Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific

Research
Erbil Polytechnic University
Shaqlawa Technical Institute
Department Medical Laboratory Technology

Report About

( Endocrine System )

Prepared By : Supervised By :

Muhammad Bakr T . Azhin Sabr

15/6/2020
Contents

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Introduction of Endocrine System

Our body cells have dynamic adventures on microscopic levels all the time. For instance, when
insulin molecules, carried passively along in the blood leave the blood and bind tightly to protein
receptors of nearby cells, the response it dramatic: blood borne glucose molecules begin to
disappear into the cells, and cellular activity accelerates.

Functions of the Endocrine System

Despite the huge variety of hormones, there are really only two mechanisms by which hormones
trigger changes in cells.

1. Water equilibrium. The endocrine system controls water equilibrium by regulating the
solute concentration of the blood.

2. Growth, metabolism, and tissue maturation. The endocrine system controls the growth of
many tissues, like the bone and muscle, and the degree of metabolism of various tissues,
which aids in the maintenance of the normal body temperature and normal mental functions.
Maturation of tissues, which appears in the development of adult features and adult
behavior, are also determined by the endocrine system.

3. Heart rate and blood pressure management. The endocrine system assists in managing
the heart rate and blood pressure and aids in preparing the body for physical motion.

4. Immune system control. The endocrine system helps regulate the production and functions
of immune cells.

5. Reproductive function controls. The endocrine system regulates the development and the
functions of the reproductive systems in males and females.

6. Uterine contractions and milk release. The endocrine system controls uterine contractions
throughout the delivery of the newborn and stimulates milk release from the breasts in
lactating females.

7. Ion management. The endocrine system regulates Na+, K+, and Ca2+ concentrations in the
blood.

8. Blood glucose regulator. The endocrine system controls blood glucose levels and other
nutrient levels in the blood.

9. Direct gene activation. Being lipid-soluble molecules, the steroid hormones can diffuse
through plasma membranes of their target cells; once inside, the steroid hormone enters the
nucleus and binds to a specific receptor protein there; then, the hormone-receptor complex

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 binds to specific sites on the cell’s DNA, activating certain genes to transcribe messenger
RNA; the mRNA then is translated in the cytoplasm, resulting in the synthesis of new
proteins.

10. Second messenger system. Water-soluble, nonsteroidal hormones-protein, and peptide

hormones- are unable to enter the target cells, so instead, they bind to receptors situated on
the target cell’s plasma membrane and utilize a second messenger system

Anatomy of the Endocrine System

Compared to other organs of the body, the organs of the endocrine system are small and
unimpressive, however, functionally the endocrine organs are very impressive, and when their role
in maintaining body homeostasis is considered, they are true giants.

Hypothalamus

The major endocrine organs of the body include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal
and thymus glands, the pancreas, and the gonads.

 Hypothalamus. The hypothalamus, which is part of the nervous system, is also considered
as a major endocrine organ because it produces several hormones. It is an important
autonomic nervous system and endocrine control center of the brain located inferior to the
thalamus.

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  Mixed functions. Although the function of some hormone-producing glands is purely
endocrine, the function of others (pancreas and gonads) is mixed- both endocrine and
exocrine.

Pituitary Gland

The pituitary gland is approximately the size of a pea.

 Location. The pituitary gland hangs by a stalk from the inferior surface of the hypothalamus
of the brain, where it is snugly surrounded by the “Turk’s saddle” of the sphenoid bone.

 Lobes. It has two functional lobes- the anterior pituitary (glandular tissue) and the posterior
pituitary (nervous tissue).

Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

There are several hormones of the anterior pituitary hormones that affect many body organs.

 Growth hormone (GH). Growth hormone is a general metabolic hormone, however, its
major effects are directed to the growth of skeletal muscles and long bones of the body; it is
a protein-sparing and anabolic hormone that causes amino acids to be built into proteins and
stimulates most target cells to grow in size and divide.

 Prolactin (PRL). Prolactin is a protein hormone structurally similar to growth hormone; its
only known target in humans is the breast because, after childbirth, it stimulates and
maintains milk production by the mother’s breast.

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  Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH regulates the endocrine activity of the
cortex portion of the adrenal gland.

 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH, also called thyrotropin hormone influences

the growth and activity of the thyroid gland.

 Gonadotropic hormones. The gonadotropic hormones regulate the hormonal activity of

gonads (ovaries and testes).

 Follicles-stimulating hormone (FSH). FSH stimulates follicle development in the ovaries;

as the follicles mature, they produce estrogen and eggs that are readied for ovulation; in
men, FSH stimulates sperm development by the testes.

 Luteinizing hormone (LH). LH triggers ovulation of an egg from the ovary and causes the
ruptured follicle to produce progesterone and some estrogen; in men, LH stimulates
testosterone production by the interstitial cells of the testes.

Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary

The posterior pituitary is not an endocrine gland in the strict sense because it does not make the
peptide hormones it releases, but it simply acts as a storage area for hormones made by
hypothalamic neurons.

 Oxytocin. Oxytocin is released in significant amount only during childbirth and in nursing
women; it stimulates powerful contractions of the uterine muscle during labor, during sexual
relations, and during breastfeeding and also causes milk ejection (let-down reflex) in a
nursing woman.

 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH causes the kidneys to reabsorb more water from the
forming of urine; as a result, urine volume decreases and blood volume increases; in larger
amounts, ADH also increases blood pressure by causing constriction of the arterioles, so it is
sometimes referred to as vasopressin.

Thyroid Gland
The thyroid gland is a hormone-producing gland that is familiar to most people
primarily because many obese individuals blame their overweight condition on
their “glands” (thyroid).

 Location. The thyroid gland is located at the base of the throat, just inferior to the Adam’s
apple, where it is easily palpated during a physical examination.

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  Lobes. It is a fairly large gland consisting of two lobes joined by a central mass, or isthmus.

 Composition. Internally, the thyroid gland is composed of hollow structures called follicles,
which store a sticky colloidal material.

 Types of thyroid hormones. Thyroid hormone often referred to as the body’s major
metabolic hormone, is actually two active, iodine-containing hormones, thyroxine or T4,
and triiodothyronine or T3.

 Thyroxine. Thyroxine is the major hormone secreted by the thyroid follicles.

 Triiodothyronine. Most triiodothyronine is formed at the target tissues by conversion of the

thyroxine to triiodothyronine.

 Function. Thyroid hormone controls the rate at which glucose is “burned” oxidized, and
converted to body heat and chemical energy; it is also important for normal tissue growth
and development.

 Calcitonin. Calcitonin decreases blood calcium levels by causing calcium to be deposited in

the bones; calcitonin is made by the so-called parafollicular cells found in the connective
tissues between the follicles.

Parathyroid Glands
The parathyroid glands are mostly tiny masses of glandular tissue.

 Location. The parathyroid glands are located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland.

 Parathormone. The parathyroids secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) or parathormone,

which is the most important regulator of calcium ion homeostasis of the blood; PTH is
a hypercalcemic hormone (that is, it acts to increase blood levels of calcium), whereas
calcitonin is a hypocalcemic hormone.; PTH also stimulates the kidneys and intestines to
absorb more calcium.

Adrenal Glands
Although the adrenal gland looks like a single organ, it is structurally and
functionally two endocrine organs in one.

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Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
The adrenal cortex produces three major groups of steroid hormones, which are collectively
called corticosteroids– mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and sex hormones.

 Mineralocorticoids. The mineralocorticoids, primarily aldosterone, are produced by the

outermost adrenal cortex cell layer; mineralocorticoids are important in regulating the
mineral (or salt) content of the blood, particularly the concentrations of sodium
and potassium ions and they also help in regulating the water and electrolyte balance in the
body.

 Renin. Renin, am enzyme produced by the kidneys when the blood pressure drops, also
cause the release of aldosterone by triggering a series of reactions that form angiotensin II,
a potent stimulator of aldosterone release.

 Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP). ANP prevents aldosterone release, its goal being to
reduce blood volume and blood pressure.

 Glucocorticoids. The middle cortical layer mainly produces glucocorticoids, which

include cortisone and cortisol; glucocorticoids promote normal cell metabolism and help
the body to resist long-term stressors, primarily by increasing blood glucose levels, thus it is
said to be a hyperglycemic hormone; it also reduce pain and inflammation by inhibiting
some pain-causing molecules called prostaglandins.

 Sex hormones. Both male and female sex hormones are produced by the adrenal cortex
throughout life in relatively small amounts; although the bulk of sex hormones produced by
the innermost cortex layer are androgens (male sex hormones), some estrogens (female sex
hormones), are also formed.

Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla

The adrenal medulla, like the posterior pituitary, develops from a knot of nervous tissue.

 Catecholamines. When the medulla is stimulated by sympathetic nervous system neurons,

its cells release two similar hormones, epinephrine, also called adrenaline,
and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), into the bloodstream; collectively, these hormones
are referred to as catecholamines.

 Function. Basically, the Catecholamines increase heart rate, blood pressure, and blood
glucose levels and dilate the small passageways of the lungs; the catecholamines of the

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 adrenal medulla prepare the body to cope with a brief or short-term stressful situation and
cause the so-called alarm stage of the stress response.

Pineal Gland
The pineal gland, also called the pineal body, is a small cone-shaped gland.

 Location. The pineal gland hangs from the roof of the third ventricle of the brain.

 Melatonin. Melatonin is the only hormone that appears to be secreted in substantial

amounts by the pineal gland; the levels of melatonin rise and fall during the course of the
day and night; peak levels occur at night and make us drowsy as melatonin is believed to
be the “sleep trigger” that plays an important role in establishing the body’s day-night
cycle.

The Chemistry of Hormones

The key to the incredible power of the endocrine glands is the hormones they produce and secrete.

 Hormones. Hormones may be defined as chemical substances that are secreted by

endocrine cells into the extracellular fluids and regulate the metabolic activity of other cells
in the body.
 Classification. Although many different hormones are produced, nearly all of them can be
classified chemically as either amino acid-based molecules (including proteins, peptides,
and amines) or steroids.
 Steroid hormones. Steroid hormones (made from cholesterol) include the sex hormones
made by the gonads and hormones produced by the adrenal cortex.
 Amino acid-based hormones. All the others are nonsteroidal amino acid derivatives.

Mechanisms of Hormone Action

Although the blood-borne hormones circulate to all the organs of the body, a given hormone affects
only certain tissue cells or organs.

 Target cells. For a target cell to respond to the hormone, specific protein receptors must be
present on its plasma membrane or in its interior to which that hormone can attach; only
when this binding occurs can the hormone influence the workings of cells.

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  Function of hormones. The hormones bring about their effects on, the body cells primarily
by altering cellular activity- that is, by increasing or decreasing the rate of a normal, or
usual, metabolic process rather than stimulating a new one.
 Changes in hormone binding. The precise changes that follow hormone binding depend on
the specific hormone and the target cell type, but typically one or more of the following
occurs:

1. Changes in plasma membrane permeability or electrical state.

2. Synthesis of protein or certain regulatory molecules (such as enzymes) in the cell.’
3. Activation or inactivation of enzymes.
4. Stimulation of mitosis.
5. Promotion of secretory activity.

Control of Hormone Release

What prompts the endocrine glands to release or not release their hormones?

 Negative feedback mechanisms. Negative feedback mechanisms are the chief means of
regulating blood levels of nearly all hormones.
 Endocrine gland stimuli. The stimuli that activate the endocrine organs fall into three
major categories- hormonal, humoral, and neural.
 Hormonal stimuli. The most common stimulus is a hormonal stimulus, in which the
endocrine organs are prodded into action by other hormones; for example, hypothalamic
hormones stimulate the anterior pituitary gland to secrete its hormones, and many anterior
pituitary hormones stimulate other endocrine organs to release their hormones into the
blood.
 Humoral stimuli. Changing blood levels of certain ions and nutrients may also stimulate
hormone release, and this is referred to as humoral stimuli; for example, the release of
parathyroid hormone (PTH) by cells of the parathyroid glands is prompted by decreasing
blood calcium levels.
 Neural stimuli. In isolated cases, nerve fibers stimulate hormone release, and the target
cells are said to respond to neural stimuli; a classic example is sympathetic nervous system
stimulation of the adrenal medulla to release norepinephrine and epinephrine during periods
of stress.

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Summary

The neuroendocrine system is a highly complex and tightly controlled network of hormones
released by endocrine glands throughout the body. The levels of some of the hormones are
regulated in a fairly straightforward manner by the end products that they influence. Thus, blood
sugar levels primarily regulate insulin and glucagon release by the pancreas. Other hormones (e.g.,
those of the HPA, HPG, and HPT axes) are parts of hormone cascades whose activities are
controlled through elaborate feedback mechanisms. In addition, numerous indirect interactions exist
between the various hormone systems governing body functioning. For example, hormones such as
GH and thyroid hormone, through their effects on cellular metabolism, may modify blood sugar
levels and, accordingly, insulin release. Similarly, alcohol’s effects on one hormone system may
have indirect consequences for other systems, thereby contributing to alcohol’s influences on the
functioning of virtually every organ in the body. It is important to keep this interconnectedness of
neuroendocrine systems in mind when analyzing alcohol’s impact on various hormones, which are
described in the remaining articles in this issue.

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References

1- CONSTANTI, A.; BARTKE, A.; AND KHARDORI, R. Basic Endocrinology for

Students of Pharmacy and Allied Clinical Health Sciences. Amsterdam: Harwood
Academic Publishers, 1998.
2- EMANUELE, N., AND EMANUELE, M.A. The endocrine system: Alcohol alters
critical hormonal balance. Alcohol Health & Research World 21(1):53–64, 1997
3- PUROHIT, V. Moderate alcohol consumption and estrogen levels in postmenopausal
women: A review. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 22(5):994–997,
1998.
4- VELDMAN, R.G., AND MEINDERS, A.E. On the mechanism of alcohol-induced
pseudo-Cushing’s syndrome. Endocrine Reviews 17:262–268, 1996.
5- WILSON, J.D.; FOSTER, D.W.; KRONENBERG, H.M.; AND LARSEN, P.R.,
EDS. Williams Textbook of Endocrinology. 9th ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders,
1998
6- https://nurseslabs.com/endocrine-system/#placenta

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