Appendix C

Drainage Design Manual - 2002 Detention Storage

APPENDIX C DETENTION STORAGE

C.1 INTRODUCTION

C.1.1 OVERVIEW

The traditional design of storm drainage systems has been to collect and convey storm
runoff as rapidly as possible to a suitable location where it can be discharged. As areas
urbanize this type of design may result in major drainage and flooding problems
downstream. Under favorable conditions, the temporary storage of some of the storm
runoff can decrease downstream flows and often the cost of the downstream conveyance
system. Detention storage facilities can range from small facilities contained in parking
lots or other on-site facilities to large lakes and reservoirs. This chapter provides general
design criteria for detention/retention storage basins as well as procedures for performing
preliminary and final sizing and reservoir routing calculations. Storage and flood routing
associated with culverts is addressed in Chapter 7: Culverts (note: criteria in this chapter
does not necessarily apply to routine culvert design).

C.1.2 LOCATION CONSIDERATIONS

It should be noted that the location of storage facilities is very important as it relates to
the effectiveness of these facilities to control downstream flooding. Small facilities will
only have minimal flood control benefits and these benefits will quickly diminish as the
flood wave travels downstream. Multiple storage facilities located in the same drainage
basin will affect the timing of the runoff through the conveyance system which could
decrease or increase flood peaks in different downstream locations. Thus it is important
for the designer to design storage facilities as a drainage structure that both controls
runoff from a defined area and interacts with other drainage structures within the
drainage basin. Effective stormwater management must be coordinated on a regional or
basin-wide planning basis.

C.1.3 DETENTION AND RETENTION

Stormwater storage facilities are often referred to as either detention or retention

facilities. For the purposes of this chapter, detention facilities are those that are designed
to reduce the peak discharge and only detain runoff for some short period of time. These
facilities are designed to completely drain after the design storm has passed. Recharge
basins are a special type of detention basin designed to drain into the groundwater table;
these are not addressed in this manual. Retention facilities are designed to contain a
permanent pool of water. Since most of the design procedures are the same for detention
and retention facilities, the term storage facilities will be used in this chapter to include
detention and retention facilities. If special procedures are needed for detention or
retention facilities these will be specified.

C.1.4 COMPUTER PROGRAMS

Routing calculations needed to design storage facilities, although not extremely complex,
are time consuming and repetitive. To assist with these calculations there are many
available reservoir routing computer programs. Also, the storage indicator method can be

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used which makes calculations simple. All storage facilities shall be designed and
analyzed using reservoir routing calculations.

C.2 USES

C.2.1 INTRODUCTION

The use of storage facilities for stormwater management has increased dramatically in
recent years. The benefits of storage facilities can be divided into two major control
categories of quality and quantity.

C.2.2 QUALITY

Control of stormwater quality using storage facilities offers the following potential
benefits:

• decrease downstream channel erosion,

• control of sediment deposition, and
• improved water quality through stormwater filtration (wet ponds only).

C.2.3 QUANTITY

Controlling the quantity of stormwater using storage facilities can provide the following
potential benefits:

• prevention or reduction of peak runoff rate increases caused by urban development,

• mitigation of downstream drainage capacity problems,
• recharge of groundwater resources,
• reduction or elimination of the need for downstream outfall improvements, and
• maintenance of historic low flow rates by controlled discharge from storage.

C.2.4 OBJECTIVES

The objectives for managing stormwater quantity by storage facilities are typically based
on limiting peak runoff rates to match one or more of the following values:

• historic rates for specific design conditions (i.e., post-development peak equals pre-
development peak for a particular frequency of occurrence),
• non hazardous discharge capacity of the downstream drainage system, and
• a specified value for allowable discharge set by a regulatory jurisdiction.

For a catchment area with no positive outfall, the total volume of runoff is critical and
retention storage facilities are used to store the increases in volume and control discharge
rates.

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C.3 SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS

To provide consistency within this chapter as well as throughout this manual, the
following symbols will be used. These symbols were selected because of their wide use
in technical publications. In some cases the same symbol is used in existing publications
for more than one definition. Where this occurs in this chapter, the symbol will be
defined where it occurs in the text or equations.

Table C-1 Symbols and Definitions

Symbol Definition Units

A Cross sectional or surface area m2
C Weir coefficient -
d Change in elevation m
D Depth of basin or diameter of pipe m
t Routing time period sec
g Acceleration due to gravity m/s2
H Head on structure m
HC Height of weir crest above channel bottom m
I Inflow rate m3/s
L Length m
Q Flow or outflow rate m3/s
S, Vs Storage volume m3
tb Time base on hydrograph Hrs
TI Duration of basin inflow Hrs
tp Time to peak Hrs
W Width of basin M
z Side slope factor -

C.4 DESIGN CRITERIA

C.4.1 GENERAL CRITERIA

Storage may be concentrated in large basin-wide or regional facilities or distributed

throughout an urban drainage system. Possible dispersed or on-site storage may be
developed in depressed areas in parking lots, road embankments and highway
interchanges, parks and other recreation areas, and small lakes, ponds and depressions
within urban developments. The utility of any storage facility depends on the amount of
storage, its location within the system, and its operational characteristics. An analysis of
such storage facilities should consist of comparing the design flow at a point or points
downstream of the proposed storage site with and without storage. In addition to the
design flow, other flows in excess of the design flow that might be expected to pass
through the storage facility shall be included in the analysis (i.e., 100-year flood). The
design criteria for storage facilities should include:
• release rate,
• storage volume,
• grading and depth requirements,
• outlet works, and
• location.

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C.4.2 RELEASE RATE

Control structure release rates should approximate the peak runoff rates prior to the
installation of the detention storage for the 2-year through 10-year storms, with
emergency overflow capable of handling the 100-year discharge. Design calculations are
required to demonstrate that runoff from the 2- and 10-year design storms are controlled.
If so, runoff from intermediate storm return periods can be assumed to be adequately
controlled. Multi-stage control structures may be required to control both runoff from the
2- and 10-year storms.

C.4.3 STORAGE

Storage volume shall be adequate to attenuate the post-development peak discharge rates
and volumes to pre-developed discharge rates for the 2-year through 10-year storms, or
other design storms depending on what the design capacity of the downstream system.
Routing calculations must be used to demonstrate that the storage volume is adequate. If
sedimentation during construction causes loss of detention volume, design dimensions
shall be restored before completion of the project. For detention basins, all detention
volume shall be drained within the average period between storm events ((12h)).

C.4.4 GRADING AND DEPTH

Following is a discussion of the general grading and depth criteria for storage facilities
followed by criteria related to detention and retention facilities.

General

The construction of storage facilities usually requires excavation or placement of earthen

embankments to obtain sufficient storage volume. Vegetated embankments shall be less
than 6 meters in height and should have side slopes no steeper than 3:1 (horizontal to
vertical). Riprap-protected embankments shall be no steeper than 2:1. Geotechnical slope
stability analysis is recommended for embankments greater than 3 meters in height and is
mandatory for embankment slopes steeper than those given above. Procedures for
performing slope stability evaluations can be found in most soil engineering textbooks
(4,5).

A minimum freeboard of 0.3 meters above the 100-year design storm high water
elevation shall be provided for impoundment depths of up to 6 meters.

Other considerations when setting depths include flood elevation requirements, public
safety, land availability, land value, crop value, present and future land use, water table
fluctuations, soil characteristics, maintenance requirements, and required freeboard.
Aesthetically pleasing features are also important in urbanizing areas.

Detention

Areas above the normal high water elevations of storage facilities shall be sloped at a
minimum of 5 percent toward the facilities to allow drainage and to prevent standing
water. Careful finish grading is required to avoid creation of upland surface depressions
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that may retain runoff. The bottom area of storage facilities shall be graded toward the
outlet to prevent standing water conditions. A minimum 2 percent bottom slope is
recommended. A low flow or pilot channel constructed across the facility bottom from
the inlet to the outlet is recommended to convey low flows, and prevent standing water
conditions.
Retention
The maximum depth of permanent storage facilities will be determined by site
conditions, design constraints, and environmental needs. In general, if the facility
provides a permanent pool of water, a depth sufficient to discourage growth of weeds
(without creating undue potential for anaerobic bottom conditions) shall be considered.
A depth of 2-2.5 meters is generally reasonable. Where aquatic habitat is required the
cognizant wildlife experts shall be contacted for site-specific criteria relating to such
things as depth, habitat, and bottom and shore geometry.

C.4.5 OUTLET WORKS

Outlet works selected for storage facilities typically include a principal spillway and an
emergency overflow, and must be able to accomplish the design functions of the facility.
Outlet works can take the form of combinations of drop inlets, pipes, weirs, and orifices.
Slotted riser pipes are discouraged because of clogging problems. The principal spillway
is intended to convey the design storm without allowing flow to enter an emergency
outlet. For large storage facilities, selecting a flood magnitude for sizing the emergency
outlet shall be consistent with the potential threat to downstream life and property if the
basin embankment were to fail. The minimum flood to be used to size the emergency
outlet is the 100-year flood. The sizing of a particular outlet works shall be based on
results of hydrologic routing calculations.

C.4.6 LOCATION

In addition to controlling the peak discharge from the outlet works, storage facilities will
change the timing of the entire hydrograph. If several storage facilities are located within
a particular basin it is important to determine what effects a particular facility may have
on combined hydrographs in downstream locations. For all storage facilities, channel
routing calculations shall proceed downstream to a confluence point where the drainage
area being analyzed represents twenty percent of the total drainage area. At this point the
effect of the hydrograph routed through the proposed storage facility on the downstream
hydrograph shall be assessed and shown not to have detrimental effects on downstream
areas.

C.5 DAMS
CLASSIFICATION

Dams are classified as either new or existing, by hazard potential, and by size. Hazard
potential categories are listed below:

Category 1 dams are located where failure would probably result in:

• loss of human life,

• excessive economic loss due to damage of downstream properties,
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• public hazard, or
• public inconvenience due to loss of impoundment and/or damage to roads or any
public or private utilities.

Category 2 dams are located where failure may damage downstream private or public
property, but such damage would be relatively minor and within the general financial
capabilities of the dam owner. Public hazard or inconvenience due to loss of roads or any
public or private utilities would be minor and of short duration. Chances of loss of human
life would be possible but remote.

Category 3 dams are located where failure may damage uninhabitable structures or land
but such damage would probably be confined to the dam owner's property. No loss of
human life would be expected.

Table C-2 Size Categories for Dams in Ethiopia

Category Storage (m3x1000) Height (m)

Small 30 to < 1,200 8 to < 12

Intermediate 1,200 to 50,000 12 to 30
Large > 50,000 > 30

C.6 GENERAL PROCEDURE

C.6.1 DATA NEEDS

The following data will be needed to complete storage design and routing calculations.
• Inflow hydrograph for all selected design storms.
• Stage-storage curve for proposed storage facility (see Figure C-1 below for an
example).
• Stage-discharge curve for all outlet control structures (see Figure C-2 below for an
example).

Using these data a design procedure is used to route the inflow hydrograph through the
storage facility with different basin and outlet geometry until the desired outflow
hydrograph is achieved (see example C.9).

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C.6.2 STAGE-STORAGE CURVE

A stage-storage curve defines the relationship between the depth of water and storage
volume in a reservoir.

Figure C-1 Example Stage-Storage Curve for Storage Facility

The data for this type of curve are usually developed using a topographic map and the
double-end area frustum of a pyramid or prismoidal formula.
The double-end area formula is expressed as:

Vl,2 = [(Al + A2)/2]d (C.1)

Where:
V1.2 = storage volume, m3, between elevations 1 and 2
A1 = surface area at elevation 1, m2
A2 = surface area at elevation 2, m2
d = change in elevation between points 1 and 2, m

The frustum of a pyramid is expressed as:

V = d/3 [Al + (A1A2)0.5 + A2] (C.2)
Where:
V = volume of frustum of a pyramid, m3
d = change in elevation between points 1 and 2, m
A1 = surface area at elevation 1, m2
A2 = surface area at elevation 2, m2
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The prismoidal formula for trapezoidal basins is expressed as:

V = LWD + (L + W) ZD2 + 4/3 Z2 D3 (C.3)

Where:
V = volume of trapezoidal basin, m3
L = length of basin at base, m
W = width of basin at base, m
D = depth of basin, m
Z = side slope factor, ratio of vertical to horizontal

C.6.3 STAGE-DISCHARGE CURVE

A stage-discharge curve defines the relationship between the depth of water and the
discharge or outflow from a storage facility. A typical storage facility has two spillways:
principal and emergency. The principal spillway is usually designed with a capacity
sufficient to convey the design flood without allowing flow to enter the emergency
spillway. A pipe culvert, weir, or other appropriate outlet can be used for the principal
spillway or outlet.

Figure C-2 Example of stage discharge curve

The emergency spillway is sized to provide a bypass for floodwater during a flood that
exceeds the design capacity of the principal spillway. This spillway shall be designed
taking into account the potential threat to downstream life and property if the storage
facility were to fail.

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The stage-discharge curve should take into account the discharge characteristics of both
the principal and emergency spillways.

C.6.4 PROCEDURE

A general procedure for using the above data in the design of storage facilities is
presented below. See also flowchart C-1 at the end of this section for a graphical
presentation of the procedure.

Step 1

Compute inflow hydrograph for runoff from the 2-, 10-, and 100-year design storms
using the procedures outlined in Chapter 5: Hydrology. Both pre- and post-development
hydrographs are required for the 2- and 10-year design storms. Only the post-
development hydrograph is required for runoff from the 100-year design storm.

Step 2

Perform preliminary calculations to evaluate detention storage requirements for the

hydrographs from Step 1 (see Section C.8). If storage requirements are satisfied for
runoff from the 2- and 10-year design storms, runoff from intermediate storms is
assumed to be controlled.

Step 3
Determine the physical dimensions necessary to hold the estimated volume from Step 2,
including freeboard. The maximum storage requirement calculated from Step 2 shall be
used.

Step 4

Size the outlet structure. The estimated peak stage will occur for the estimated volume
from Step 2. The outlet structure shall be sized to convey the allowable discharge at this
stage.

Step 5

Perform routing calculations using inflow hydrographs from Step 1 to check the
preliminary design using the storage routing equations. If the routed post-development
peak discharges from the 2- and 10-year design storms exceed the pre-development peak
discharges, or if the peak stage varies significantly from the estimated peak stage from
Step 4, then revise the estimated volume and return to step 3.

Step 6

Consider emergency overflow from runoff due to the 100-year (or larger) design storm
and established freeboard requirements.

Step 7

Evaluate the downstream effects of detention outflow to ensure that the routed
hydrograph does not cause downstream flooding problems. The exit hydrograph from the

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storage facility shall be routed though the downstream channel system until a confluence
point is reached where the drainage area being analyzed represents twenty percent of the
total drainage area.
Step 8
Evaluate the control structure outlet velocity and provide channel and bank stabilization
if the velocity will cause erosion problems downstream.
This procedure can involve a significant number of reservoir routing calculations to
obtain the desired results.

C.7 OUTLET HYDRAULICS

C.7.1 OUTLETS

Sharp-crested weir flow equations for no end contractions, two end contractions, and
submerged discharge conditions are presented below, followed by equations for broad-
crested weirs, v-notch weirs, proportional weirs, and orifices, or combinations of these
facilities. If culverts are used as outlets works, procedures presented in Chapter 7:
Culverts shall be used to develop stage-discharge data. Slotted riser pipe outlet facilities
shall be avoided.

C.7.2 SHARP-CRESTED WEIRS

A sharp-crested weir with no end contractions is illustrated in Figure C-3. The discharge
equation for this configuration is (Chow, 1959):

Q = [(1.805 + 0.221(H/Hc)] LH1.5 (C.4)

Where:
Q = discharge, m3/s
H = head above weir crest excluding velocity head, m
Hc = height of weir crest above channel bottom, m
L = horizontal weir length, m

Figure C-3 Figure C-4

Sharp-Crested Weir Sharp-Crested Weir
No End Contractions (Two End Contractions)

A sharp-crested weir with two end contractions is illustrated in Figure C-4. The
discharge equation for this configuration is (Chow, 1959):

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Q = [(1.805 + 0.221(H/Hc)] (L - 0.2H) H1.5 (C.5)

Where:Variables are the same as equation C.4.

Figure C-5 Sharp-Crested Weir and Head

A sharp-crested weir will be affected by submergence when the tailwater rim above the
weir crest elevation. The result will be that the discharge over the weir will be reduced.
The discharge equation for a sharp-crested submerged weir is (Brater and King, 1976):

Qs = Qf(1 - (H2/H1)1.5)0.385 (C.6)

Where:
Qs = submergence flow, m3/s
Qf = free flow, m3/s
H1 = upstream head above crest, m
H2 = downstream head above crest, m

C.7.3 BROAD-CRESTED WEIRS

The equation generally used for the broad-crested weir is (Brater and King, 1976):

Q = CLH1.5 (C.7)
Where:
Q = discharge, m3/s
C = broad-crested weir coefficient
L = broad-crested weir length, m
H = head above weir crest, m

If the upstream edge of a broad-crested weir is so rounded as to prevent contraction and if

the slope of the crest is as great as the loss of head due to friction, flow will pass through
critical depth at the weir crest; this gives the maximum C value of 1.740. For sharp
corners on the broad-crested weir, a minimum C value of 1.435 shall be used. Additional
information on C values as a function of weir crest breadth and head is given in Table C-
3.

C.7.4 V-NOTCH WEIRS

The discharge through a v-notch weir can be calculated from the following equation
(Brater and King, 1976).

Q = 1.38 tan(θ/2)H2.5 (C.8)

Where:
Q = discharge, m3/s
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θ = angle of v-notch, degrees

H = head on apex of notch, m

C.7.5 PROPORTIONAL WEIRS

Although more complex to design and construct, a proportional weir may significantly
reduce the required storage volume for a given site. The proportional weir is
distinguished from other control devices by having a linear head-discharge relationship
achieved by allowing the discharge area to vary nonlinearly with head.

Table C-3
Broad-Crested Weir Coefficient C Values as a Function of Weir Crest Breadth and
Head Weir Crest Breadth (m)

Measured Breadth of the Crest of Weir (m)

Head, H1
(m) 0.15 0.23 0.30 0.46 0.61 0.76 0.91 1.22 1.52 3.05 4.57

0.06 1.55 1.52 1.49 1.45 1.40 1.37 1.35 1.31 1.29 1.37 1.48
0.12 1.61 1.55 1.50 1.46 1.44 1.44 1.42 1.40 1.38 1.41 1.49
0.18 1.70 1.60 1.52 1.46 1.44 1.44 1.48 1.49 1.49 1.49 1.49
0.24 1.82 1.68 1.57 1.48 1.44 1.44 1.47 1.48 1.48 1.49 1.46
0.30 1.83 1.73 1.65 1.52 1.47 1.46 1.46 1.47 1.48 1.48 1.45
0.37 1.83 1.77 1.70 1.58 1.49 1.46 1.46 1.47 1.47 1.49 1.46
0.43 1.83 1.80 1.77 1.61 1.53 1.48 1.46 1.46 1.46 1.47 1.46
0.49 1.83 1.82 1.81 1.69 1.59 1.52 1.48 1.47 1.46 1.46 1.45
0.55 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.69 1.60 1.52 1.48 1.47 1.46 1.46 1.45
0.61 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.69 1.64 1.52 1.55 1.48 1.46 1.46 1.45
0.76 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.81 1.69 1.60 1.55 1.50 1.47 1.46 1.45
0.91 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.77 1.68 1.60 1.51 1.47 1.46 1.45
1.07 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.76 1.68 1.52 1.48 1.46 1.45
1.22 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.76 1.54 1.49 1.46 1.45
1.37 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.59 1.51 1.46 1.45
1.52 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.69 1.54 1.46 1.45
1.68 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.59 1.46 1.45
1
Measured at least 2.5H upstream of the weir.
Reference: Brater and King (1976).

Design equations for proportional weirs are (Sandvik, 1985):

Q = 2.74 a0.5 b(H - a/3) (C.9)

x/b = 1 - (1/3.17) (arctan (y/a)0.5) (C.10)

Where:
Q = discharge, m3/s
Dimensions a, b, h, x, and y are shown below in mm

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Figure C-6 Proportional Weir Dimensions

C.7.6 ORIFICES

Pipes smaller than 300 mm may be analyzed as a submerged orifice if H/D is greater than
1.5. For square-edged entrance conditions,

Q= 0.6A(2gH)0.5 (C.11)
Where:
Q = discharge, m3/s
A = cross-section area of pipe, m2
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2
D = diameter of pipe, m
H = head on pipe, from the center of pipe to the water surface, m

C.8 PRELIMINARY DETENTION CALCULATIONS

C.8.1 STORAGE VOLUME

A preliminary estimate of the storage volume required for peak flow attenuation may be
obtained from a simplified design procedure that replaces the actual inflow and outflow
hydrographs with the standard triangular shapes shown in Figure C-7 shown below.

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Figure C-7 Triangular Shaped Hydrographs

(For Preliminary Estimate of Required Storage Volume)

The required storage volume may be estimated from the area above the outflow
hydrograph and inside the inflow hydrograph, expressed as:

Vs = 0.5Ti(Qi - Qo) (C.12)

Where:
Vs = storage volume estimate, m3
Qi = peak inflow rate, m3/s
Qo = peak outflow rate, m3/s
Ti = duration of basin inflow, sec

Any consistent units may be used for Equation C.12.

C.8.2 ALTERNATIVE METHOD

An alternative preliminary estimate of the storage volume required for a specified peak
flow reduction can be obtained by the following regression equation procedure (Wycoff
& Singh, 1986).

1. Determine input data, including the allowable peak outflow rate, Qo, the peak
flow rate of the inflow hydrograph, Qi,- the time base of the inflow hydrograph, tb, and
the time to peak of the inflow hydrograph, tp.

2. Calculate a preliminary estimate of the ratio Vs/Vr using the input data from Step
1 and the following equation:

Vs/Vr [1.291(1-Qo/Qi)0.753]/[(tb/tp)0.411] (C.13)

Where:

Vs = volume of storage, m3
Vr = volume of runoff, m3

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Qo = outflow peak flow, m3/s

QI = inflow peak flow, m3/s
tb = time base of the inflow hydrograph, h (Determined as the time from the
beginning of rise to a point on the recession limb where the flow is 5
percent of the peak.)
tp = time to peak of the inflow hydrograph, h

3. Multiply the peak flow rate of the inflow hydrograph, Qi, times the potential peak
flow reduction calculated in Step 2 to obtain the estimated peak outflow rate, Qo, for the
selected storage volume.

C.8.3 PEAK FLOW REDUCTION

A preliminary estimate of the potential peak flow reduction for a selected storage volume
can be obtained by the following procedure.

1. Determine the following:

• volume of runoff, Vr
• peak flow rate of the inflow hydrograph, Qi
• time base of the inflow hydrograph, tb
• time to peak of the inflow hydrograph, tp
• storage volume, Vs

2. Calculate a preliminary estimate of the potential peak flow reduction for the
selected storage volume using the following equation (Singh, 1976):

Qo/Qi = 1 - 0.712(VS/Vr)1.328(tb/tp)0.546 (C.14)

Where:
Qo = outflow peak flow, m3/s
Qi = inflow peak flow, m3/s
Vs = volume of storage, m3
Vr = volume of runoff, m3
tb = time base of the inflow hydrograph, h (Determined as the time
from the beginning of rise to a point on the recession limb
where the flow is 5 percent of the peak.)
tp = time to peak of the inflow hydrograph, in hours

3. Multiply the peak flow rate of the inflow hydrograph, Qi, times the potential peak
flow reduction calculated from step 2 to obtain the estimated peak outflow rate, Qo, for
the selected storage volume (see third example in C.10).

C.9 ROUTING CALCULATIONS

The following procedure is used to perform routing through a reservoir or storage facility
(Puls Method of storage routing). A flowchart presenting this procedure can be found at
the end of this section (Flow-chart C-2)

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Step 1

Develop an inflow hydrograph, stage-discharge curve, and stage-storage curve for the
proposed storage facility. Example stage-storage and stage-discharge curves are shown
in Figures C-1 and C-2.

Step 2

Select a routing time period, ∆t, to provide at least five points on the rising limb of the
inflow hydrograph (∆t < Tc/5).

Step 3

Use the storage-discharge data from Step I to develop storage characteristics curves that
provide values of S + (O/2)∆t versus stage. An example tabulation of storage
characteristics curve data is shown in Table C-4.

Table C-4 Storage Characteristics

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
1 2
Stage Storage Dischrage S-(0/2)∆t S + (O/2)∆
3 3
(m) (m ) (m /s) (m3) (m3)
30.00 62 0 62 62
30.25 370 15 244 496
30.50 987 35 686 1288
30.75 1974 63 1439 2509
31.00 3454 95 2645 4263
31.25 5427 143 4210 6644
31.50 8141 200 6440 9842
31.75 12355 275 9990 14680
1
Obtained from the Stage-Storage Curve.
2
Obtained from the Stage-Discharge Curve.
Note: t = 10 minutes = 0. 167 hours

Step 4

For a given time interval, I1 and I2 are known. Given the depth of storage or stage, H1, at
the beginning of that time interval, S1-(O1/2)∆t can be determined from the appropriate
storage characteristics curve (example Figure C-8 given below).
Step 5
Determine the value of S2 + (O2/2)∆t from the following equation:

S2 + (O2/2) ∆t = [S1 - (O1/2) ∆t] + [(I1 + I2)/2 ∆t] (C.15)

Where:
S2 = storage volume at time 2, m3
O2 = outflow rate at time 2, m3/s
∆t = routing time period, sec
S1 = storage volume at time 1, m3/s
O1 = outflow rate at time 1, m3/s
I1 = inflow rate at time 1, m3/s
I2 = inflow rate at time 2, m3/s
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Other consistent units are equally appropriate.

Figure C-8 Storage Characteristic Curve

Step 6
Enter the storage characteristics curve at the calculated value of S2+(O2/2)∆t determined
in Step 5 and read off a new depth of water, H2.
Step 7
Determine the value of O2, which corresponds to a stage of H2 determined in Step 6,
using the stage-discharge curve.
Step 8
Repeat Steps 1 through 7 by setting new values of I1, O1, S1, and H1 equal to the previous
I2, O2, S2, and H2, and using a new I2 value. This process is continued until the entire
inflow hydrograph has been routed through the storage basin.

C.10 EXAMPLE PROBLEM

C.10.1 EXAMPLE

This example demonstrates the application of the methodology presented in this chapter
for the design of a typical detention storage facility. Example inflow hydrographs and
associated peak discharges for both pre- and post-development conditions are assumed to
have been developed using hydrologic methods from Chapter 5: Hydrology.

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C.10.2 DESIGN DISCHARGE AND HYDROGRAPHS

Storage facilities shall be designed for runoff from both the 2- and 10year design storms
and an analysis done using the 100-year design storm runoff to ensure that the structure
can accommodate runoff from this storm without damaging adjacent and downstream
property and structures. Example peak discharges from the 2- and 10-year design storm
events are as follows:

• Pre-developed 2-year peak discharge = 4.25 m3/s

• Pre-developed 10-year peak discharge = 5.66 m3/s
• Post-development 2-year peak discharge = 5.38 m3/s
• Post-development 10-year peak discharge = 7.08 m3/s

Since the post-development peak discharge must not exceed the pre-development peak
discharge, the allowable design discharges are 4.25 and 5.66 m3/s for the 2 and 10-year
storms, respectively.

Example runoff hydrographs are shown in Table C-5 below. Inflow durations from the
post-development hydrographs are about 1.2 and 1.25 hours, respectively, for runoff
from the 2- and 10-year storms.

Table C-5 Example Runoff Hydrographs

Pre-Development Runoff Post-Development Runoff

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Time 2-Year 10-Year 2-Year 10-Year
(Hours) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s)
0 0 0 0 0
0.1 0.51 0.68 1.08 1.42
0.2 1.73 2.29 3.54 5.04
0.3 3.6 4.81 5.38 > 4.25 7.08 > 5.66
0.4 4.25 5.66 3.54 4.67
0.5 3.17 4.25 1.98 2.55
0.6 2.01 2.69 1.1 1.42
0.7 1.27 1.73 0.62 0.82
0.8 0.85 1.13 0.34 0.45
0.9 0.59 0.79 0.2 0.25
1.0 0.37 0.51 0.11 0.14
1.1 0.28 0.42 0.06 0.08
1.2 0.23 0.37 0 0.03

C.10.3 PRELIMINARY VOLUME CALCULATIONS

Preliminary estimates of required storage volumes are obtained using the simplified
method outlined in Section C.8. For runoff from the 2- and 10-year storms, the required
storage volumes, Vs, are computed using equation C.12:

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Vs = 0.5Ti (Qi – Q0)

2-year storm: Vs = 0.5(1.2 x 3,600)(5.38 – 4.25) = 2441 m3

10-year storm: Vs = 0.5(1.25 x 3,600)(7.08 – 5.66) = 3195 m3

C.10.4 DESIGN AND ROUTING CALCULATIONS

Stage-discharge and stage-storage characteristics of a storage facility that should provide

adequate peak flow attenuation for runoff from both the 2- and 10-year design storms are
presented in Tables C-7 and C-8. The storage-discharge relationship was developed by
requiring the preliminary storage volume estimates of runoff for both the 2-and 10-year
design storms to be provided when the corresponding allowable peak discharges
occurred. Storage values were computed by solving the broad-crested weir equation for
head, H, assuming a constant discharge coefficient of 1.71, a weir length of 1.22 m, and
no tailwater submergence. The capacity of storage relief structures was assumed to be
negligible.

Table C-6 Stage-Discharge-Storage Data

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Stage Q S S1 - (O/2)∆t S1 + (O/2)∆t
(m) (m3/s) (m3) (m3) (m3)
0.00 0 0 0.0 0.0
0.27 0.3 320 266 1093
0.46 0.6 520 403 2360
0.57 0.9 690 528 3266
0.65 1.1 850 652 3993
0.77 1.4 1000 748 5077
0.87 1.7 1150 844 6162
0.97 2.0 1295 935 7247
1.07 2.3 1445 1031 8332
1.17 2.6 1580 1103 9595
1.25 2.9 1725 1203 10500
1.38 3.4 2010 1398 12310
1.47 3.7 2160 1494 13395
1.54 4.0 2310 1590 14480
1.61 4.2 2441 1676 15384
1.69 4.6 2590 1762 16648
1.77 4.9 2740 1858 17733
1.81 5.1 2885 1967 18458
1.95 5.7 3195 2176 20485
2.07 6.2 3490 2374 22439
2.13 6.5 3640 2470 23524
2.25 7.0 3960 2700 25335

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Table C-7 Storage Routing for the 2-Year Storm

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

Time Inflow [(I1+I2)]/2 H1 S1-(O1/2)∆t S2+(O2/2)∆t H2 Outflow
(hrs) (m3/s) (m3) (m) (m3) (m3) (m) (m3/s)
(3)+(5)

0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.00

0.1 1.08 194.4 0.00 0.0 194.4 0.10 0.08
0.2 3.54 831.6 0.13 123.3 954.9 0.50 1.02
0.3 5.38 1605.6 0.62 616.7 2222.3 0.99 2.80
0.4 3.54 1605.6 1.22 1221.2 2826.8 1.21 3.68 < 4.25 OK
0.5 1.98 993.6 1.46 1492.5 2486.1 1.12 3.23
0.6 1.10 554.4 1.34 1381.5 1935.9 0.87 2.41
0.7 0.62 309.6 1.10 1073.1 1382.7 0.65 1.56
0.8 0.34 172.8 0.82 801.8 974.6 0.50 1.05
0.9 0.20 97.2 0.63 616.7 713.9 0.42 0.76
1.0 0.11 55.8 0.52 518.1 573.9 0.32 0.51
1.1 0.06 30.6 0.40 394.7 425.3 0.25 0.34
1.2 0.00 10.8 0.30 308.4 319.2 0.15 0.20
1.3 0.00 0.0 0.21 185.0 185.0 0.12 0.08

Table C-8 Storage Routing for the 10-Year Storm

0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.00

0.1 1.42 255.6 0.00 0.0 255.6 0.12 0.08
0.2 5.04 1162.8 0.12 98.7 1261.5 0.76 1.39
0.3 7.08 2181.6 0.76 740.1 2921.7 1.49 3.79
0.4 4.67 2115.0 1.49 1554.2 3669.2 1.77 4.90 < 5.66 OK
0.5 2.55 1299.6 1.77 1603.5 2903.1 1.51 3.88
0.6 1.42 714.6 1.51 1541.9 2256.5 1.25 2.92
0.7 0.82 403.2 1.25 1233.5 1636.7 0.94 1.93
0.8 0.45 228.6 0.94 925.1 1153.7 0.73 1.30
0.9 0.25 126.0 0.73 727.8 853.8 0.58 0.91
1.0 0.14 70.2 0.58 542.7 612.9 0.43 0.59
1.1 0.08 39.6 0.43 407.0 446.6 0.37 0.45
1.2 0.03 19.8 0.37 345.4 365.2 0.27 0.31
1.3 0.00 0.0 0.27 271.4 271.4 0.18 0.17

Storage routing was conducted for runoff from both the 2- and 10-year design storms to
confirm the preliminary storage volume estimates and to establish design water surface
elevations. Routing results using the Stage-Discharge-Storage Data given on the previous
page and the Storage Characteristics Curves given on Figures C-1 and C-2, and 0.1-hour
time steps are shown below for runoff from the 2- and 10- year design storms,
respectively. The preliminary design provides adequate peak discharge attenuation for
both the 2- and 10-year design storms.

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For the routing calculations the following equation was used:

S2 + (O2/2) ∆t = [S1 - (O1/2) ∆t] + [(I1 + I2)/2 ∆t]

Also, column 6 = column 3 + column 5

Since the routed peak discharge is lower than the maximum allowable peak discharges
for both design storm events, the weir length could be increased or the storage decreased.
If revisions are desired, routing calculations must be repeated.

Although not shown for this example, runoff from the 100-year storm shall be routed
through the storage facility to establish freeboard requirements and to evaluate
emergency overflow and stability requirements. In addition, the preliminary design
provides hydraulic details only. Final design should consider site constraints such as
depth to water, side slope stability and maintenance, grading to prevent standing water,
and provisions for public safety.

C.10.5 DOWNSTREAM EFFECTS

An estimate of the potential downstream effects (i.e., increased peak flow rate and
recession time) of detention storage facilities may be obtained by comparing hydrograph
recession limbs from the pre-development and routed post-development runoff
hydrographs. Example comparisons are shown below for the 10-year design storms.

Potential effects on downstream facilities shall be minor when the maximum difference
between the recession limbs of the pre-developed and routed outflow hydrographs is less
than about 20 percent. As shown in Figure C-9, the example results are well below 20
percent, downstream effects can thus be considered negligible and downstream flood
routing omitted.

C.11 LAND-LOCKED RETENTION

C.11.1 INTRODUCTION

Catchment area areas that drain to a central depression with no positive outlet (ie- some
eastern lakes) are typical of many topographic areas including karst topography, and can
be evaluated using a mass flow routing procedure to estimate flood elevations. Although
this procedure is fairly straightforward, the evaluation of basin outflow is a complex
hydrogeologic phenomenon that requires good field measurements and a thorough
understanding of local conditions. Since outflow rates for flooded conditions are difficult
to calculate, field measurements are desirable.

C.11.2 MASS ROUTING

The steps presented below for the mass routing procedure are illustrated by the example
given in figure C-10 below and resumed in flow chart C-2 at the end of this section.

Step 1
Obtain cumulative rainfall data for the 100-year frequency, duration design event from
Figure C-11.

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Step 2

Calculate the cumulative inflow to the land-locked retention basin using the rainfall data
from Step 1 and runoff procedure from Chapter 5 : Hydrology. Plot the mass inflow to
the retention basin.

Step 3

Develop the basin outflow from field measurements of hydraulic conductivity, taking
into consideration worst-case water table conditions. Hydraulic conductivity shall be
established using in-situ test methods, then results compared to observed performance
characteristics of the site. Plot the mass outflow as a straight line with a slope
corresponding to worst-case outflow in centimeters/hour.

Figure C-9 Run-Off Hydrographs

Step 4

Draw a line tangent to the mass inflow curve from Step 2, which has a slope parallel to
the mass outflow line from Step 3.

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Step 5

Locate the point of tangency between the mass inflow curve of step 2 and the tangent line
drawn for Step 4. The distance from this point of tangency and the mass outflow line
represents the maximum storage required for the design runoff.

Figure C-10 Mass Routing Curve

Step 6

Determine the flood elevation associated with the maximum storage volume determined
in Step 5. Use this flood elevation to evaluate flood protection requirements of the
project. The zero volume elevation shall be established as the normal wet season water
surface or water table elevation or the pit bottom, whichever is highest.

Step 7

If runoff from the project area discharges into a drainage system tributary to the
landlocked depression, detention storage facilities are required to comply with the pre-
development discharge requirements for the project.

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Unless the storage facility is designed as a retention facility, including water budget
calculations, environmental needs and provisions for preventing anaerobic conditions,
relief structures shall be provided to prevent standing water conditions.

Figure C-11 Cumulative Rainfall Data for 100-Year 10-d Design Storm

C.12 RETENTION STORAGE FACILITIES

C.12.1 INTRODUCTION

The use of retention storage facilities which have a permanent pool (wet ponds), is often
discouraged because of the extensive maintenance that is sometimes required. Provisions
for weed control and aeration for prevention of anaerobic conditions shall be considered.
Also, facilities should not be built that have the potential for becoming nuisances or
health hazards. Note, wet ponds are required where water quality problems are to be
addressed.

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C.12.2 WATER BUDGET

Water budget calculations are required for all permanent pool facilities and should
consider performance for average annual conditions. The water budget should consider
all significant inflows and outflows including, but not limited to, rainfall, runoff,
infiltration, exfiltration, evaporation, and outflow.

Average annual runoff may be computed using a weighted runoff coefficient for the
tributary drainage area multiplied by the average annual rainfall volume. Infiltration and
exfiltration shall be based on site-specific soils testing data. Evaporation may be
approximated using the mean monthly pan evaporation or free water surface evaporation
data given below.

C.13 EXAMPLE PROBLEM

C.13.1 EXAMPLE

A shallow basin with an average surface area of 1.21 hectares and a bottom area of 0.81
ha is planned for construction at the outlet of a 40.47 ha catchment area. The catchment
area is estimated to have a post-development runoff coefficient of 0.3. Site-specific soils
testing indicates that the average infiltration rate is about 0.25 cm/h. Determine for
average annual conditions if the facility will function as a retention facility with a
permanent pool.

C.13.2 SOLUTION

1. From rainfall records, the average annual rainfall is about 1270 mm.
2. The mean annual evaporation is 890 mm.
3. The average annual runoff is estimated as-
Runoff = (0.3) (1.27 m) (404,700 m2) = 154,190 m3
4. The average annual evaporation is estimated as:
Evaporation = (0.89 m) (12 100) = 10 770 m3
5. The average annual infiltration is estimated as:
Infiltration = (0.0025 m/hr) (24 hours/day) (365 days/yr) (8100 m2)
Infiltration = 177,390 m3
6. Neglecting basin outflow and assuming no change in storage, the runoff (or
inflow) less evaporation and infiltration losses is:

Net Budget = 154,190 - 10,770 – 177 390 = -33, 970 m3

Thus, the proposed facility will not function as a retention facility with a
permanent pool.

7. Revise pool design as follows:

Average surface area = 0.81 ha and bottom area = 0.40 ha

8. Recompute the evaporation and infiltration

Evaporation = (0.89 m) (8100) = 7210 m3

Infiltration = (0.0025 m)(24h/d)(365d/y) (4000 m2) = 87 600 m3
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9. The revised runoff less evaporation and infiltration losses is:

Net Budget = 154,190 - 7210 - 87600 = +59 380 m3

The revised facility is assumed to function as a retention facility with a permanent pool.

C.14 CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE CONSIDERATIONS

An important step in the design process is identifying whether special provisions are
warranted to properly construct or maintain proposed storage facilities. To assure
acceptable performance and function, storage facilities that require extensive
maintenance are discouraged. The following maintenance problems are typical of urban
detention facilities and facilities shall be designed to minimize problems:

• weed growth,
• grass and vegetation maintenance,
• sedimentation control,
• bank deterioration,
• standing water or soggy surfaces,
• mosquito control,
• blockage of outlet structures,
• litter accumulation, and
• maintenance of fences and perimeter plantings.

Proper design should focus on the elimination or reduction of maintenance requirements

by addressing the potential for problems to develop.

• Both weed growth and grass maintenance may be addressed by constructing side
slopes that can be maintained by hand cutting or by using available power-driven
equipment, such as tractor mowers.
• Sedimentation may be controlled by constructing traps to contain sediment for easy
removal or low-flow channels to reduce erosion and sediment transport.
• Bank deterioration can be controlled with protective lining or by limiting bank slopes.
• Standing water or soggy surfaces may be eliminated by sloping basin bottoms toward
the outlet, constructing low-flow pilot channels across basin bottoms from the inlet to
the outlet, or by constructing underdrain facilities to lower water tables.
• In general, when the above problems are addressed, mosquito control will not be a
major problem.
• Outlet structures shall be selected to minimize the possibility of blockage (i.e., very
small pipes tend to block quite easily and shall be avoided).
• Finally, one way to deal with the maintenance associated with litter and damage to
fences and perimeter plantings is to locate the facility for easy access where this
maintenance can be conducted on a regular basis.

C.15 PROTECTIVE TREATMENT

Protective treatment may be required to prevent entry to facilities that present a hazard to
children and, to a lesser extent, all persons. Fences may be required for detention areas
where one or more of the following conditions exist:
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• Rapid stage increases would make escape practically impossible where small children
frequent the area.
• Water depths either exceed 1.0 meters for more than 24 hours or are permanently wet
and have side slopes steeper than 4: 1.
• A low-flow watercourse or ditch passing through the detention area has a depth
greater than 1.5 meters or a flow velocity greater than 1.5 m/s.
• Side slopes equal or exceed 2:1.

Guards or grates may be appropriate for other conditions, but in all circumstances heavy
debris must be transported through the detention area. In some cases, it may be advisable
to fence the watercourse or ditch rather than the detention area.

Fencing shall be considered for dry retention areas with design depths in excess of 1
meter for 24 hours, unless the area is within a fenced, limited access facility.

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FLOW CHART C-1 Compute inflow Hydrograph

(See Chapter 5: Hydrology)
Design of storage facilities

Evaluate detention storage

requirements
(See section C.8)

Determine dimensions of basin

to obtain a volume of
Vt=Vs + freeboard

Size outlet structure using a

peak stage
corresponding to Vs

Use routing equations to

compute peak discharge with
the designed structure

Revise Vs

Is peak No
discharge
acceptable?

Yes

Is peak stage No
Increase freeboard approximately
corresponding
to Vs?

Yes

Is emergency
overflow
acceptable?

Yes
No
Check exit Hydrograph

Check erosion problems

downstream

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Flow chart C-2 Flood elevations

estimation in land-locked areas. Obtain Rainfall data from
figure C.11

Calculate cumulative inflow

using run-off procedure from
chapter 5 (Hydrology)

Develop basin out-flow

curves

Plot inflow and outflow

curves

Locate the point of tangency (T)

between inflow curve and a line
parallel to outflow curve

Read maximum elevation (h)

required as the distance
between T and the outflow
curve

Use h to evaluate flood

protection requirements

Check the requirements in

detention facilities

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REFERENCES

1. Brater, E. F. and H. W. King. 1976. Handbook of Hydraulics. 6th ed. New York:
McGraw Hill Book Company.
2. Chow, C. N. 1959. Open Channel Hydraulics,. New York: McGraw Hill Book
Company.
3. Sandvik, A. March 1985. Proportional Weirs for Stormwater Pond Outlets. Civil
Engineering, ASCE pp. 54-56.
4. Sowers, G. B. and G. F. Sowers. 1970. Introductory Soil Mechanics and
Foundations. 3rd ed. New :York: MacMillan Publishing Company.
5. Spangler, M. G. and R. L. Handy. 1982. Soil Engineering. 4th ed. New York:
Harper & Row.
6. Stormwater Management Manual - Volume 2 Procedures. July 1988.
Metropolitan Government of Nashville and Davidson County. The EDGE Group,
Inc. and CH2M Hill.
7. Wycuff, R. L. and U. P. Singh. 1976. "Preliminary Hydrologic Design of Small
Flood Detention Reservoirs. Water Resources Bulletin. Vol. 12, No. 2, pp 337-
49.

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