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Preface
This document was extracted from the City of Griffin Stormwater Design Manual. The Stormwater Design Manual was
created by the City of Griffin to address the impacts of urban development and stormwater runoff on the environment.
 Stormwater Design Manual

6.0 Storage Facilities

6.1 Introduction

Overview

The traditional design of storm drainage systems has been to collect and convey storm runoff
as rapidly as possible to a suitable location where it can be discharged. As areas urbanize this
type of design may result in major drainage and flooding problems downstream. Under
favorable conditions, the temporary storage of some of the storm runoff can decrease
downstream flows and often the cost of the downstream conveyance system. Detention storage
facilities can range from small facilities contained in parking lots or other on-site facilities to
large lakes and reservoirs. This chapter provides general design criteria for detention/retention
storage basins as well as procedures for performing preliminary and final sizing and reservoir
routing calculations.

Location Considerations

It should be noted that the location of storage facilities is very important as it relates to the
effectiveness of these facilities to control downstream flooding. Small facilities will only have
minimal flood control benefits and these benefits will quickly diminish as the flood wave
travels downstream. Multiple storage facilities located in the same drainage basin will affect
the timing of the runoff through the conveyance system that could decrease or increase flood
peaks in different downstream locations. Thus it is important for the engineer to design storage
facilities as a drainage structure that both controls runoff from a defined area and interacts with
other drainage structures within the drainage basin. Effective stormwater management must be
coordinated on a regional or basin-wide planning basis.

Detention And Retention

Urban stormwater storage facilities are often referred to as either detention or retention
facilities. For the purpose of this chapter, detention facilities are those that are designed to
reduce the peak discharge and only detain runoff for some short period of time. These
facilities are designed to completely drain after the design storm has passed. Retention
facilities are designed to contain a permanent pool of water. Since most of the design
procedures are the same for detention and retention facilities, the term storage facilities will be
used in this chapter to include detention and retention facilities. If special procedures are
needed for detention or retention facilities these will be specified.

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 Stormwater Design Manual

When to Use Storage Facilities

For each development over one and one-tenths (1.1) acres in size, a stormwater impact
evaluation prepared by a registered professional engineer is required. If this evaluation
indicates that a proposed development will increase runoff from the property to a level that
cannot be accommodated within the downstream drainage system, then storage facilities may
be used to control the runoff from the proposed development to a level that can be
accommodated within the downstream drainage system. See The City of Griffin Land
Development Guidelines for further information on stormwater detention facilities.

6.2 Symbols and Definitions

To provide consistency within this chapter as well as throughout this manual, the following
symbols will be used. These symbols were selected because of their wide use in technical
publications. In some cases the same symbol is used in existing publications for more than one
definition. Where they occur in this chapter, the symbol will be defined where it occurs in the
test or equations.

Table 6-1 Symbols and Definitions

Symbol Definition Units

A Cross sectional or surface area ft2
C Weir coefficient -
d Change in elevation ft
D Depth of basin or diameter of pipe ft
∆t Routing time period sec
g Acceleration due to gravity ft/s2
H Head on structure ft
Hc Height of weir crest above channel bottom ft
I Inflow rate cfs
L Length ft
Q Flow or outflow rate cfs
S, Vs Storage volume ft3
tb Time base on hydrograph hrs
Ti Duration of basin inflow hrs
tp Time to peak hrs
Vs, S Storage volume ft3
W Width of basin ft
Z Side slope factor -

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 Stormwater Design Manual

6.3 Design Criteria

General Criteria

An analysis of such storage facilities should consist of comparing the design flow at a point or
points downstream of the proposed storage site with and without storage. In addition to the
design flow, other flows in excess of the design flow that might be expected to pass through
the storage facility should be included in the analysis (i.e., 100-year flood). The design criteria
for storage facilities should include:

• Release rate,
• Storage volume,
• Grading and depth requirements,
• Safety considerations and landscaping,
• Outlet works, and location.

Note: The same hydrologic procedure shall be used to determine pre-and post-development
hydrology.

Release Rate

Control structure release rates shall approximate pre-developed peak runoff rates for the 2-year
through 25-year storms, with emergency overflow capable of handling the 100-year discharge.
Design calculations are required to demonstrate that the facility will limit runoff from the 2-, 5-
, 10-, and 25-year developed discharge rates to pre-developed peak discharge rates.

Storage

Storage volume shall be adequate to attenuate the post-development peak discharge rates to
pre-developed discharge rates for the 2-year through 25-year storms. Routing calculations
must be used to demonstrate that the storage volume is adequate. If sedimentation during
construction causes loss of detention volume, design dimensions shall be restored before
completion of the project. For detention basins, all detention volume shall be drained within
72 hours.

Grading and Depth

Following is a discussion of the general grading and depth criteria for storage facilities
followed by criteria related to detention and retention facilities.

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 Stormwater Design Manual

6.3.1.1 General

The construction of storage facilities usually requires excavation or placement of earthen

embankments to obtain sufficient storage volume. Vegetated embankments shall be less than
20 feet in height and shall have side slopes no steeper than 3:1(horizontal to vertical). Riprap-
protected embankments shall be no steeper than 2:1. Geotechnical slope stability analysis is
recommended for embankments greater than 10 feet in height and is mandatory for
embankment slopes steeper than those given above. Procedures for performing slope stability
evaluation can be found in most soil engineering textbooks, including those by Spangler and
Handy (1982) and Sowers and Sowers (1970).

A minimum freeboard of 1 foot above the 100-year design storm high water elevation shall be
provided for impoundment depths of less than 20-feet. Impoundment depths greater than 20
feet are subject to the requirements of the Safe Dams Act unless the facility is excavated to this
depth.

Other considerations when setting depths include flood elevation requirements, public safety,
land availability, land value, present and future land use, water table fluctuations, soil
characteristics, maintenance requirements, and required freeboard. Aesthetically pleasing
features are also important in urbanizing areas.

6.3.1.2 Detention

Areas above the normal high water elevations of storage facilities should be sloped at a
minimum of 5 percent toward the facilities to allow drainage and to prevent standing water.
Careful finish grading is required to avoid creation of upland surface depressions that may
retain runoff. The bottom area of storage facilities should be graded toward the outlet to
prevent standing water conditions. A minimum 2 percent bottom slope is recommended. A
low flow or pilot channel constructed across the facility bottom from the inlet to the outlet is
recommended to convey low flows, and present standing water conditions. Often a sediment
collection forebay is provided with easy maintenance access.

6.3.1.3 Retention

The maximum depth of permanent storage facilities will be determined by site conditions.
Design constraints, and environmental needs. In general, if the facility provides a permanent
pool of water, a depth sufficient to discourage growth of weeds (without creating undue
potential for anaerobic bottom conditions) should be considered. A depth of 6 to 8 feet is
generally reasonable unless fishery requirements dictate otherwise. Aeration may be required
impermanent pools to prevent anaerobic conditions. Where aquatic habitat is required, wildlife
experts should be contacted for site-specific criteria relating to such things as depth, habitat,
and bottom and shore geometry. In some cases a shallow bench along the perimeter is
constructed to encourage emergent vegetation growth to enhance the pollution reduction
capabilities or aesthetics of the pond.

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 Stormwater Design Manual

Outlet Works

Outlet works selected for storage facilities typically include a principal spillway and an
emergency overflow, and must be able to accomplish the design functions of the facility.
Outlet works can take the form of combinations of drop inlets, pipes, weirs, and orifices.
Slotted riser pipes are discouraged because of clogging problems, but curb openings may be
used for parking lot storage. The principal spillway is intended to convey the design storm
without allowing flow to enter an emergency outlet. For large storage facilities, selecting a
flood magnitude for sizing the emergency outlet should be consistent with the potential threat
to downstream life and property if the basin embankment were to fail. The minimum flood to
be used to size the emergency outlet is the 100-year flood. The sizing of a particular outlet
works shall be based on results of hydrologic routing calculations.

Location

In addition to controlling the peak discharge from the outlet works, storage facilities will
change the timing of the entire hydrograph. If several storage facilities are located within a
particular basin it is important to determine what effects a particular facility may have on
combined hydrographs in downstream locations. Multiple storage facilities located in the same
drainage basin will affect the timing of the runoff through the conveyance system which could
decrease or increase flood peaks in different downstream locations. Small facilities will only
have minimal flood control benefits and these benefits will quickly diminish as the flood wave
travels downstream.

The following procedure is recommended to determine downstream effects. For all proposed
storage facilities, channel routing calculations should proceed downstream to a confluence
point where the drainage area being analyzed represents ten percent of the total drainage area.
At this point the effect of the hydrograph routed through the proposed storage facility on the
downstream hydrograph can be assessed and shown not to have detrimental effects on
downstream areas.

Detention can be located within floodplains and still effectively control flooding through the
use of timing calculations. In this situation the flood peak coming down the stream rarely
coincides with local on-site flooding. It is often advantageous to allow the on-site water to
pass with simple erosion control and a properly sized conveyance system. Then locate the
detention pond to “skim” the peak from the oncoming flood hydrograph through the use of a
side-channel weir or a simple flow through depression along the banks.

Safe Dams Act

Under the dam safety act regulations a dam is an artificial barrier that does or may impound
water and that is 20 feet or greater in height and has a maximum storage volume of 30 acre-feet

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 Stormwater Design Manual

or more. A number of exemptions are allowed from the Safe Dams Act and any questions
concerning a specific design or application should be addressed to the Georgia Department of
Natural Resources.

6.4 General Procedure

Data Needs

The following data will be needed to complete storage design and routing calculations.

• Inflow hydrograph for all selected design storms for fully developed and pre-
developed conditions.
• Stage-storage curve for proposed storage facility (see Figure 6-1 below for an
example).
• Stage-discharge curve for all outlet control structures (see Figure 6-2 below for an
example).

Using these data a design procedure is used to route the inflow hydrograph through the storage
facility with different basin and outlet geometry until the desired outflow hydrograph is
achieved (see example 6.8).

Figure 6-1 Example Stage-Storage Curve

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 Stormwater Design Manual

Figure 6-2 Example Stage-Discharge Curve

Stage-Storage Curve

A stage-storage curve defines the relationship between the depth of water and storage volume
in a reservoir. The data for this type of curve are usually developed using a topographic map
and the double-end area frustum of a pyramid, prismoidal formulas or circular conic section.
The double-end area formula is expressed as:

V1,2 = [(A1 + A2)/2]d (6.1)

Where: V1,2 = storage volume, ft3, between elevations 1 and 2

A1 = surface area at elevation 1, ft2
A2 = surface area at elevation 2, ft2
d = change in elevation between points 1 and 2, ft

The frustum of a pyramid is expressed as:

V = d/3 [A1 + (A1 x A,)0.5 + A2]/3 (6.2)

Where: V = volume of frustum of a pyramid, ft3

d = change in elevation between points 1 and 2, ft
A1 = surface area at elevation 1, ft2
A2 = surface area at elevation 2, ft2

The prismoisal formula for trapezoidal basins is expressed as:

V = LWD = (L = W) ZD2 = 4/3 Z2 D3 (6.3)

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 Stormwater Design Manual

Where: V = volume of trapezoidal basin, ft3

L = length of basin at base, ft
W = width of basin at base, ft
D = depth of basin, ft
Z = side slope factor, ratio of horizontal to vertical

The circular conic section formula is:

V = 1.047 D (R12 = R22 = R1R2) (6.4)

V = 1.047 D (3R12 = 3ZDR1 = Z2D2) (6.5)

Where R1 and R2 = bottom and surface radii of the conic section, ft

D = depth of basin, ft
Z = side slope factor, ratio of horizontal to vertical

Stage Discharge Curve

A stage-discharge curve defines the relationship between the depth of water and the discharge
or outflow from a storage facility. A typical storage facility has two spillways: principal and
emergency. The principal spillway is usually designed with a capacity sufficient to convey the
design flood without allowing flow to enter the emergency spillway. A pipe culvert, weir or
other appropriate outlet can be used for the principal spillway of outlet. The emergency
spillway is sized to provide a bypass for floodwater during a flood that exceeds the design
capacity of the principal spillway. This spillway should be designed taking into account the
potential threat to downstream life and property if the storage facility were to fail.

The stage-discharge curve should take into account the discharge characteristics of both the
principal spillway and the emergency spillway.

Procedure

A general procedure for using the above data in the design of storage facilities is presented
below.

1. Compute inflow hydrograph for runoff from the 2-, 5-, 10-, and 100-year design storms
using the procedures outlined in the Hydrology Chapter. Both pre-and post-
development hydrographs are required.

2. Perform preliminary calculations to evaluate detention storage requirements for the

hydrographs from Step 1 (see Section 6.7).

3. Determine the physical dimensions necessary to hold the estimated volume from Step
2, including freeboard. The maximum storage requirement calculated from Step 2
should be used. From the selected shape determine the maximum depth in the pond.

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 Stormwater Design Manual

4. Select the type of outlet and size the outlet structure. The estimated peak stage will
occur for the estimated volume from Step 2. The outlet structure should be sized to
convey the allowable discharge at this stage.

5. Perform routing calculations using inflow hydrographs from Step 1 to check the
preliminary design using the storage routing equations. If the routed post-development
peak discharges from the 2-through 25-year design storms exceed the pre-development
peak discharges, or if the peak stage varies significantly from the estimated peak stage
from Step 4, then revise the estimated volume and return to Step 3.

6. Perform routing calculations using the 100-year hydrograph, for developed land use
conditions, to determine if any increases in downstream flows from this hydrograph
will cause damages and/or drainage and flooding problems. If problems will be created
then the storage facility must be designed to control the increased flows from the 100-
year storm. If not then consider emergency overflow from runoff due to the 100-year
(or larger) design storm and established freeboard requirements.

7. Evaluate the downstream effects of detention outflows from all design storms to ensure
that the routed hydrograph does not cause downstream flooding problems. The exit
hydrograph from the storage facility should be routed through the downstream channel
system until a confluence point is reached where the drainage area being analyzed
represents 10 percent of the total drainage area.

8. Evaluate the control structure outlet velocity and provide channel and bank stabilization
if the velocity will cause erosion problems downstream. See the Energy Dissipation
Chapter for information on controlling outlet velocities and the design of energy
dissipators.

This procedure can involve a significant number of reservoir routing calculations to obtain the
desired results.

10 Percent Limit

The 10 percent limit procedure utilizes a hydrologic-hydraulic computer model to analyze the
downstream effects of stormwater runoff from developments of different size, shape, physical
characteristics, and location within larger drainage basins. Based on the model, the effects of a
development process stabilizes at the point where the proposed development represents
approximately 10 percent of the drainage area, depending on the size of the development and
the amount of increase impervious area.

If the 10 percent analysis study shows that there is increased peak flows downstream, several
alternatives are available to the engineer to deal with the increased flows. These alternatives
include installing on-site detention facilities, using extended detention facilities, upgrading

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 Stormwater Design Manual

drainage structures or conveyance downstream, obtaining easements, controlling runoff from

the development site with infiltration or methods other than detention, etc.

Detention facilities are required when they will provide positive benefits to the local drainage
system and shall not be required when they will be ineffective or not needed, which shall be
determined by the City of Griffin Stormwater Department.

The following basic steps for using the 10 percent downstream analysis include the following:

• Develop hydrographs for the design storms at the discharge point(s) from the proposed
development. The proposed developed land use conditions within the development
should be used to develop these hydrographs.
• Route these hydrographs through the downstream drainage system to a point
downstream where the size of the proposed development represents 10 percent or less
of the total drainage area that contributes runoff to this point. This point is called the
10 percent point.
• For all points of interest in the downstream drainage system, between the exit of the
proposed development to the 10 percent point, develop hydrographs from the
contributing areas. Existing land use conditions should be used for this analysis for all
areas not included in the proposed development. Points of interest would include
locations where drainage from sub-watersheds intersect, known drainage and flooding
problems exist, where structures might be affected by storm runoff, etc. As a
minimum, hydrographs at the 10 percent point should be developed with and without
the proposed development.
• A comparison of the routed hydrograph from the proposed development with the other
downstream hydrographs should indicate whether or not the proposed development will
increase downstream peak flows or have little or no effect on these peak flows.
• If major constrictions (e.g., storage facilities, undersized culverts) are present in the
downstream analysis area that will affect the general characteristics of the hydrographs,
the associated engineering parameters of these constrictions should be included in the
analysis.
• In most cases general topographic maps, soils information, and a field check of the
drainage system will provide the data needed for this analysis.
• Detailed survey information and backwater analysis should not be needed for most
downstream analysis.

6.5 Outlet Hydraulics

Outlets

Sharp-crested weir flow equations for no end contractions, two end contractions,
and submerged discharge conditions are presented below, followed by equations for broad-
crested weirs, v-notch weirs, proportional weirs, and orifices, or combinations of these
facilities. If culverts are used as outlets works, procedures presented in the Culvert Chapter
should be used to develop stage-discharge data.

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 Stormwater Design Manual

Sharp-Crested Weirs

A sharp-crested weir with no end contractions is illustrated below. This discharge

equation for this configuration is (Chow, 1959):

Q = [(3.27 + 0.4(H/Hc)] LH1.5 (6.6)

Where: Q = discharge, cfs

H = head above weir crest excluding velocity head, ft
Hc = height of weir crest above channel bottom, ft
L = horizontal weir length, ft

Figure 6-3
Sharp-Crested Weir No End Contractions

Figure 6-4
Sharp-Crested Weir And Head

A sharp-crested weir with two end contractions is illustrated below. The discharge equation
for this configuration is (Chow, 1959):

Q = [(3.27 + .04(H/Hc)] (L – 0.2H) H1.5 (6.7)

Where: Variables are the same as equation 6.4.

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 Stormwater Design Manual

Figure 6-5
Sharp-Crested Weir, Two End Contractions

A sharp-crested weir will be affected by submergence when the tailwater rises above the weir
crest elevation. The result will be that the discharge over the weir will be reduced. The
discharge equation for a sharp-crested submerged weir is (Brater and King, 1976):

Qs = Qf(1 – (H2/H1)1.5)0.385 (6.8)

Where: Qs = submergence flow, cfs

Qf = free flow, cfs
H1 = upstream head above crest, ft
H2 = downstream head above crest, ft

Broad-Crest Weirs

The equation for the broad-crested weir is (Brater and King, 1976):

Q = CLH1.5 (6.9)

Where: Q = discharge, cfs

C = broad-crested weir coefficient
L = broad-crested weir length, ft
H = head above weir crest, ft

If the upstream edge of a broad-crested weir is so rounded as to prevent contraction and if the
slope of the crest is as great as the loss of head due to friction, flow will pass through critical
depth at the weir crest; this gives the maximum C value of 3.087. For sharp corners on the
broad-crested weir, a minimum C value of 2.6 should be used. Information on C values as a
function of weir crest breadth and head is given in Table 6-2.

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 Stormwater Design Manual

V-Notch Weirs

The discharge through a v-notch weir can be calculated from the following
equation (Brater and King, 1976):

Q = 2.5 tan(ș/2)H2.5 (6.10)

Where: Q = discharge, cfs

ș = angle of v-notch, degrees
H = head on apex of notch, ft

Proportional Weirs

Although more complex to design and construct, a proportional weir may

significantly reduce the required storage volume for a given site. The proportional weir is
distinguished from other control devices by having a linear head-discharged relationship
achieved by allowing the discharge area to vary nonlinearly with head.

Design equations for proportional weirs are (Sandvic, 1985):

Q = 4.97 a0.5 b(H – a/3) (6.11)

x/b = 1 – (1/3.17) (arc tan (y/a)0.5) (6.12)

Where: Q = discharge, cfs

Dimensions a, b, h, x, and y are shown below

Figure 6-6 Proportional Weir Dimensions

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 Stormwater Design Manual

Orifices

Pipes smaller that 12” may be analyzed as a submerged orifice if H/D is greater
than 1.5. For square-edged entrance conditions,

Q = 0.6A(2gH)0.5 = 3.78D2H0.5 (6.13)

Where: Q = discharge, cfs

A = cross-section area of pipe, ft2
g = acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft/s2
D = diameter of pipe, ft
H = head on pipe, from the center of pipe to the water surface

Combination Outlets

Combinations of weirs, pipes and orifices can be put together to provide a variable control
stage-discharge curve suitable for control of multiple storm flows. They are generally of two
types: shared outlet control and separate outlet controls. Shared outlet control is typically a
number of individual outlet openings, weirs or drops at different elevations on a riser pipe or
box that all flow to a common larger conduit or pipe. Separate outlet controls are less common
and normally consist of a single opening through the dam of a detention facility in combination
with an overflow spillway for emergency use. For a complete discussion of outlets and
combination outlets see Municipal Stormwater Management by Debo and Reese.

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 Stormwater Design Manual

Table 6-2 Broad Crested Weir Coefficient C Values As A Function of Weir Crest
Breadth (b) and Head (H) Weir Crest Breadth (ft)

Measured
Head, H1
(ft) 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 4.00 5.00 10.00 15.00
0.2 2.80 2.75 2.69 2.62 2.54 2.48 2.44 2.38 25.37 2.49 2.68
0.4 2.92 2.80 2.72 2.64 2.61 2.60 2.58 2.54 2.50 2.56 2.70
0.6 3.08 2.89 2.75 2.64 2.61 2.60 2.68 2.69 2.70 2.70 2.70
0.8 3.30 3.04 2.85 2.68 2.60 2.60 2.67 2.68 2.68 2.69 2.64
1.0 3.32 3.14 2.98 2.75 2.66 2.64 2.65 2.67 2.68 2.68 2.63
1.2 3.32 3.20 3.08 2.86 2.70 2.65 2.64 2.67 2.66 2.69 2.64
1.4 3.32 3.26 3.20 2.92 2.77 2.68 2.64 2.65 2.65 2.67 2.64
1.6 3.32 3.29 3.28 3.07 2.89 2.75 2.68 2.66 2.65 2.64 2.63
1.8 3.32 3.32 3.31 3.07 2.88 2.74 2.68 2.66 2.65 2.64 2.63
2.0 3.32 3.31 3.30 3.03 2.85 2.76 2.27 2.68 2.65 2.64 2.63
2.5 3.32 3.32 3.31 3.28 3.07 2.89 2.81 2.72 2.67 2.64 2.63
3.0 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.20 3.05 2.92 2.73 2.66 2.64 2.63
3.5 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.19 2.97 2.76 2.68 2.64 2.63
4.0 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.07 2.79 2.70 2.64 2.63
4.5 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 2.88 2.74 2.64 2.63
5.0 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.07 2.79 2.64 2.63
5.5 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 2.88 2.64 2.63
1
Measured at least 2.5H upstream the weir.
Reference: Brater and King (1976).

6.6 Preliminary Detention Calculations

Storage Volume

For small drainage areas, a preliminary estimate of the storage volume required for peak flow
attenuation may be obtained from a simplified design procedure that replaces the actual inflow
and outflow hydrographs with the standard triangular shapes shown in Figures 6-7 shown
below.

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 Stormwater Design Manual

Figure 6-7 Triangular Shaped Hydrographs

(For Preliminary Estimate of Required Storage Volume)

The required storage volume maybe estimated from the area above the outflow hydrograph and
inside the inflow hydrograph, expressed as:

Vs = 0.5Ti(Qi – Qo) (6.14)

Where: Vs = storage volume estimate, ft3

Qi = peak inflow rate, cfs
Qo = Peak outflow rate, cfs
Ti = duration of basin inflow, sec

Any consistent units may be used for Equation 6.14

Alternative Method

An alternative preliminary estimate of the storage volume required for a specified peak flow
reduction can be obtained by the following regression equation procedure (Wycoff & Singh,
1986).

1. Determine input data, including the allowable peak outflow rate Qo, the peak flow rate
of the inflow hydrograph, Qi, the time base of the inflow hydrograph, tb, and the time to
peak of the inflow hydrograph, tp.

1. Calculate a preliminary estimate of the ratio Vs/Vr, using the input data from Step 1 and
the following equation:

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 Stormwater Design Manual

Vs/Vr = [1.291(1-Qo/ Qi)0.753]/[tb/tp)0.411] (6.15)

Where: Vs = volume of storage, in

Vr = volume of runoff, in
Qo = outflow peak flow, cfs
Qi = inflow peak flow, cfs
tb = time base of the inflow hydrograph, hr (Determined as
time from the beginning of rise to a point on the recession limb
where the flow is 5 percent of the peak.)
tp = time to peak of the inflow hydrograph, hr

2. Multiply the peak flow rate of the inflow hydrograph, Qi, times the potential peak flow
reduction calculated in Step 2 to obtain the estimated peak outflow rate, Qo, for the
selected storage volume.

Peak Flow Reduction

A preliminary estimate of the potential peak flow reduction for a selected storage volume can
be obtained by the following procedure.

1. Determine volume of runoff, Vr, peak flow rate of the inflow hydrograph, Q1,
time base of the inflow hydrograph, tb, time to peak of the inflow hydrograph tp, and
storage volume, Vs.

2. Calculate a preliminary estimate of the potential peak flow reduction for the
selected storage volume using the following equation (Singh, 1976):

Qo/Qi = 1 – 0.712(Vs/Vr)1.328(tb/tp)0.546 (6.16)

Where: Qo = outflow peak flow, cfs

Qi = inflow peak flow, cfs
Vs = volume of storage, in
Vr = volume of runoff, in
tb = time base of the inflow hydrograph, hr (Determined as the
time from the beginning of rise to a point on the recession limb
where the flow is 5 percent of the peak.)
tp = time to peak of the inflow hydrograph, in hours

3. Multiply the peak flow rate of the inflow hydrograph, Qi, times the potential peak flow
reduction calculated from step 2 to obtain the estimated peak outflow rate, Qo, for the
selected storage volume (see example 6.8.3).

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 Stormwater Design Manual

6.7 Routing Calculations

The following procedure is used to perform routing through a reservoir or storage facility (Puls
Method of storage routing).

1. Develop an inflow hydrograph, stage-discharge curve, and stage-storage curve for the
proposed storage facility. Example stage-storage and stage-discharge curves are shown
below.

Figure 6-8 Example Stage-Storage Curve

Figure 6-9 Example Stage-Discharge Curve

Select a routing time period, ∆t, to provide at least five points on the rising limb of the
inflow hydrograph.

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2. Use the storage-discharge data from Step 1 to develop storage characteristics curves
that provide values of S+(O/2) ∆t versus stage. An example tabulation of storage
characteristics curve data is shown in Table 6-3.

Table 6-3 Storage Characteristics

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Stage Storage1 Discharge 2
S – (O/2)∆t S + (O/2)∆t
(ft) (ac-ft) (ac-ft/hr) (ac-ft) (ac-ft)
100 0.05 0 0.00 0.05 0.05
101 0.3 15 1.24 0.20 0.40
102 0.58 35 2.89 0.56 1.04
103 1.6 63 5.21 1.17 2.03
104 2.8 95 7.85 2.15 3.45
105 4.4 143 11.82 3.41 5.39
106 6.6 200 16.53 5.22 7.98
107 10.0 275 22.73 8.11 11.89
1
Obtained from the Stage-Storage Curve.
2
Obtained from the Stage-Discharge Curve.
Note: t = 10 minutes = 0.167 hours and 1 cfs = 0.0826 ac-ft/hr.
(If the detention facility contains a permanent pool of water, this can be accounted for by considering the water surface as the
zero stage.)

3. For a given time interval, I1 and I2 are known. Given the depth of storage or stage, H1,
at the beginning of that time interval, S1-(O1/2) ∆ t can be determined from the
appropriate storage characteristics curve (example given below).

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Figure 6-10 Storage Characteristic Curve

4. Determine the value of S2 + (O2/2)∆t from the following equation:

S2 + (O2/2) ∆t = [S1-(O1/2) ∆t] + [(I1 + I2)2∆t] (6.17)

Where: S2 = storage volume at time 2, ft3

O2 = outflow rate at time 2, cfs
∆t = routing time period, sec
S1 = storage volume at time 1, ft3
O1 =outflow rate at time 1, cfs
I1 = inflow rate at time 1, cfs
I2 = inflow rate at time 2, cfs

Other consistent units are equally appropriate.

5. Enter the storage characteristics curve at the calculated value of S2 + (O2/2) ∆t

determined in Step 4 and read off a new depth of water, H2.

6. Determine the value of O2, which corresponds to a state of H2, determined in Step 5,
using the stage-discharge curve.

7. Repeat Steps 1 through 6 by setting new values of I1, O1, S1, and H1 equal to the
previous I2, O2, S2, and H2, and using a new I2 value. This process is continued until the
entire inflow hydrograph ahs been routed through the storage basin.

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6.8 Example Problem

Example

This example demonstrated the application of the methodology presented in this chapter for the
design of a typical detention storage facility. Example inflow hydrographs and associated peak
discharges for both pre-and post-development conditions are assumed to have been developed
using hydrologic methods from the Hydrology Chapter. Note: In this example only the 5-and
25-year hydrographs are used. The 2-and 10-year hydrographs should also be checked to
determine if the final design is adequate.

Design Discharge and Hydrographs

Storage facilities shall be designed for runoff from the 2-, 5-, 10-, 25-, and 50-year design
storms and an analysis done using the 100-year design storm runoff to ensure that the structure
can accommodate runoff from this storm without damaging adjacent and downstream property
and structures. Example peak discharges from the 5-and 25-year design storm events are as
follows:

• Pre-developed 5-year peak discharge = 150 cfs

• Pre-developed 25-year peak discharge = 200 cfs
• Post-development 5-year peak discharge = 190 cfs
• Post-development 25-peak discharge = 250 cfs

Since the post-development peak discharge must not exceed the pre-development peak
discharge, the allowable design discharges are 150 and 200 cfs for the 5-and 25-year storms,
respectively.

Example runoff hydrographs are shown in Table 6-4 below. Inflow durations from the post-
development hydrographs are about 1.2 and 1.25 hours, respectively, for runoff from the 5-and
25-year storms.

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Table 6-4 Example Runoff Hydrographs

Pre-Development Runoff Post-Development Runoff

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Time 5-Year 25-Year 5-Year 25-Year
(Hrs) (cfs) (cfs) (cfs) (cfs)
0 0 0 0 0
0.1 18 24 38 50
0.2 61 81 125 178
0.3 127 170 190>150 250>200
0.4 150 200 125 165
0.5 112 150 70 90
0.6 71 95 39 50
0.7 45 61 22 29
0.8 30 40 12 16
0.9 21 28 7 9
1.0 13 18 4 5
1.1 10 15 2 3
1.2 8 13 0 1

Finally, the 2-and 10-year hydrographs should then be routed through the storage facility to be
sure these storms are adequately controlled.

Preliminary Volume Calculations

Preliminary estimates of required storage volumes are obtained using the simplified method
outlines in Section 6.6. For runoff from the 2-and 10-year storms, the required storage
volumes Vs, are computed using equation 6.14;

Vs = O.5Ti(Qi – Qo)

5-year storm: Vs = [O.5(1.2 x 3,600)(190 – 150)]/43,560 = 1.98 acre-feet

25-year storm: Vs – [O.5(1.25 x 3,600)(250 – 200)]/43,560 = 2.58 acre-ft.

Design and Routing Calculations

Stage-discharge and stage-storage characteristics of a storage facility that should provide

adequate peak flow attenuation for runoff from both the 5-and 25-year design storms are
presented below. The storage-discharge relationship was developed by requiring the
preliminary storage volume estimates of runoff for both the 5-and 25-year design storms to be
provided when the corresponding allowable peak discharges occurred. Storage values were
computed by solving the broad-crested weir equation for head, H, assuming a constant

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discharge coefficient of 3.1, a weir length of 4 feet, and no tailwater submergence. The
capacity of storage relief structures was assumed to be negligible.

Table 6-5 Stage-Discharge-Storage Data

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Stage Q S S1 – (0/2) S1 + (0/2) ∆t
(ft) (cfs) (acre-feet) (acre-feet) (acre-feet)

0.0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.9 10 0.26 0.30 0.22
1.4 20 0.42 0.50 0.33
1.8 30 0.56 0.68 0.43
2.2 40 0.69 0.85 0.52
2.5 50 0.81 1.02 0.60
2.9 60 0.93 1.18 0.68
3.2 70 1.05 1.34 0.76
3.5 80 1.17 1.50 0.84
3.7 90 1.28 1.66 0.92
4.0 100 1.40 1.81 0.99
4.5 120 1.63 2.13 1.14
4.8 130 1.75 2.29 1.21
5.0 140 1.87 2.44 1.29
5.3 150 1.98 2.60 1.36
5.5 160 2.10 2.76 1.44
5.7 170 2.22 2.92 1.52
6.0 180 2.34 3.08 1.60
6.4 200 2.58 3.41 1.76
6.8 220 2.83 3.74 1.92
7.0 230 2.95 3.90 2.00
7.4 250 3.21 4.24 2.17

Storage routing was conducted for runoff from both the 5-and 25-year design storms to
confirm the preliminary storage volume estimates and to establish design water surface
elevations. Routing results using the Stage-Discharge Data given above and the Storage
Characteristics Curves given on Figures 6-8 and 6-9, and 0.1 hour time steps are shown below
for runoff from the 5-and 25-year design storms, respectively. The preliminary design
provides adequate peak discharge attenuation for both the 5-and 25-year design storms.

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Table 6-6 Storage Routing For The 5-Year Storm

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

Time Inflow [(I1+I2)]/2 H1 S1- S2+(O2/2)∆t H Outflow
(hrs) (cfs) (acre-ft) (ft) (O1/2)∆t (acre-ft) (ft) (cfs)
(acre-ft) (3) + (5)
(6)-(8)
0.0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0
0.1 38 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.16 0.43 3
0.2 125 0.67 0.43 0.10 0.77 2.03 36
0.3 190 1.30 2.03 0.50 1.80 4.00 99
0.4 125 1.30 4.00 0.99 2.29 4.80 130
<150 OK
0.5 70 0.81 4.80 1.21 2.02 4.40 114
0.6 39 0.45 4.40 1.12 1.57 3.60 850

Table 6-7 Storage Routing For The 25-Year Storm

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

Time Inflow [(I1+I2)]/2 H1 S1- S2+(O2/2)∆t H Outflow
(hrs) (cfs) (acre-ft) (ft) (O1/2)∆t (acre-ft) (ft) (cfs)
(acre-ft) (3) + (5)
(6)-(8)
0.0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0
0.1 50 0.21 0.21 0.00 0.21 0.40 3
0.2 178 0.94 0.40 0.08 1.02 2.50 49
0.3 250 1.77 2.50 0.6 2.37 4.90 134
0.4 165 1.71 4.90 1.26 2.97 2.97 173
<200 OK
0.5 90 1.05 5.80 1.30 2.35 4.00 137
0.6 50 0.58 4.95 1.25 1.83 4.10 1.3
0.7 29 0.33 4.10 1.00 1.33 3.10 68
0.8 16 0.19 3.10 0.75 0.94 2.40 46
0.9 9 0.10 2.40 0.59 0.69 1.90 32
1.0 5 0.06 1.90 0.44 0.50 1.40 21
1.1 3 0.03 1.40 0.33 0.36 1.20 16
1.2 1 0.02 1.20 0.28 0.30 0.90 11
1.3 0 0.00 0.90 0.22 0.22 0.60 6

For the routing calculations the following equation was used:

S2 + (O2/2)ǻt = [S1-(O1/2)ǻt} + [I1 + I2)/2ǻt]

Also, column 6 = column 3 + column 5

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Since the routed peak discharge is lower than the maximum allowable peak discharges for both
design storm events, the weir length could be increased or the storage decreased. If revisions
are desired, routing calculations must be repeated.

Although not shown for this example, runoff from the 200-year storm should be routed through
the storage facility and downstream to determine if structures or adjacent land areas will be
damaged. If flood damages will result, the storage facility must then be designed to limit the
runoff from the 100-year storm to undeveloped conditions. Also, the 100-year routed storm
should be used to establish freeboard requirements and to evaluate emergency overflow and
stability requirements. In addition, the preliminary design provides hydraulic details only.
Final design should consider site constraints such as depth to water, side slope stability and
maintenance, grading to prevent standing water, and provisions for public safety. Also, the 2-
and 10-year storms should be checked.

6.9 Trash Racks and Safety Gates

Trash racks and safety grates serve several functions:

• they trap larger debris well away from the entrance to the outlet works where they will not
clog the critical portions of the works;
• they trap debris in such a way that relatively easy removal is possible;
• they keep people and large animals out of confined conveyance and outlet areas;
• they provide a safety system whereby persons caught in them will be stopped prior to the
very high velocity flows immediately at the entrance to outlet works and persons will be
carried up and onto the outlet works allowing for an ability to climb to safety, and
• well designed trash racks can have an aesthetically pleasing appearance.

When designed well trash racks serve there purpose without interfering significantly with the
hydraulic capacity of the outlet (or inlet in the case of conveyance structures) (ASCE, 1985,
Allred-Coonrod, 1991). The location and size of the trash rack depends on a number of factors
including: head losses through the rack, structural convenience, safety, and size of outlet.

Trash racks at entrances to pipes and conduits should be sloped at 3H:1V to 5H:1V to allow
trash to slide up the rack with flow pressure and rising water level, the slower the approach
flow the flatter the angle. Rack opening rules-of-thumb abound in the literature. Figure 6-12
gives opening estimates based on outlet diameter (UDFCD, 1992). Judgment should be used
in that an area with higher debris (e.g. a wooded area) may require more opening space.

The bar opening space for small pipes should be less than the pipe diameter. For larger
diameter pipes openings should be 6 inches or less. Collapsible racks have been used in some
places if clogging becomes excessive or a person becomes pinned to the rack. Alternately
debris for culvert openings can be caught upstream from the opening by using pipes placed in
the ground or a chain safety net (USBR, 1978, UDFCD, 1991). Racks can be hinged on top to
allow for easy opening and cleaning.

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The control for the outlet should not shift to the grate. Nor should the grate cause the
headwater to rise above planned levels. Therefore head losses through the grate should be
calculated. A number of empirical loss equations though many have difficult to estimate
variables. For a discussion of head loss related to grates with example empirical loss equations
see Debo & Reese, 1994.

Figure 6-12 Minimum Rack Size vs. Outlet Diameter (UDCFD, 1992)

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6.10 References

Brater, E.F. and H.W. King. 1976. Handbook of Hydraulics. 6th ed. New York: McGrase
Hill Book Company.

Chow, C.N. 1959. Open Channel Hydraulics. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company.

Debo, Thomas N. and Andrew J. Reese. 1994. Municipal Stormwater Management. Lewis
Publishers: CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida.

Sandvik, G.B. and G.F. Sowers. 1970. Introductory Soil Mechanics and Foundations. 3rd ed.
New : York: MacMillan Publishing Company.

Spangler, M.G. and R.L. Handy. 1982. Soil Engineering. 4th ed. New York: Harper & Row.

Stormwater Management Manuel – Volume 2 Procedures. July 1988. Metropolitan

Government of Nashville and Davidson County. The EDGe Group, Inc. and CH2M Hill.

Wycuff, R.L. and U.P. Singh. “Preliminary Hydrologic Design of Small Flood Detention
Reservoirs. Water Resources Bulletin. Vol. 12, No. 2, pp 337-49.

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Table 6-8 General Application Controls

STORMWATER TREATMENT
WATER QUALITY PERFORMANCE SITE APPLICABILITY IMPLEMENTATION CONSIDERATIONS
STRUCTURAL SUITABILITY
STRUCTURAL
CONTROL
CONTROL
CATEGORY
Overbank Drainage Space Req'd Minimum
Channel Water TSS/Sediment Nutrient Bacteria Hotspot Depth to Residential Capital Maintenance
Flood Area (% of tributary Site Slope Head Ultra Urban
Protection Quality Removal Removal Removal Application Water Table Usage Cost Burden
Protection (acres) imp. Area) Required
Wet Pond X X X Good Good Good X X Low Low
25 min **
Wet ED Pond X X X Good Good Good X 2 feet, if X Low Low
Ponds Micropool ED 2-3% 15% max 6 to 8 ft hotspot or
X X X Good Fair ND X 10 min** aquifer X Low Moderate
Pond
Multiple Ponds X X X Good Good Good X 25 min ** X Low Low

Shallow Wetland X X X Good Good Good X X Moderate Moderate

2 feet, if
3 to 5 ft
Shallow ED 25 min hotspot or
Wetlands X X X Good Good Good X 3-5% 8% max X
Wetland aquifer Moderate Moderate
Pond/Wetland X X X Good Good Good X 6 to 8 ft
Pocket Wetland X X Good Good Good X 5 min 2 to 3 ft below WT X X Moderate High
Surface Sand
X Good Fair Fair X 10 max*** 5 ft X High High
Filter
2-3%
Filtering Perimeter Sand
X Good Fair Fair X 2 max*** 6% max 2 to 3 ft 2 feet X High High
Systems Filter
Bioretention
X Good Fair ND X 5 max*** 5% 5 ft X X Moderate Moderate
Filter
Open Dry Swale X Good Fair Poor X 5 max 3 to 5 ft 2 feet X Moderate Low
10-20% 4% max
Channels Wet Swale X Good Fair Poor X 5 max 1 ft below WT X High Low
Infiltration
Infiltration X Good Good Fair 5 max 2-3% 6% max 1ft 4 feet X X High High
Trench

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Table 6-9 Limited/Special Application Controls

STORMWATER TREATMENT
WATER QUALITY PERFORMANCE SITE APPLICABILITY IMPLEMENTATION CONSIDERATIONS
SUITABILITY
STRUCTURAL
STRUCTURAL
CONTROL
CONTROL
CATEGORY
Overbank Space Req'd (% Minimum Depth to
Channel Water TSS/Sediment Nutrient Bacteria Hotspot Drainage Site Residential Ultra Capital Maintenance
Flood of tributary imp. Head Water
Protection Quality Removal Removal Removal Application Area (acres) Slope Usage Urban Cost Burden
Protection Area) Required Table
Wetlands X X X X 2% max X High High
Organic Filter X X 5 max** 2-3% 6% max 2 to 4 ft 2 feet High High
Underground Sand
Filter X X 2 max** None 6% max 5 to 7 ft 2 feet X High High
Filter Strips X X 6% max Low Moderate

Filtering Systems Catch Basin Inserts X X less than 1 None X Moderate High
Open Channels Grass Channel X 5 max 4% max Low Moderate
Infiltration Dry Wells X less than 1 None X Low Moderate
Alum Treatment
Chemical Treatment System X X X High High
Detention X X 5 max None X High Low

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Table 6-10 General Application Controls – Specific Criteria

STRUCTURAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC FACTORS SPECIAL WATERSHED CONSIDERATIONS

CONTROL SOILS
CATEGORY High Quality Reservoir
Low Relief High Relief Aquifer Protection
Stream Protection

Limit maximum
Embankment May require liner if
normal pool "A" soils may Require control of Require control of
heights "A" soils are
depth to about 4 require pond liner CP CP
restricted present
feet (dugout)
Ponds
Providing pond "B" soils may
drain can be require infiltration Pretreat hotspots
problematic testing
2 to 4 ft SD from
Water Table
May require liner if
"A" soils are
Embankment present
"A" soils may Require control of Require control of
Wetlands heights
require pond liner CP Pretreat hotspots CP
restricted
2 to 4 ft SD from
Water Table
Should be used in Needs to be
Several design
Clay or silty soils treatment train designed with no
variations will
Filtering Systems may require with another exfiltration (I.e.
likely be limited
pretreatment control to provided outflow to
by low head
CP groundwater
Generally
feasible Should be used in
however slope Often infeasible treatment train Hotspot runoff Hotspot runoff
Open Channels <1% may lead if slopes are with another must be must be
to standing 4% or greater control to provided adequately treated adequately treated
water in dry CP
swales

Maximum slope Should be used in SD from well and SC from bedrock

Minimum
of 6% treatment train water table and water table
distance to Infiltration rate >
Infiltration with another
water table of 2 Trenches must 0.5 inch/hr
control to provided
feet have flat No hotspot runoff Pretreat runoff
CP
bottom
Chemical
Treatment
Providing drain
Detention can be
problematic

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