M.Sc.

Physics 1st Semester

Solid State Physics-I (605)

Chapter # 1

Crystal Structure and Inter-Atomic Forces

Lecture # 4

Dated 22-06-2020
 CONTENTS
• Hybrid Symmetry Elements
• Nomenclature
• Point groups
• Space groups
• Classification of crystals
• Bravais lattices in 2D
• Bravais Lattice in 3D
• Crystal systems
 SYMMETRY

Up till now we have discussed symmetry, symmetry operations and their corresponding
symmetry elements.
Point symmetry elements (for isolated objects) are
1. Rotation axis (proper rotation axis)
2. Reflection Plane
3. Center of inversion (applicable only in 3 dimensions)

Apart from these we also have hybrid point operations like

1. Rotoreflection (n-fold rotation followed by reflection)
2. Rotoinversion (n-fold rotation followed by inversion)

For periodic patterns (plane and space) we also have translational symmetry
Translational hybrid elements We have
1. Screw axis (n-fold rotation followed by translation)
2. Glide plane (reflection followed by translation)

Here rotational axes are termed improper rotation axes

There is also an special operation that is identity operation.

Which means doing nothing.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JlEnPUZJvNE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WuZVV2jtkKo&t=358s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3i7UvVd7bjs&list=PL6C90-
24AMSMeS4nw6JTTZzN1x92t_DBE&index=4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RO76r154PB0
NOMENCLATURE OF SYMMETRY ELEMENTS
 SYMMETRY
The symmetry elements may not all be independent. As a simple example, one
can show that an inversion center plus a reflection plane imply the existence
of a 2-fold axis passing through the center and normal to the plane. Many
similar interesting theorems can be proved. Important concept which we
proved in last lecture regarding symmetry was that only 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6 fold
rotational symmetry axes are compatible with lattice.
 Types of lattice
Bravais lattice in which all the lattice points are equivalent i.e. all atoms
in the crystal are of the same kind and have same surrounding

Non Bravais In a non-Bravais lattice, some of the lattice points are

nonequivalent or cluster of atoms are associated with lattice points
i.e. there are more then one atoms in basis.

A bravais lattice A non Bravais lattice

 Classes of Lattice
Here the lattice sites A, B, C are equivalent to each other, and so are the
sites A', B', C‘ among themselves, but the two sites A and A' are not
equivalent to each other, as can be seen by the fact that the lattice is not
invariant under a translation by AA'. This is so whether the atoms A and A‘
are of the same kind (for example, two H atoms) or of different kinds (for
example, H and Cl atoms.

The non-Bravais lattice may be regarded as a combination of two or more

interpenetrating Bravais lattices with fixed orientations relative to each
other. Thus the points A, B, C, etc., form one Bravais lattice, while the
points A,, B,, C,, etc., form another.
Classification of crystals
 POINT GROUPS AND SPACE GROUPS
We have seen that there are mainly four types of symmetry operations, i.e.,
translation, rotation, reflection and inversion. The last three operations are point
operations and their combinations give certain symmetry elements which collectively
determine the symmetry of space around a point. The group of such symmetry
operations at a point is called a point group. In two-dimensional space, rotation and
reflection are the only point operations. Their combinations yield 10 different point
groups designated as 1, m, 2, 2mm, 3, 3m, 4, 4mm, 6, and 6mm which are shown in
Figure

Reference: Elementary solid state physics by M A Omar

 POINT GROUPS AND SPACE GROUPS
In three-dimensional space, however, the situation is complicated due to the
presence of additional point operations such as inversion. There are a total of 32
point groups in a three-dimensional lattice. The crystals are classified .on the
basis of their symmetry which is compared with the symmetry of-different
point groups. The lattices consistent with the point group operations are limited.
Such lattices are called Bravais lattice which are grouped into crystal systems.
The point symmetry of crystal structure as a whole is determined by the point
symmetry of the lattice as well as of the basis. The group of all the symmetry
elements of a crystal structure is called space group. It determines the
symmetry of a crystal structure as a whole. There are 17 and 230 distinct space
groups possible in two and three dimensions respectively.

Reference: Elementary solid state physics by Singh

 Point groups and Space groups
A non-Bravais lattice is one in which, with each lattice site, there is associated a cluster
of atoms called the basis. Therefore one describes the symmetry of such a lattice by
specifying the symmetry of the basis in addition to the symmetry of the Bravais lattice
on which this basis is superimposed. The symmetry of the basis, called point-group
symmetry, refers to all possible rotations (including inversion and reflection) which leave
the basis invariant, keeping in mind that in all these operations one point in the basis
must remain fixed (which is the reason for referring to this as point-group symmetry). A
close examination of the problem reveals that only 32 different point groups can exist
which are consistent with the requirements of translational symmetry for the lattice as
a whole. One can appreciate the limitation on the number of point groups by the
following physical argument: The shape or structure of the basis cannot be arbitrarily
complex, e.g., like the shape of a potato. This would be incompatible with the symmetry
of the interatomic forces operating between the basis and other bases on nearby lattice
sites. After all, it is these forces which determine the crystal structure in the first
place. Thus the rotation symmetries possible for the basis must be essentially the same
as the rotational symmetries of the unit cells of the Bravais lattices. When we combine
the rotation symmetries of the point groups with the translational symmetries, we
obtain a space-group symmetry. In this manner one generates a large number of space
groups, 72 to be exact. It appears that there are also in addition some space groups
which cannot be composed of simple point groups plus translation groups; such groups
involve symmetry elements such as screw axes, glide planes, etc. When one adds these to
the 72 space groups, one obtains 230 different space groups.

Reference: Elementary solid state physics by M A Omar

 Point groups and Space groups
Crystallographers for a long time studied crystals through stereographic projections
and hit upon a very important aspect of crystal structure that crystals can be grouped
into a certain number of classes according to the sets of symmetry operations they
follow. These symmetry operations are simple geometrical operations as (1) the
rotations about the axes through the origin, (2) the reflections in planes containing the
origin, and (3) the inversion that takes r into -r and some other improper rotations.
Here, the origin is a point through which all the geometrical operations have to pass
necessarily. A symmetry operation is an operation (rotational [proper or improper],
reflection, and inversion), after performing which the crystal or any object remains
indistinguishable, that is, before and after performing the operations, the object looks
the same. An object may possess more than one rotation axis or one reflection
plane and any combination of these operations. These symmetry elements are
interrelated or interact with each other, that is, if possible, it can predict the
inclusion or exclusion of other symmetry operations. The collection of symmetry
operations must form a self-consistent set, which means that the product of two
symmetry operations (one performed after the other) must be one of the other
symmetry operations valid for that object. Depending on the set of symmetry
operations valid for a crystal, the crystals have been divided into 32 groups,
known as the point groups or classes. They are called point groups because all the
symmetry operations have to pass through one point in the crystal or in the object and
also called classes because crystals belonging to the same point group have similar
physical properties.

Reference: Elementary solid state physics by M A Omar

 POINT GROUPS AND SPACE GROUP
Dividing nearly innumerable number of crystals into manageable 32 classes was of
great help in the study of crystallography. Crystals have been divided into 32
classes on the basis of the symmetry operations that leave one point unchanged in
them. If the symmetry operations of the point groups are combined with the
translational symmetry, the number of groups into which all the crystals can be
divided is 230, and these 230 groups are called space groups. The translational
symmetry operations are (1) pure translations that move a point along a vector,
that is, T = n1a + n2b + n3c,
(2) screw axes, and (3) glide planes.

Reference: solid state physics by Singh

 BRAVAIS LATTICE IN TWO DIMENSIONS
There are 5 bravais lattice in 2 dimensions that are grouped into 4 crystal systems
The number of point groups in two and three dimensions are 10 and 32 respectively.
These point groups form the basis for construction of different types of lattices
(patterns of points). Only those lattices are permissible which are consistent with the
point group operations. Such lattices are called Bravais lattices. It is beyond the
scope of this course to describe the details of formation of various Bravais lattices
from the possible point group operations. It can be stated that 10 and 32 point groups
in two and three dimensions produce only 5 and 14 distinct Bravais lattices
respectively. These bravais lattice further become part of 4 and 7 crystal systems.

Permissible means only that are allowed patterns in which surrounding of each point
remains same. Means only limited patterns can be generated. Reference: solid state physics by V K Puri
 BRAVAIS LATTICE IN TWO DIMENSIONS
There are 5 bravais lattice in 2 dimensions that are grouped into 4 crystal systems

Basis vectors for primitive unit cell

 BRAVAIS LATTICE IN TWO DIMENSIONS
There are 5 bravais lattice in 2 dimensions that are grouped into 4 crystal systems
 BRAVAIS LATTICE IN THREE DIMENSIONS
All the seven crystal systems of three-dimensional space and the corresponding
Bravais lattices are listed in Table on next slide in the decreasing order of
symmetry. The crystallographic axes a, b and c drawn from one of the lattice
points determine the size and shape of a unit cell. The angles 𝛂,𝛃 and 𝛄 represent
the angles between the vectors b and c, c and a, and a and b respectively. The
lengths a, b and c and angles 𝛂,𝛃 and 𝛄 are collectively known as lattice parameters
or lattice constants of a unit cell. These Bravais lattices are also shown in Figures
in the form of their conventional unit cells. The symbols P, F and I represent
simple or primitive, face-centred, and bodycentred cells respectively. A base or
end-centred cell is that which has lattice points at corners and at one of the pairs
of opposite faces. It is designated by the letter A, B or C. The designation A
refers to the cell in which the faces defined by b and c axes contain the lattice
points, and so on. The symbol R is specifically used for rhombohedral lattice

Reference: solid state physics by V K Puri

 BRAVAIS LATTICE IN THREE DIMENSIONS
There are 14 bravais lattice in 3 dimensions that are grouped into 7 crystal systems
 BRAVAIS LATTICE IN THREE DIMENSIONS
There are 14 bravais lattice in 3 dimensions that are grouped into 7 crystal systems
 Bravais lattice in three Dimensions
There are 14 bravais lattice in 3 dimensions that are grouped into 7 crystal systems
7 crystal Systems in Three Dimension
Cubic Crystal Systems in Three Dimension
The End