3) Elliptically Polarized Light
Plane Polarized Light
Any such optical phenomenon restricting the vibrations of light waves to happen in a particular plane is
called polarization and the emergent light after such optical treatment is called plane polarized light. The
crystals that produce the polarized light is called polarizers. In a plane polarized light, the vibration of light is
only on one plane.
Circularly Polarized Light
In circularly polarized light, the electric vector of light is composed of two mutually perpendicular linearly
polarized light components, having equal amplitudes but with a phase difference of π/2 or 3π/2 or 5π/2.
Hence the vibration of electric field happens in all the planes perpendicular to the direction of propagation
but the trajectory of the maximum amplitude of the vibration traces a circular path on a plane perpendicular
to both the vibrational planes and the direction of propagation.
Elliptically Polarized Light
In elliptically polarized light, the electric vector of light is composed of two mutually perpendicular linearly
polarized light components, having unequal amplitudes but with a phase difference of π/2 or 3π/2 or 5π/2.
Similar to the circularly polarized light, in the elliptically polarized light, the vibration happens in all the planes
perpendicular to the direction of propagation but the trajectory of the maximum amplitude of the vibration
traces a elliptical path on a plane perpendicular to both the vibrational planes and the direction of
propagation.
 Creation of Polarization Light
Creation of Polarized Light:
The common methods used in producing polarized
light are may be grouped under the followings:
1) Reflection
2) Transmission through a pile of plates Double Refraction
Transmission
3) Dichroism
4)Double refraction or birefringence
5) Scattering

Scattering Reflection
 Malu’s Law
Intensity of a plane polarized light passing through another polaroid will vary as square of cosine of
angle between pass axis (transmission axis) of polarizer and analyser. The zero intensities show that
light is transverse wave.
I0
A=A0 cos


A0

0 90 180 270 360



I0 I=I0cos2
 Malu’s Law
I0

0 90 180 270 360


I=I0cos20
I0 I0 I0 I=I0cos290
No light

Same light
Intensity of Polarized Light is Half of the Intensity of Unpolarized Light
In respective of orientation of polarizing axis of the polarizer, the intensity of the
transmitted light is exactly half that of the incident unpolarized light.

Proof:
A=A0 cos From Malu’s law,
 We know the intensity of light passing through a polarizer is I=I0cos2 where  is the
angle between the plane of vibration/polarization of the polarizer and the plane of
A0
vibration/polarization of incident radiation. If the incident light is unpolarized, the  can
be randomly varying between 0 to . So it is important to take the average of I0cos2
over 0 to  angles.
< I1 > = < I0cos2 > = < I0> <cos2 > = ½ I0
Since I0 is constant and average value of <cos2 > is equal to ½, the intensity polarized
light (I1) passing through the polarizer is half the intensity of original unpolarized light
(I0). When this polarized light passing through a analyser (another polarizer), the
intensity will be again decreased by the I1cos2 where  is the angle between the plane
of vibration/polarization of the polarizer and the plane of vibration/polarization of
analyser.
 Creation of Polarized Light by Reflection
Brewster’s Law: n2/n1 = tan(ip) A plot of reflectance of parallel and perpendicular components of the wave passing through a air-
glass interface as a function of the angle of incidence is shown here. At normal incidence (i = 0),
the parallel and perpendicularly polarized waves have same reflectivity. However, as angle of
incidence (i) increases, the parallel component drops to zero for certain i value at which the
angle of refraction r is complementary angle of i (i = 90 – r). This angle of incidence is called
ip ip Brewster’s angle (ip). Interestingly, the perpendicular component rises continuously, until at the
n1
90
Brewster's angle and their values are approximately 0% and 15% of the initial intensity of the
light respectively. The Brewster’s angle depends on the refractive index of the materials which
n2 ir can be early derived from the Brewster’s angle.

From the Snell’s law we can bring the relation between the refractive index of the material.
n1sin(ip)=n2sin(ir) when ip+ir+ 90=180 ; ir = 90- ip
So, n1sin(ip)=n2sin(90-ip)
n1sin(ip)=n2cos(ip)
Therefore, n2/n1 = sin(ip)/cos(ip)
If n1 = 1 (for air)
n2/n1 = tan(ip)
 Home-work problems for Polarization
1) To what fraction of its maximum value is the intensity of transmitted light reduced when the analyzer is rotated through (a) 30˚ (b) 45° and (c) 60°?

2) A polarizer and an analyzer are oriented so that the maximum amount of light is transmitted. Calculate the angles of analyzer for which (i) 20%, (ii) 40% (ii) 50% of
maximum intensity of incident light will be transmitted?

3) Calculate the angle between polarizer and analyzer for which (i) 20%, (ii) 40% (ii) 50% of incident light will be transmitted?

4) If I place (n+1) polarizer with angle between the pass-axis of adjacent polarizer to be (90˚/n) what would be the intensity of outcoming light after passing through
(n+1) polarizer.

5) In a (n+1) polarizer setup, all the polarizer are arranged in such a way that they make equal angel with adjacent polarizer and the first and the last polarizer are
perpendicular to each other. If the intensity of outcoming light is 21.1% of incident light, calculate the number of polarizers used in the setup.

6) In a three polarizer experiment, the pass axis of first and last polarizers are perpendicular to each other. The middle polarizer makes
an angle θ with the first polarizer. If a light with intensity (I) falls on the first polarizer, what would be the intensity of light coming out
from the third polarizer?

7) The refractive indices of glass and water are 1.54 and 1.33, respectively. Which will be greater: the polarizing angle for a beam
incident from water to glass or that for a beam incident from glass to water? Show the calculation of polarizing angles for both the cases. Material 𝑛0 𝑛e

8) Calculate the Brewster's angle for water/air and air/water interface. Light reaches the interface from the top to bottom medium. Ice 1.309 1.313
Refractive index of water is 4/3
Calcite 1.658 1.486
9) Calculate the minimum thickness of various crystals given in the table required for fabricating a quarter wave plate and a half-wave Quartz 1.544 1.553
plate, for a light source of wavelength 4000 Å.
Dolomite 1.500 1.681

Siderite 1.875 1.635

 LASER

Reference: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dt.2020.02.012
LASER : Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

Characteristics of Laser Light

How does a LASER differ from an ordinary light source
INTENSE
MONOCHROMATIC
Single wavelength (Share emission line width)

COLLIMATED
Spread minimally as light propagates

COHERENT
Constant phase relationship
 Interaction of Light with Matter
Under thermal equilibrium, what is the ratio of number of atoms
It will go to an excited state. in E2 to E1 states?
Supply energy
1) Electronic states (1-5 eV) N2 = Ag2e-E2/kBT where k = 8.61710 eVK Boltzmann constant and T is absolute
B
-5 -1

2) Vibrational states (~0.1 eV) temperature

-E1/kBT
3) Rotational states (~1meV) Not possible in solids N1 = Ag1e
N2/N1 = g2/g1e-(E2-E1)/kBT = g2/g1e-(E)/kBT= g2/g1e-ℏ/ kBT
If the states are non degenerated g1 = g2 = 1
N2/N1 = e-ℏ/kBT or N1/N2 = eℏ/kBT ---> (1) where ℏ = h/2 and h =
4.13510-15eVHz-1 and  is angular frequency  = 2.
Stimulated absorption
E2 In there are only two levels available in the system, the
Spontaneous Emission Photon with lesser energy is emitted
due the lose of energy through N2/N1 is always less than one. That is, the number atoms
vibrational and/or rotational motion,
Photon with same energy is re-emitted in the excited state is always less than the number of
when the system de-excited from the (1) during the transition from higher
excited state energy state to lower energy state. atoms in the ground state.
Calculate the number of Hydrogen atom in the 1st excited state in a 1 mole
of H gas at 300K.
E2 (-3.4 eV) is 10.2 eV higher than then ground state E1(-13.6 eV)
E1 Therefore, N2/N1 = e-(-3.4+13.6)/0.026 = e-10.2/0.026 210-170
N2 = 61023 210-170
N2 = 10-147
Calculate the number of Hydrogen atom in the excited state in a 1 mole of H gas at So, if There are 10124 moles of H atoms, there will be one Hydrogen in the
6000 K on the surface of sun. excited state.
E2 (-3.4 eV) is 10.2 eV higher than then ground state E1(-13.6 eV) So, if you take 10121 Kg of H atom, one will be in the excited state.
Therefore, N2/N1 = e-10.2/(8.61710^-56000) = 210-9
N2 = 6.023 1023 210-9 = 21014 Is it meaningful to use Boltzmann statistics for electron?
So, in 1 moles of H atoms, there will be 21014 Hydrogen in the excited state. Strictly speaking, No
So, if you take 1 g of H atom, 33 nanogram will be in the excited state.
But, Boltzmann meets Fermi when E is larger than kBT.
 Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission

Population inversion: Under population inversion

number of atoms in the ground state/lower energy

condition, the number of atoms/molecule in the
excited(higher energy) state is higher than the
Stimulated Emission
Spontaneous Emission
10-9 s
10-9 s Metastable state
10-3 s
Stimulating
photon

Energy
Energy

Emitted photon

state.
Stimulated emission is a resonance phenomenon under population inversion condition; so it requires the presence of a photon of
same energy. An “incoming” photon stimulates a molecule in an excited state to decay to the ground state by emitting a photon. It is
more likely to happen in lower energy transitions such as micro-wave, magnetic resonance and below. The stimulated photons travel
in the same direction as the incoming photon.

Spontaneous emission is the most commonly observed transition; it does not require the presence of a photon. Instead a molecule
in the excited state can relax to the ground state by spontaneously emitting a photon. It is more likely to happen in higher energy
transitions such as infra-red, visible, UV and above. Spontaneously emitted photons are emitted in all directions.
 Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission
Property Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission
Occurrence Very commonly observed Rarely observed
Help of external phonon Not Required Required
(For simulation) Photon of same energy required
Most Likely to happen in High energy transition Low energy transition
Eg: Infra-red, visible, UV Eg: Microwave and Magnetic resonance
Life time of excited state Very small (10-9-10-8 s) Relatively large (10-6-10-3 s)
Spectral Line width Broad Narrow (highly monochromatic)
Coherence Not coherent. Because the vibration of Coherent due to phase matching between the resonated
emitted photons are independent of electromagnetic field of stimulating photon and the
each other (ie. emission can happen any time) emitted photon.
Directionality Not directional. Emitted in all direction. Highly directional due to the resonance
Amplification Not possible Since the photon emitted through “stimulated emission
process can stay inside the system, it can induce the
emission of other atoms/molecules present in the exited
state. So, it will be a chain reaction with good amplification
if enough atoms/molecules in the excited state.
Population Inversion Not required Required for the LASER action/light amplification.
Emission in two level Natural and Possible Not possible as “population inversion” is not possible.
 Einstein coefficients
Einstein coefficients are mathematical quantities which are a measure of the probability of absorption or emission
of light by an atom or molecule. The Einstein A coefficient is related to the rate of spontaneous emission of light and
the Einstein B coefficients are related to the absorption and stimulated emission of light.
Unit of E() = J/m3s
The probability of absorption of a photon of frequency  for making a transition from E1
Unit of B12 = m3/Js2
state to E2 state is P12 directly proportional to the energy density E() of photon of
Unit of A21 = 1/s
frequency  per unit volume per unit interval of time. N2 E2
 P12 ∝ E()  P12 = B12 E() where B12 is Einstein’s coefficient of absorption.
 The number of atoms out N1 atoms in the E1 state that goes to the excited state in a
unit interval of time will be (dN1/dt) N1P12 N2P21
dN1/dt = -N1P12 = -N1B12E() (-ve sign indicates that the N1 decreases with time)
Similarly, for the downward transition, there are two possibilities (1) spontaneous N1 E1
transition which is independent of E() and (2) stimulated transition which directly
proportional to E(). So the probability P21 = (A21 + B21E())
So, if there are N2 atoms in the excited state, the number of atoms makes downward
From Maxwell’s distribution law,
transition in a unit interval of time are dN2/dt = -N2P21 = -(N2A21 + N2B21E()) where A21
N1/N2 = eℏ/kBT
and B21 are coefficients of spontaneous emission and stimulated emission, respectively.  E() = (A21/B21)/[(B12/B21)eℏ/kBT-1]
At thermal equilibrium, the number of upward transitions are equal to the number of From Planks radiation law of a radiating
downward transition. dN1/dt = dN2/dt  N1B12E() = N2A21 + N2B21E() object at temperature T,
N1B12E() - N2B21E() = N2A21 E() = (8h3/c3)/[eℏ/kBT-1]
(N1B12 - N2B21)E() = N2A21 Comparing these equation, we get
E() = N2A21/[N1B12 - N2B21] E() = A21/[(N1/N2)B12 - B21] = (A21/B21)/[(N1/N2)(B12/B21) -1] A21/B21= 8h3/c3 and B12/B21 = 1
 Einstein coefficients
Interesting Outcomes of these two results
A21/B21= 8h3/c3 and B12/B21 = 1
(1) B12=B21  The probability of absorption and stimulated emission are equal.
(2) As  increases, the A21/B21 ratio increases (ie. The probability of spontaneous emission becomes predominant for higher
energy transition)
(3) The rate of stimulated emission to spontaneous emission is given by  = N2B21E()/N2A21 = (B21/A21)E()
 = (B21/A21)(8h3/c3)/[eℏ/kBT-1] because A21/B21= 8h3/c3
 = 1 /[eℏ/kBT-1]
If ℏ << kT, then  become large value. The value of kT for T = 300 K is 0.026 eV. So the  corresponding to kT is 6.2861012 Hz.
If the transition frequency is less than 6.2861012, the stimulated emission will be predominant (for microwave range is 109 –
1011).  = 0.58 if three phonon emitted by the source, one will be due to the stimulated emission and the two will be due to
the spontaneous emission.
Let us workout for the visible region.
In the visible region, if ℏ = 1 eV,  = 1/[e1/0.026-1] = 1.9810-17. So if there are 1017 photons emitted 1 photon is due to the
stimulated emission.
Will the light be amplified in such two level system?
Let us understand the condition for higher stimulated emission than absorption.
The ratio of stimulated emission to the absorption is ’ = N2B21E()/N1B12E() = N2/N1.
Since we know that N2 is always less than N1 in a two level system, it is impossible to achieve the amplification of light. So, the
LASER action (light amplification) is not possible in TWO level laser system. Laser action/light amplification needs the
population inversion condition (N2>N1).
1) Let us consider the emission of visible light of 600 nm from an ordinary source of light working at a temperature of 300 K.
Find the ratio between the rates of spontaneous transitions and stimulated emission.
2) Let us consider the emission of visible light of 600 m from an ordinary source of light working at a temperature of 300 K.
Find the ratio between the rates of spontaneous transitions and stimulated emission.
2) If the excited state has 2eV energy higher than the ground state, find the fraction of atoms in the excited state compared to the
ground state at 3000K.
3) Calculate the number of electrons in the conduction band of a Si crystal containing 10 mole of atoms with a forbidden energy
gap of 1.1 eV at 300 K.

1) Let an optical fiber has n1 (refractive index of core) = 1.48. Find n2 (refractive index of cladding) such that light rays incident
at an angle greater than 12° are not guided along the optical fiber system, when the outside media is air. Find the numerical
aperture for this optical fiber. How the numerical aperture would change if the outside media is water?
2) In an optical fiber, the refractive index of core material is 1.6 and that of the clad material is 1.3. Calculate the value of
acceptance angle.
 Two-Level System
Em, Nm Em, Nm

En, Nn En, Nn

Even with very a intense pump source, the best one can achieve with a
two-level system is
excited state population = ground state population

LASER is Not Possible

How can a population inversion be created
when the population in the ground state is
always greater that the population in the
excited state?
 How can a population inversion be created?
By excitation of the lasing atoms or molecules - this is called
PUMPING.

fast
Metastable state
efficient pumping

slow relaxation

slow Population
inversion

Fast relaxation

Excited population > ground state population

 Construction of LASER
Essential elements of LASER:
1. A laser medium (active medium) - a collection of atoms, molecules, solids, etc.
2. A pumping process - provides energy into the laser medium (Electrical pumping, e.g., He-Ne LASER, Optical pumping,
e.g.: Chemical pumping, e.g., HF_LASER in which molecular hydrogen and molecular fluorine react to produce.
3. Laser cavity (optical cavity) for Optical feedback - provides a mechanism for the light to interact
(possibly many times) with the laser medium
Active Medium

Partially Silvered mirror

100% Silvered mirror

With three or more levels

LASER output

Pumping Source
 Construction and Working of Ruby LASER
Active Medium: 0.05 wg.% Cr doped Al2O3
Type of Pumping: Optical Pumping using Xenon/Krypton Flash lamp
Active Medium Optical Cavity: formed using two oppositely facing plane mirrors
Cr3+ with three or more levels
Cr3+ 0.05 Wg%
Al3+ 6943 Å
LASER output
100% Silvered mirror

E3 10-8

E2 10-8

Partially Silvered mirror

5500 Å
4000 Å
10-3 E4 Most predominant
Pumping Source 6943 Å emission
Xenon or Krypton Flash Lamp 6929 Å
E1
Energy levels in Cr3+
 Construction and Working of He-Ne LASER
Active Medium Active Medium: He:Ne gas mixture in 10:1 ratio
He:Ne gas mixture in 10:1 ratio Type of Pumping: Electrical Pumping in a discharge tube
with more than three levels Optical Cavity: formed using two oppositely facing plane mirrors
He
Ne 30 cm
In 10:1 ratio 6328 Å
2-8 mm

10-4 10-7 E6
F3

Stimulated Emission
LASER output Energy 3.39 m
transfer by
collision with 10-8 E5

0.6328 m
100% Silvered mirror

He atoms
510-6 10-8 E4
F2
1.15 m
10-8 E3

Spontaneous
emission
Pumping Source:
High voltage source 10-4 E2

F1 10-8 E1
He Ne
He atoms are excited by Ne atoms are excited by
collision with electrons collision with He atoms
 Uses of Optical Fiber
Optic Fiber Cables (OFCs) mainly find applications in the following fields High Speed Small
✓ Healthcare Light Travels faster than electron Flexible
✓ Telecommunication and Broadcasting Less noise
✓ Defense
Lightweight
No disturbance from the
✓ Industries surrounding electrical signal. Cheaper
✓ Lighting and Decorations High Security
Optical communication using fibres is performed in the frequency range of No information leakage.
1 THz to 1000 THz (microwaves to ultraviolet)
n2sin(i)=n1sin(r)
sin(i)/sin(r) = n1/n2
The applications of OFCs in the above fields are given below:
If n2 > n1, “r” is always greater than “i”.
OFCs in Healthcare r will be 90 for a critical angle ic
Since it is extremely thin and flexible, it is used in various instruments to view internal body ic = sin-1(n1/n2)
during surgeries, endoscopy, microscopy and biomedical research. If you increase the “i” value above ic, then
OFCs in Telecommunication and Broadcasting n2 the ray will be completely reflected back
In telecommunications, OFCs are useful for transmitting and receiving purposes. They are useful ic i into the denser medium n2.
in transmitting high-definition television signals with greater bandwidth. Compared to the
electrical signal carried by electrons in materials, the speed and accuracy of data transmission is
high as light carries the single in OFCs. Compared to copper wires, OFCs are lighter and
cheaper, more flexible and carry more data.
r
OFCs in Defense
It offers high-level data security for signal transmissions in military and aerospace networks. n1
OFCs in Industries If a light ray travels from denser medium
OFCs are useful for imaging in concealed places and offers lighting in both interior and exterior to rarer medium with a angle of
of automobiles. incidence greater than the critical angle,
OFCs for Lightening and Decorations then the interface between denser and
It is very attractive, economical and easy way to illuminate the area using OFCs. rarer medium will completely reflect the
ray back into the denser medium. This is
OFCs in Inspection of concealed places
known as total internal reflection.
 Structure and Types of Optical Fiber
Step index fibre r > a n = n1
Structure of a cylindrical step-index optical fibre with radius “a” r < a n = n2
n1

n2
n1 Cladding

r
Axis of the fibre 2a Core
n2

Ray enters the fibre off the fibre axis and takes a helical Ray which is passing through the axis of the fibre after
path without passing through the fibre axis is Skew ray. every reflection is Meridional ray.
Graded index fibre
n1

n0

If r < a; n(r) = no 1-2(r/a)x

x=2
If r > a; n(r) = no 1-2
r
x=1
For x = 2, the variation in the
2a
refractive index profile is
parabolic
n(r) = no1-2(r/a)2
For x = N (large value) it will
become step index fibre
 Working Principle of Step Index Optical Fiber
The light ray which makes the angle less The light ray which makes the angle greater than a
than a will be accepted by the optic with the axis of optic fibre will be lost by the optic
fibre; therefore the cone formed by the fibber due to its less angle of incidence than the
angle a is called acceptance cone. loss critical value.
Ray Diagram of Light Propagation
Interface 2 n1
Interface 1
ic i2
ia
r1 n2
ic i2

r2 = 90

When i1 = ia, i2 = ic and r2 = 90 Equation (1) and (2) becomes Numerical aperture, NA measures the
For the interface 1, 1st eqn.: n0sin(ia)=n2cos(ic) & 2nd eqn.: sin(ic)=n1/n2 light collection ability of an optic fibre.
n0sin(i1)=n2sin(r1) n0sin(ia)= n21-sin2(ic) ∵ cos2(ic) = 1-sin2(ic) It is independent of geometry (diameter)
since r1 = 90-i2 n0sin(ia)= n21-n12/n22 of the fibre.
n0sin(i1)=n2cos(i2) -----(1) If n0 = 1, For very small diameter of the fibre, this
For the interface 2, sin(ia)= n21-n12/n22 If relative refractive index derivation does not hold as there will be
n2sin(i2)=n1sin(r2) NA = sin(ia)= n22-n12 = (n2-n1)(n2+n1) difference, a interference effects. Due to this, only
Therefore, If n1n2, NA = =  (2n2)(n2-n1)  = (n22-n12)/2n22 waves with discrete characteristics will
sin(i2)=n1/n2sin(r2) ------(2) NA = n2 2 If n1n2, be supported by the fibre.
 = (n2-n1)/n2
 Challenges in Optical Fiber Networks
Disadvantages of Optical Fibers:

1. Fragile: Since it is made up of simple polymers, it is more fragile and vulnerable to damage than copper wires.
2. Not bendable: Optical fiber cannot be twisted or bent too tightly.
3. Skilled man-power for operation: As optical fiber is more vulnerable to damage, trained men can only couple
the faulty joints.
4. Costly Read Devices: Costly devices are required to read the light signals.