ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

An endocrine system is a group of ductless glands where the

secretory cells diffuse the hormones directly into the
bloodstream.

 The glands of the endocrine system are termed

endocrine glands and are defined by the lack of ducts for
the passage of their secretions.

 The endocrine system is considered to work together in

coordination with the nervous system. However, the
responses of the endocrine system are often slower, and
the influence is much broader.

 The endocrine system also depends on the

cardiovascular system for the distribution of their
products. As a result, the endocrine glands are some of
the most vascular tissues in the body.

The hormones secreted by endocrine glands are

 effective in very small amounts; thus, the circulating
levels of these hormones are typically low.

The endocrine system also contains cells and tissues that

are not exclusively classified as endocrine glands but
contain cells that can secrete hormones.

Some of such cells and tissues are the hypothalamus,

thymus, pancreas, skin, heart, and adipose tissues.

The study of the structure and function of the endocrine

glands and the cells, along with the diagnosis and
treatment of disorders involving the endocrine system, is
termed endocrinology.

Unlike most other systems in the body, the glands of the

endocrine system are not grouped together and remain
scattered throughout the body.

Hormones
Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted directly into the blood, which
carries them to organs and tissues of the body to exert their functions. There are many
types of hormones that act on different aspects of bodily functions and processes.
Some of these include:

 Development and growth

 Metabolism of food items
 Sexual function and reproductive growth and health
 Cognitive function and mood
 Maintenance of body temperature and thirst

Functions of Endocrine System

The following are some of the functions of the endocrine

system

1. The most important function of the endocrine system is

to maintain the homeostasis of the body in order to
ensure that the biochemical processes of different
organs operate in a stable setting.

2. The hormones of the endocrine system are responsible

for balancing the growth and differentiation of the body
 cells in order to enable the development of the
individual.

3. The endocrine system also enhances the ability of the

body to respond to different stressful internal and
external factors.

4. Since the endocrine system consists of the reproductive

organs of the body, these are essential for the
development of reproductive behavior in individuals.

5. The endocrine system also performs different integrative

functions of balancing the functions of different
systems.

6. Endocrine glands like the thyroid gland are essential for

the proper working of different metabolic processes.

7. The endocrine system remains in a close association

with the nervous system and thus helps in maintaining a
balanced relationship.
Homeostasis of the internal environment is maintained partly
by the autonomic nervous system and partly by the
endocrine system.

The autonomic nervous system is concerned with rapid

changes, while endocrine control is mainly involved in
slower and more precise adjustments.

Although the hypothalamus is classified as a part of the brain

rather than an endocrine gland, it controls the pituitary gland
and has an indirect effect on many others.

The ovaries and the testes secrete hormones associated with

the reproductive system after puberty.

The placenta that develops to nourish the developing fetus

during pregnancy also has an endocrine function.

GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

i. Maintain homeostasis
ii. Control chemical and water balance in body
iii. Control growth and metabolism
iv. Control embryonic development and preparation for
nursuring a newborn Influence sexual behavior,
stimulate growth and maturation of the genitalia
v. Feedback to the nervous system
vi. Regulating red cell production
vii. Inducing adaptive changes to stress

INTER-RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
ENDOCRINE AND NERVOUS SYSTEM

• The nervous system controls homeostasis through

nerve impulses that trigger the release of
neurotransmitters whose effect results in either
excitation or inhibition of other neurons, muscle fibres,
or glands.
• The endocrine system releases hormones into blood
stream that travels to the target organ where it alters the
physiological activity.
• In nervous system, a sensory receptor senses the
change and sends action potentials by its afferent
sensory neuron to the integration center in the brain or
spinal cord. The efferent path is the motor neuron that
takes action potentials to the effectors (muscle or
glands) for the response of contraction or secretion.
• In the endocrine system, the gland/ the cells may
act as the receptors and the integration centres which are
often influenced by neural and other inputs. The
response is either to change the rate of an enzymatic
reaction, to control the transport of certain molecules
across cell membranes, or to control gene expression
 and thus make new proteins.

Nervous system Endocrine system

Nervous system regulates Endocrine System regulates the
the activities of muscles and body’s metabolic activity via
glands via electrical impulses hormones that are transported in
transported through neurons the blood
Reflexes of the nervous Hormones can control multiple
system are more specific organs and systems
because nerves

regulate specific target cells

Nervous system uses both Endocrine system uses only
electrical (action potentials) chemical signals (hormones)
and chemical
(neurotransmitters) signals
Neural control is fast; its Hormonal control is
effects are short-lived comparatively slower; generally its
effects are prolonged
Stimulus intensity in the Stimulus intensity in the endocrine
nervous system is system is determined by the
represented by the frequency amount and duration of
and amplitude of action hormone(s) released.
potentials.

GLANDS AND HORMONES OF THE ENDOCRINE

SYSTEM

The endocrine system consists of the following glands;

A. Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland

The hypothalamus is a small organ situated in the bran

below the thalamus, which controls the secretion of the
pituitary gland.
 The hypothalamus is attached to the pituitary gland by a
small stalk called the infundibulum, and it is considered
the connecting link between the endocrine system and
the nervous system.

 The cells of the hypothalamus alone secrete about nine

different hormones, out of which seven hormones are
involved in the regulation of the pituitary gland.

 The hormones produced in the hypothalamus are termed

inhibiting or releasing hormones.

 The pituitary gland is a small pea-shaped organ

measuring about 1-1.5 cm in diameter, which occurs in
the hypophyseal fossa of the sphenoid bone in the skull.

 The pituitary gland can be differentiated into two

anatomically and functionally separate parts; anterior
pituitary and posterior pituitary.

 The anterior pituitary, also called adenohypophysis, is

composed of epithelial cells and accounts for about 70%
 of the total pituitary gland.

 The anterior pituitary is supplied with a portal system

that ensures the circulation of hormones produced by the
gland.

 The secretion of the anterior pituitary is influenced by

the releasing hormone produced by the hypothalamus.

 The posterior pituitary is composed of neural tissue,

which is triggered by an action potential that originates
in the cell body of the hypothalamus.

 The hormones of the posterior pituitary are synthesized

in the nerve cell bodies and are transported along the
axons to be stored in the axon terminals. The nerve
stimuli from the hypothalamus regulate exocytosis of
the vesicles to release the hormones into the
bloodstream.

 The overall secretion of hormones by the pituitary is

regulated by a negative feedback mechanism.
Hormones of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland

1. Growth Hormone

 Growth hormone is the most abundant hormone secreted

by the anterior pituitary that stimulates the growth of
body cells.

 The hormones stimulate the division of all body cells,

but the bone and skeletal muscles are the most easily
influenced.
  The release of growth hormone by the anterior pituitary
is influenced by the growth hormone-releasing hormone
and growth hormone-inhibiting hormone secreted by the
hypothalamus.

 Growth hormone also affects the metabolism of certain

organs in the body like the liver, heart, and kidneys.

2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone

 The thyroid-stimulating hormone stimulates the growth

and activity of thyroid hormone, which itself is
stimulated by the thyrotrophin releasing hormone from
the hypothalamus.

 Thyroid-stimulating hormone is responsible for the

regulation of the secretion of thyroid hormones,
thyroxine (T4) and tri-iodothyronine (T3).

3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone

 The synthesis and release of adrenocorticotrophic

hormone (ACTH) are regulated by the corticotrophin-
 releasing hormone from the hypothalamus.

 This hormone influences the adrenal cortex, which

releases steroid hormones like cortisol.

 The level of ACTH is the highest at 8 am, which then

falls to the lowest at about 6 pm.

4. Prolactin

 Prolactin is a hormone secreted during pregnancy that

stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk.

 The production of prolactin is stimulated by prolactin-

releasing hormone and inhibited by the prolactin
inhibiting hormone, both produced by the
hypothalamus.

 Besides, the sucking on the mammary gland post-

childbirth also influences the levels of prolactin.

5. Gonadotrophin

 Gonadotrophins or sex hormones are released just

before puberty in response to the luteinizing hormone-
 releasing hormone, also called gonadotrophin-releasing
hormone.

 The appropriate levels of these hormones are essential at

puberty to promote the mature functioning of the
reproductive organs.

 The sex hormones in males and females that are

involved in the proper functioning of the reproductive
system are follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing
hormone.

6. Oxytocin

 Oxytocin is released by the pituitary during childbirth as

these affect the uterine smooth muscles and the muscles
of the lactating breasts.

 Oxytocin is released by the posterior pituitary during

childbirth to stimulate the sensory stretch receptors of
the uterine cervix.

 Similarly, the suckling also generates a sensory impulse

 that influences the release of oxytocin which then
triggers the contraction of milk ducts and ejection of
milk.

7. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

 Antidiuretic hormone or vasopressin is released by the

posterior pituitary and is involved in the regulation of
urine output.

 Vasopressin affects the permeability of the distal

convoluted tubules and collecting tubules in the kidney.

 The release of ADH is regulated by the osmotic pressure

of the blood circulating and the osmoreceptors in the
hypothalamus.

Hypothalamic and Anterior Pituitary Hormones

B. Thyroid Gland

 The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped bilobed gland

that occurs on either side of the trachea.

 The two lobes of the gland are connected by a narrow

 piece of tissue called the isthmus.

 The two lobes of the gland function as a unit and

produce two different types of hormones. The gland
itself is made up of numerous microscopic spherical
follicles surrounded by capillaries.

 The follicles are composed of epithelial cells that secrete

the hormones into the lumen. The hormones are
synthesized in the form of large precursor molecules
called thyroglobulin.

 The thyroid gland is the only endocrine gland that can

store large quantities of its secretory products, lasting up
to 100 days.

THYROID GLAND

Hormones of the Thyroid Gland

a. Thyroxine and Tri-iodothyronine

 Thyroxine and tri-iodothyronine are the two hormones

 secreted by the thyroid hormone in response to the
thyroid-stimulating hormone secreted by the pituitary
gland.

 The hormones are named T3 and T4 to indicate the

number of iodine atoms present in the molecule.

 Thyroid hormones increase the basal metabolic rate

(BMR), which regulates the level of oxygen
consumption under standard conditions.

 These are also involved in the proper functioning of the

sodium-potassium pumps that are essential for the
electrolyte balance in the body.

 The thyroid gland and thyroid hormones contain most of

the iodine occurring in the body. The hormones are
lipid-soluble and thus diffuse through the plasma
membrane into the interstitial fluid and then to the
blood.

PARATHYROID GLAND
  Parathyroid glands occur as four small glands embedded
in the posterior side of either lobe of the thyroid gland.

 All four glands function as a unit producing parathyroid

hormone (PTH) that targets the cells of the bones and
kidneys.

 The primary function of the hormone is to regulate the

levels of calcium, magnesium, and phosphates in the
blood.

 The glands are surrounded by fine connective tissue

capsules consisting of spherical cells arranged in
columns.

 The endocrine cells of the parathyroid glands are termed

principal or chief cells that are polygonal with round
nuclei and acidophilic cytoplasm.

Hormones of the Parathyroid Gland

a. Parathyroid Hormone

 Parathyroid hormone is responsible for the regulation of

 blood calcium levels, which influences the absorption of
calcium from the digestive system.

 Parathormone and calcitonin serve as complementary

hormones in order to maintain the appropriate blood
calcium level in the body.

 The maintenance of the calcium levels in the body is

important as it the major constituent of structures like
teeth and bones.

ADRENAL GLAND

 Adrenal glands occur at the upper surface of each

kidney which can be further divided into two distinct
parts with different structures and functions.

 The glands occur as flattened structures with a crescent

moon shape, and the size varies with the age and
physiological condition of the person.

 The two parts of the glands occur in concentric regions;

adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex.
 The cortex and medulla of the adrenal glands are
generally considered two different glands as these have
different embryonic origins, functions, and
morphological features.

 The adrenal cortex originates from the mesoderm,

whereas the medulla originates from the neural crest.

 The adrenal cortex is further divided into three distinct

zones, each of which secretes different hormones.

 The zona glomerulosa secretes mineralocorticoids, the

zona fasciculata secretes glucocorticoids and the zona
reticularis secretes androgens.

 The adrenal medulla occurs towards the center of the

gland that consists of hormone-secreting chromaffin
cells.

 The two important hormones secreted by the adrenal

medulla are epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Hormones of the Adrenal Glands

1. Mineralocorticoids

 The primary mineralocorticoid is aldosterone which is

involved in maintaining water and electrolyte balance in
the body.

 The steroid hormone stimulates the reabsorption of

sodium and excretion of potassium in the kidneys via a
negative feedback mechanism.

 The secretion of aldosterone by the glands is regulated

by the blood potassium level.

2. Glucocorticoids

 Cortisol is the primary glucocorticoid secreted by the

adrenal cortex, but small amounts of corticosterone and
cortisone can also be produced.

 The secretion of the hormone is regulated by the

hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary.

 Glucocorticoids have different metabolic effects that are

 primarily concerned with the catabolism of
biomolecules like proteins and fats.

3. Androgens

 Androgens are also secreted by the adrenal cortex in

males, but the concentration of those androgens is so
low that their effects are almost insignificant.

 In females, however, androgens are responsible for sex

drive and can also be converted into estrogens by other
tissues.

 Adrenal androgens stimulate the growth of auxiliary and

pubic hair in males and females.

 The exact mechanism of regulation of androgen

secretion is not yet understood, but it has been assumed
that ACTH secretion is the principal drive.

4. Epinephrine or Adrenaline and Norepinephrine or

Noradrenaline

 Adrenaline or epinephrine has a significant effect on the

 functioning of the heart and other metabolic processes.

 Norepinephrine is a postganglionic neurotransmitter of

the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous
system, which is then released into the blood.

 The primary function of these hormones is to regulate

the sympathetic nervous system.

 In some cases, norepinephrine is converted into

epinephrine within the chromaffin cells of the adrenal
medulla.

PANCREAS

 The endocrine part of the pancreas is the clusters of

cells, called pancreatic islets or Islet of Langerhans.

 These occur in the form of a cluster of cells scattered

throughout the gland. The hormones produced by the
cells are released directly into the bloodstream.

 The pancreatic islets consist of three different types of

cells; α cells, β cells, and δ cells. The three different
 cells secrete three distinct hormones. A minor fourth
type of cell also occurs in the pancreas called the PP
cells.

 A pancreas has more than 1 million islets, most of

which are concentrated in the tail region of the gland.

 The origin of pancreatic islets is the same as pancreatic

acinar tissues, the epithelial outgrowth from the
endoderm. The activity of these islets is regulated by the
blood glucose level.

Pancreas and Islet of Langerhans

Hormones of the Pancreatic Islets

1. Insulin

 Insulin is produced by the β cells, which are the most

abundant cells of the gland. Insulin is a polypeptide that
functions to lower the blood glucose level.

 Even though insulin is often associated with glucose

levels in the blood, it also monitors the levels of amino
 acids and fatty acids.

 The secretion of insulin is regulated by the blood

glucose level and some degree of parasympathetic
stimulation.

2. Glucagon

 Glucagon is produced by the α cells, which are involved

in increasing the blood glucose by different metabolic
pathways.

 The release of glucagon is stimulated by low blood

glucose levels and decreased insulin levels.

PINEAL GLAND

 The pineal gland is the small gland present at the roof of

the third ventricle attached to the surface by a short stalk
composed of nerves.

 The gland develops from the embryonic neuroectoderm

and consists of modified neurons called pinealocytes.

Hormones of the Pineal Gland

Melatonin

 Melatonin is the primary hormone secreted by the pineal

gland, which is regulated by daylight and darkness.

 The level of melatonin is highest at midnight, which

decreases to its lowest around midday.

 Melatonin works to coordinate the circadian and diurnal

rhythms by influencing the hypothalamus.

 It is also involved in the inhibition of the growth and

development of sex organs by affecting the synthesis of
gonadotropins.

THYMUS

 The thymus is a lymphoid organ that is present in the

crest between the lungs and is involved in the synthesis
of white blood cells.

 The thymus gland is only active until puberty, after

which it begins to slowly shrink in size and is eventually
replaced with fat.
  The thymus is a part of the immune system, and the
normal functioning of the gland is thus essential to
protect the body against autoimmunity.

 Before puberty, the thymus gland is significant in the

production of T lymphocytes that protect the body
against different antigens.

Thymus

Hormone of the Thymus Gland

Thymosin

 Thymosin is the most important hormone produced by

the thymus gland, which influences the immune
response as well as stimulates the secretion of the
pituitary gland.

 The hormone is also involved in the process of

activation and differentiation of T cells into different
types.
GONADS

 Gonads are the endocrine glands that secrete steroid sex

hormones like the ones secreted by the adrenal cortex.

 The male gonads are the testes, whereas the female

gonads are the ovaries.

 The ovaries occur in pairs and are located in the

abdominal cavity of females. In addition to the
formation of the female gamete, ovaries also produce
different hormones, primarily estrogens, and
progesterone.

 In males, testes occur in an extra-abdominal skin pouch

called the scrotum which, in addition to the sperms,
produce different male sex hormones.

 The hormones produced by the male and female gonads

are the same as those produced by the adrenal cortex;
however, the concentration of the hormones is usually
higher in the case of these gonads.
Hormones of the Gonads

1. Estrogen

 Estrogen is produced by the cells in the ovaries, which

are essential for the maturation of the reproductive
organs and the appearance of secondary sex characters
in the females at puberty.

 Estrogens are analogous to male steroid testosterone.

The level of estrogen in the body increases during
puberty in order to promote oogenesis and follicle
growth.

 The activity of estrogen results in the proper functioning

of different reproductive parts like the uterine tubes,
uterus, and vagina.

2. Progesterone

 Progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum during

the menstrual cycle, which regulates the cycles and
activates changes in the cervical mucosa.
  Most of the effects of the hormone are observed during
pregnancy as it inhibits uterine mobility. The level of
progesterone increases more than that of estrogen during
pregnancy.

3. Testosterone

 Testosterone is produced by the testes, which stimulates

the maturation of sex organs, their development, and the
appearance of secondary sex characters.

 The release of testosterone is maintained by the release

of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone produced by the
hypothalamus.
Diseases and Disorders of Endocrine System

Disorders in the endocrine system occur as a result of

hypersecretion or hyposecretion of the hormones.

A. Diseases and Disorders of the pituitary gland

Hypersecretion

 The hypersecretion of the anterior pituitary hormones

can result in gigantism and acromegaly.

 These conditions are the result of over secretion of the

growth hormone-releasing hormone by the
hypothalamus.

 Gigantism can be observed in the form of large bones

and increased height. Acromegaly is characterized by
large extremities as a result of the thickening of the
bones and soft tissues.

Hyposecretion

 The hyposecretion of the pituitary gland can result in a

number of disorders like ischaemic necrosis, dwarfism,
 and Frohlich’s syndrome.

 Ischaemic necrosis is characterized by the deficient

stimulation of target glands and hyposecretion of all the
glands controlled by the pituitary gland.

 Dwarfism is a commonly understood disorder as a result

of the deficiency of the growth hormone in childhood.

 The hyposecretion of the ADH can result in a rare

condition called diabetes insipidus, characterized by the
loss of reabsorption of water by the renal tubules in the
kidney.

B. Diseases and disorders of the thyroid gland

Hypersecretion

 The hypersecretion of thyroid hormone is called

hyperthyroidism as a result of increased levels of T3 and
T4.

 Hyperthyroidism can result in a group of diseases like

Grave’s disease and toxic nodular goiter.
  Grave’s disease accounts for about 75% of the total
cases of hyperthyroidism. It is an autoimmune condition
where antibodies function as the thyroid-stimulating
hormone.

 In the toxic nodular goiter, one or more nodules of the

gland are affected by the goiter and become activated to
secrete T3 and T4.

Hyposecretion

 Hyposecretion of thyroid hormone is called

hypothyroidism which is often observed in the form of a
simple goiter.

 Simple goiter can be detected by the enlargement of the

thyroid gland due to the lack of T4 and T3 hormones.

 It also affects different metabolic processes in the body

and might require surgical removal of the excess thyroid
tissue.

C. Diseases and disorders of the adrenal gland

Hypersecretion

 The hypersecretion of the cortisol by the adrenal cortex

results in Cushing’s syndrome characterized by
excessive tissue breakdown, adiposity of the face,
diminished protein synthesis and osteoporosis.

 Similarly, the hypersecretion of mineralocorticoids like

aldosterone affects kidney functions, resulting in
excessive reabsorption of ions and water.

Hyposecretion

 The hyposecretion of glucocorticoids results in reduced

gluconeogenesis, low blood glucose levels, and muscle
weakness.

 The hyposecretion of the mineralocorticoids affects the

function of the kidney and causes blood sodium
deficiency and potassium excess.

D. Diseases and disorders of the parathyroid gland

Hypersecretion
  The hypersecretion of parathyroid hormone results in
increased blood calcium levels and is often caused as a
result of a benign parathyroid tumor.

 The effects of hyperparathyroidism include muscle

weakness, anorexia, constipation, and formation of renal
calculi.

Hyposecretion

 The hyposecretion of parathormone causes

hypocalcemia but is much rarer than
hyperparathyroidism.

 It is often observed in the form of tetany, anxiety, or

paraesthesia. Tetany results in a painful spasm of the
skeletal muscles in the form of bending inwards of the
hands, arms and feet.

E. Diseases and disorders of the pancreatic islets

Diabetes Mellitus

 Diabetes mellitus is the most common endocrine

 disorder that often leads to a varying degree of variation
of carbohydrate and fat metabolism.

 Diabetes mellitus is caused by the complete absence or

deficiency of insulin which affects glucose metabolism.

 Diabetes mellitus is of two types; Type 1 diabetes

mellitus and Type 2 diabetes mellitus.

 Type 1 diabetes mellitus occurs in children and can be

life-threatening if the onset is sudden.

 Type 2 diabetes mellitus is the more common form of

the disorder accounting for about 90% of the total cases.

 The onset of Type 2 diabetes mellitus is usually gradual

and can go undetected for a long period of time.