Dilranjan Kaur, Nursing Tutor 1

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM, Bsc Nursing 1st year

By- Dilranjan Kaur, Nusing Tutor

INTRODUCTION

The nervous and endocrine systems together coordinate functions of all body systems. The
nervous system control through nerve impulses conducted along axons of neurons. At
synapses, nerve impulses trigger the release of mediator (messenger) molecules called
neurotransmitters. In contrast, the endocrine system releases regulating molecules called
hormones (hormon-to excite or get moving) into interstitial fluid and then the bloodstream.
The circulating blood deliversthe hormones to virtually all the cells of the body; cells that
recognize a particular hormone then respond. The science that deals with the structure and
function of the endocrine glands and the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the
endocrine system is endocrinology (endo--within; crino-to secrete; logy- study of ).

The nervous and endocrine systems are coordinated as an interlocking super system called
the neuroendocrine system. Certain parts of the nervous system stimulate or inhibit the
release of hormones, which in turn may promote or inhibit the generation of nerve
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impulses. The nervous system causes muscles to contract and glands to secrete either more
or less of their product. The endocrine system not only helps regulate the activity of smooth
muscle,cardiac muscle, and some glands, it affects virtually all other tissues as well.
Hormones alter metabolism, regulate growth and development, and influence reproductive
processes. The nervous and endocrine systems respond to stimuli at different rates. Nerve
impulses most often produce an effect within a few milliseconds; some hormones can act
within seconds, but others can take several hours or more to cause a response. The effects
of nervous system activation are generally more brief than the effects produced by the
endocrine system. Finally, the nervous system produces more localized responses, in
contrast to the more widespread effects of the endocrine system.

Types of glands

Body contains two kinds of glands:

exocrine glands endocrine glands

1. Exocrine glands (exo-- outside) secrete their products (sweat, oil, mucus, and
digestive juices) into ducts that carry the secretions into body cavities, into the
lumen of an organ, or to the outer surface of the body. Exocrine glands include
sudoriferous (sweat) glands, seba- ceous (oil) glands, mucous glands, and digestive
glands.

2. Endocrine glands (endo--within) by contrast, secrete their products (hormones) into

the interstitial fluid surrounding the secretory cells, rather than into ducts.

HORMONES- Hormones have powerful effects, even when present in very low
concentrations. As a rule, most of the body’s 50 or so hormones affect only a few types of
cells. The reason that some cells respond to a particular hormone and others do not
depends on whether the cells have hormone receptors. Although a given hormone travels
throughout the body in the blood, it affects only certain target cells. Hormones, like neuro-
transmitters, influence their target cells by chemically binding to specific protein receptors.
Only the target cells for a given hormone have receptors (hormone receptors) that bind and
recognize that hormone. For example, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) binds to receptors
on cells of the thyroid gland, but it does not bind to cells of the ovaries because ovarian cells
do not have TSH receptors.

Receptors, like other cellular proteins, are constantly being synthesized and broken down.
Generally, a target cell has 2000–100,000 receptors for a particular hormone. When a hor-
mone is present in excess, the number of target-cell receptors may decrease (down
regulation). This decreases the responsiveness of target cells to the hormone. In contrast,
when a hormone (or neurotransmitter) is deficient, the number of receptors may increase
to make the target tissue more sensitive (up regulation). Most hormones are synthesized
from amino acids or are cholesterol based lipids.
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Functions of the Endocrine System

Despite the huge variety of hormones, there are really only two mechanisms by which
hormones trigger changes in cells.

1. Water equilibrium. The endocrine system controls water equilibrium by regulating

the solute concentration of the blood.
2. Growth, metabolism, and tissue maturation. The endocrine system controls the
growth of many tissues, like the bone and muscle, and the degree of metabolism of
various tissues, which aids in the maintenance of the normal body temperature and
normal mental functions. Maturation of tissues, which appears in the development
of adult features and adult behavior, are also determined by the endocrine system.
3. Heart rate and blood pressure management. The endocrine system assists in
managing the heart rate and blood pressure and aids in preparing the body for
physical motion.
4. Immune system control. The endocrine system helps regulate the production and
functions of immune cells.
5. Reproductive function controls. The endocrine system regulates the development
and the functions of the reproductive systems in males and females.
6. Uterine contractions and milk release. The endocrine system controls uterine
contractions throughout the delivery of the newborn and stimulates milk release
from the breasts in lactating females.
7. Ion management. The endocrine system regulates Na+, K+, and Ca2+concentrations in
the blood.
8. Blood glucose regulator. The endocrine system controls blood glucose levels and
other nutrient levels in the blood.
9. Direct gene activation. Being lipid-soluble molecules, the steroid hormones can
diffuse through plasma membranes of their target cells; once inside, the steroid
hormone enters the nucleus and binds to a specific receptor protein there; then, the
hormone-receptor complex binds to specific sites on the cell’s DNA, activating
certain genes to transcribe messenger RNA; the mRNA then is translated in the
cytoplasm, resulting in the synthesis of new proteins.
10. Second messenger system. Water-soluble, nonsteroidal hormones-protein, and
peptide hormones- are unable to enter the target cells, so instead, they bind to
receptors situated on the target cell’s plasma membrane and utilize a second
messenger system.
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Positive feedback stimulates the secretions or production of hormones.

Negative feedback inhibits the secretions of hormones.
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Homeostasis of the internal environment is maintained partly by the autonomic nervous system and
partly by the endocrine system. The autonomic nervous system is concerned with rapid changes,
while hormones of the endocrine system are mainly involved in slower and more precise
adjustments. The endocrine system consists of a number of distinct glands and some tissues in other
organs. Although the hypothalamus is classified as a part of the brain and not as an endocrine gland
it controls the pituitary gland and has an indirect effect on many others.

The endocrine glands are:

 1 pituitary gland
 1 thyroid gland
 4 parathyroid glands
 2 adrenal (suprarenal) glands
 the pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)
 1 pineal gland or body
 1 thymus gland
 2 ovaries in the female
 2 testes in the male.

HYPOTHALAMUS
The major endocrine organs of the body include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal,
pineal and thymus glands, the pancreas, and the gonads.

The hypothalamus, which is part of the nervous system, is also considered as a major
endocrine organ because it produces several hormones. It is an important autonomic
nervous system and endocrine control center of the brain located inferior to the thalamus.

Mixed functions. Although the function of some hormone-producing glands is purely

endocrine, the function of others (pancreas and gonads) is mixed- both endocrine and
exocrine.

PITUITARY GLAND
The pituitary gland is approximately the size of a pea.

 Location. The pituitary gland is a pea-shaped structure measuring about 1–1.5 cm

(0.5 in.) in diameter that lies in the hypophyseal fossa of the sphenoid bone and
attaches to the hypothalamus by a stalk, the infundibulum(a funnel shaped)
 Lobes. It has two anatomically and functionally separate lobes- the anterior pituitary
(glandular tissue) and the posterior pituitary (nervous tissue). The anterior pituitary
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(anterior lobe) accounts for about 75 percent of the total weight of the gland and is
composed of epithelial tissue.

For many years the pituitary gland or hypophysis was called the “master” endocrine gland
because it secretes several hormones that control other endocrine glands. We now know
that the pituitary gland itself has a master— the hypothalamus. This small region of the
brain, inferior to the thalamus, is the major integrating link between the nervous and
endocrine systems. It receives input from several other regions of the brain, including the
limbic system, cerebral cortex, thalamus, and reticular activating system.

Anterior Pituitary-
The anterior pituitary, or adenohypophysis (adeno-gland; hypophysis-undergrowth),
secretes hormones that regulate a wide range of bodily activities, from growth to
reproduction. Release of anterior pituitary hormones is stimulated by releasing hormones
and suppressed by inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus. Hypothalamic hormones
that release or inhibit anterior pituitary hormones reach the anterior pituitary through a
portal system.

Blood usually passes from the heart through an artery to a capillary to a vein and back to the
heart. In a portal system, blood flows from one capillary network into a portal vein, and
then into a second capillary network before returning to the heart. The name of the portal
system gives the location of the second capillary network. In the hypophyseal portal
system, also referred to as the hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system, blood flows from
capillaries in the hypothalamus into portal veins that carry blood to capillaries of the
anterior pituitary.

internal carotid artery from heart divides into

superior hypopheseal arteries (in hypothalamus)

further it divide into capiillaries called primary

plexus
From the primary plexus blood drains into
hypophyseal portal vein
in anterior pituitary gland it divide into capillary network called
secondary plexusthat diffuse the hormones from the
hypothalamus to the anterior pituatory gland

Flowchart- describes how Hypothalamic hormones that release or inhibit anterior

pituitary hormones reach the anterior pituitary through a portal system.

As you can see in the diagram and the flowchart, The superior hypophyseal arteries,
branches of the internal carotid arteries, bring blood into the hypothalamus. At the juncture
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of the median eminence of the hypothalamus and the infundibulum, these arteries divide
into a capillary network called the primary plexus of the hypophyseal portal system.

From the primary plexus, blood drains into the hypophyseal portal veins that pass down the
surface of the infundibulum. In the anterior pituitary, the hypophyseal portal veins divide
again and form another capillary network called the secondary plexus of the hypophyseal
portal system.

Above the optic chiasm are clusters of specialized neurons, called neurosecretory cells. They
synthesize the hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones in their cell bodies and
package the hormones inside vesicles, which reach the axon terminals by axonal transport.
When nerve impulses reach the axon terminals, they stimulate the vesicles to undergo
exocytosis. The hormones then diffuse into the primary plexus of the hypophyseal portal
system. Quickly, the hypothalamic hormones flow with the blood through the portal veins
and into the secondary plexus. This direct route permits hypothalamic hormones to act
immediately on anterior pituitary cells, before the hormones are diluted or destroyed in the
general circulation. Hormones secreted by anterior pituitary cells pass into the secondary
plexus capillaries, which drain into the anterior hypophyseal veins. Now in the general
circulation, anterior pituitary hormones travel to target tissues throughout the body.
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The following list describes the major hormones secreted by five types of anterior pituitary
cells

Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

There are several hormones of the anterior pituitary hormones that affect many body
organs.

 Growth hormone (GH). Growth hormone is a general metabolic hormone,

however, its major effects are directed to the growth of skeletal muscles and
long bones of the body; it is a protein-sparing and anabolic hormone that causes
amino acids to be built into proteins and stimulates most target cells to grow in
size and divide.
 Prolactin (PRL). Prolactin is a protein hormone structurally similar to growth
hormone; its only known target in humans is the breast because, after childbirth,
it stimulates and maintains milk production by the mother’s breast.
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH regulates the endocrine activity of
the cortex portion of the adrenal gland.
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).TSH, also called thyrotropin hormone
influences the growth and activity of the thyroid gland.
 Gonadotropic hormones. The gonadotropic hormones regulate the hormonal
activity of gonads (ovaries and testes).
 Follicles-stimulating hormone (FSH).FSH stimulates follicle development in the
ovaries; as the follicles mature, they produce estrogen and eggs that are readied
for ovulation; in men, FSH stimulates sperm development by the testes.
 Luteinizing hormone (LH). LH triggers ovulation of an egg from the ovary and
causes the ruptured follicle to produce progesterone and some estrogen; in men,
LH stimulates testosterone production by the interstitial cells of the testes.
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Posterior Pituitary-
Although the posterior pituitary, or neurohypophysis (neuro-nerve; -hypophysis-
undergrowth), does not synthesize hormones, it does store and release two hormones. It
consists of pituicytes and axon terminals of hypothalamic neurosecretory cells.
How the hormones in blood travel from hypothalamus to posterior pituitary

1. The cell bodies of the neurosecretory cells are in the paraventricular and supraoptic
nuclei of the hypothalamus; their axons form the hypothalamohypophyseal tract,
which begins in the hypothalamus and ends near blood capillaries in the posterior
pituitary gland.
2. Different neurosecretory cells produce two hormones: oxytocin (oxytoc—quick
birth) and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) (anti--against; diuretic-increases urine
production) also called vasopressin (vaso--blood vessel; pressus-to press).
3. Blood is supplied to the posterior pituitary by the inferior hypophyseal arteries,
which branch from the internal carotid arteries.
4. In the posterior pituitary, the inferior hypophyseal arteries drain into the capillary
plexus of the infundibular process, a capillary network that receives oxytocin and
antidiuretic hormone secreted from the neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus.
5. These neurosecretory cells pack oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone into vesicles and
transported to the axon terminals in the posterior pituitary gland.
6. Nerve impulses that propagate along the axon and reach the axon terminals trigger
exocytosis of these secretory vesicles. (as already said, axons form the
hypothalamohypophyseal tract, which begins in the hypothalamus and ends near
blood capillaries in the posterior pituitary gland)
7. From this plexus of capillaries, hormones pass into the posterior hypophyseal veins
for distribution to target cells in other tissues.
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Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary

The posterior pituitary is not an endocrine gland in the strict sense because it does not make
the peptide hormones it releases, but it simply acts as a storage area for hormones made by
hypothalamic neurons.

 Oxytocin. Oxytocin is released in significant amount only during childbirth and in

nursing women; it stimulates powerful contractions of the uterine muscle during
labor, during sexual relations, and during breastfeeding and also causes milk ejection
(let-down reflex) in a nursing woman.

 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH causes the kidneys to reabsorb more water from
the forming of urine; as a result, urine volume decreases and blood volume
increases; in larger amounts, ADH also increases blood pressure by causing
constriction of the arterioles, so it is sometimes referred to as vasopressin.