Li-Ion batteries and battery

management systems

Punamchandra Kulkarni
 Agenda

• Electrochemical Cells and terminologies

• How Li-Ion cell Works?

• Elements of Li-Ion battery module

• Battery Pack

• Battery Management systems

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 Cells and Batteries – what’s the difference?

• Cells
• Cells are the smallest individual
electrochemical unit and deliver a
voltage that depends on the cell
chemistry
• There are primary (single use) and
secondary (rechargeable) cells

• Battery
• Batteries and battery packs are made
up from groups of cells
• cells can be wired together in series, in
parallel, or in some combination

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 Cell nominal voltage and charge - difference?

• Cell Nominal Voltage

• Nominal voltage is different from cell voltage under load—it
is more of an average or typical voltage
• Cell (nominal) voltage depends on the combination of active
chemicals used in the cell.
• For many nickel-based cells, it is 1.2 V (e.g., NiCad, NiMH)
• For many lithium-based cells, this is over 3 V

• Cell Nominal Capacity

• This specifies the quantity of charge, in ampere hours (Ah) or
milliampere hours (mAh), that the cell is rated to hold

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 C-Rate

• The C rate is a relative measure of cell electrical current

• It is the constant-current charge or discharge rate that the cell

can sustain for one hour

o A 20 Ah cell should be able to deliver 20 A (“1C”) for 1 h or

2 A (“C/10”) for about 10 h (but, the relationship is not strictly

linear)

o If the cell is discharged at a 10C rate, it will be completely

discharged in about six minutes

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 Cell Energy and Power – difference?

• A cell stores energy in electrochemical form, which it can later

release to do work
o The total energy storage capacity of a cell is roughly its
nominal voltage multiplied by its nominal capacity (mWh,
Wh, or kWh)
• The energy release rate is the cell’s instantaneous power (mW,
W, or kW)

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 Knowledge Check
• What does 3.7V represent?
Nominal Voltage

• What does 9.25Wh represent?

Cell Energy

• What is 1C rating of the battery

in the picture?
9.25Wh / 3.7V = 2500mA

• If the cell is discharged at 10C rate

how long will it take to completely
discharge?
6mins

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 Components of electrochemical cell

Key Components of electrochemical cell are

• Negative electrode
• Positive electrode
• Electrolyte
• Separator
• Current collectors
www.byjus.com

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 Functions of cell components
Negative electrode
o In an electrochemical cell, the negative electrode is often a metal or an alloy or hydrogen
o During discharge, it gives up electrons to external circuit, is oxidized
o During charge, accepts electrons from external circuit, is reduced
o During discharge, it is the anode

Positive electrode
o In an electrochemical cell, the positive electrode is often a metallic oxide, sulfide, or oxygen
o During discharge, accepts electrons from circuit, is reduced
o During charge, gives up electrons to external circuit, is oxidized
o During discharge, it is the cathode

Electrolyte
o The electrolyte provides the medium for internal ion charge transfer between
the electrodes (sulfuric acid for PbA)
o As electrons move in the external circuit, compensating ions must move internal to the cell

Separator
o The separator electrically isolates the positive and negative electrodes to avoid
short circuit and self discharge of the cell

Current collectors are metal foils—to which electrodes are adhered—that conduct electrical
current to cell terminals

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 Popular chemistry

Electrochemistry Negative Positive Electrolyte Nominal

electrode electrode voltage
Lead acid Pb PbO2 H2SO4 2.1V

Dry cell Zn MnO2 ZnCl2 1.6 V

Alkaline Zn MnO2 KOH 1.5 V

Nickel cadmium Cd NiOOH KOH 1.35 V

Nickel zinc Zn NiOOH KOH 1.73 V

Zinc air Zn O2 KOH 1.65 V

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 Rechargeable Cells

• In primary cells, this electrochemical reaction is not reversible

o During discharge, the chemical compounds are changed permanently and

electrical energy is released until the original compounds are completely exhausted

o Primary cells can be used only once

• In secondary (rechargeable) cells, this electrochemical reaction is reversible

• The original chemical compounds can be reconstituted by the application of an

electrical potential between the electrodes, injecting energy into the cell

• Such cells can be discharged and recharged many times

• Life is limited by degradation processes, not by primary chemical reaction

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 Deciding cell’s electrochemistry

Battery cell electrochemistry is designed to optimize a number of factors

• Highs specific energy and/or energy density (energy per mass and/or energy per volume)

• High specific power and/or power density

• We expect low cost, long life, low toxicity, high recyclability, etc.

• Strong reducing elements are on left side of periodic table and oxidizing elements are on right

• So we need elements from far left and far right to achieve maximum cell voltage

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 Deciding cell’s electrochemistry
• Electrochemical series

• The electrochemical series is a list or table of metallic elements or ions arranged

according to their electrode half-reaction potentials

• Lithium at the top of the list has the most negative number, indicating that it is the

strongest reducing agent

• Fluorine is the strongest oxidizing agent, having the largest positive value

for standard potential

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 Li-Ion Advantages

• Specific energy and energy density measure

the maximum stored energy per unit weight

or volume (respectively)

• Li-Ion have higher energy density than

most secondary cells

• Operate at higher voltage than other

secondary cells (3.7V)

• Lithium-ion cells will retain their charge

for months

• Long Life

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 Knowledge Check

In which electrode does reduction occur when a cell is discharged?

Positive

If the net movement of cations through the electrolyte of an

electrochemical cell is from the positive electrode region toward
the negative electrode region, is the cell being charged or discharged?

Charged

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 Working of Li-Ion Cell
• Li-Ion Cells undergo intercalation mechanism unlike other electrochemical
cells which follow reduction oxidation or redox reaction.
• Lithium is stored in the electrodes much like water is stored in a sponge
• Li is stored in the electrodes, and Li+ ions moves through the electrolyte
• Li+ ion enters an electrode, becoming Li when an electron is available;
• Li exits an electrode and becomes Li+ when it can give up an electron

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 Li-Ion Cell Electrode

• Intercalation involves insertion of lithium ions into crystalline lattice of

host electrode without changing its crystal structure
• These electrodes have two key properties:
o Open crystal structures, allowing insertion or extraction of
lithium ions in the vacant spaces
o Ability to accept compensating electrons
• Within the electrode, the lithium atom’s electron is loosely shared
with neighboring atoms
• The lithium is not tightly bonded in one place; it is actually quite
free to move around

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 Electrode Material

Negative Electrode:
• Presently, essentially all commercial lithium-ion cells use some form of
graphite ( ) for the negative-electrode material
• These layers are loosely stacked and there is room for lithium to
intercalate between them

Positive Electrode
• Cells are named based on positive electrode
• LCO ( ) has layers like graphite for intercalation.
o Co – Cobalt is rear, toxic and expensive
• Ni can substitute Co in NMC (Nickel, Cobalt, Manganese) - thermally stable
• is the most common electrode in the family

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 Electrolyte for Li-Ion cells

• Electrolyte is the media that that conducts ions between electrodes

• Important criteria for the electrolyte is to not to dissociate in the presence of cell voltage
• Aqueous (solvent as water) electrolytes dissociate above 2V hence not suitable for Li-ion
• Common electrolytes are Li𝑃𝐹 , Li𝐵𝐹
• Solvents determine various cell properties such as aging, temperature performance etc.

Separator for the Li-Ion cells

• Separator is the permeable membrane with holes large enough to let 𝐿𝑖 pass through, but
• small enough that the negative and positive particles do not touch (which will short the cct)

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 The discharge process

• During discharge, Li exits the surface of the negative-electrode

particles, gives up an electron, becoming Li+ in the electrolyte
• Li+ diffuses outward from center of negative-electrode particles to
equalize concentrations, replenishing Li at particle surface (over time)
• Meanwhile, electron travels through external circuit to positive electrode
• Li joins with the electron, and Li enters positive-electrode particles at
their surface
• Li diffuses into positive-electrode particles to equalize
concentration (over time)

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 The charge process
• The process is completely reversible; thus lithium passes back and
forth between electrodes during charging and discharging
• During charge, Li exits surface of positive- electrode particles,
gives up an electron, becoming Li+ in the electrolyte
• Meanwhile, the electron is forced (by charger) through external
circuit to negative electrode
• Li joins with the electron, and Li enters negative-electrode particles
at their surface
• Diffusion of Li in both electrodes equalizes internal concentrations
(over time)

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 SoC – State of Charge
• Cell SOC related to average Li concentration in the negative-electrode particles

• SOC depends on avg. concentrations over entire electrode: not the same as Voltage

• Further, average concentrations not affected by

o Changing temperature, which changes voltage: doesn’t change SOC
o Resting a cell, which changes voltage: doesn’t change SOC
o Entire current profile vs. net current, which changes voltage but not SOC

• In summary, SOC changes only due to passage of current, either charging or

discharging the cell due to external circuitry, or due to self-discharge within the cell
• Voltage useful as indirect indicator of SOC, but not as measurement of SOC

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 SoC and Cell Current

SOC is related to cell current via

• Cell current is positive on discharge, negative on charge

• η is cell coulombic efficiency but approximately 1 but <=1

• Q is the cell total capacity in ampere seconds (coulombs)

• Estimating SOC via this integral equation is called “coulomb counting”

• The term “pack SOC” is ill-defined, and should never be used

• Direct measurement of voltage and current with estimation algorithms provide SoC

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 Cell Format

Li- Ion Cell form factors

o Cylindrical
o Prismatic
o Pouch

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 Battery Pack

Battery Pack energy and power can be computed as ()

𝐸 = 𝑛 ∗ 𝑛 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑣
𝑃 = 𝑛 ∗ 𝑛 ∗ 𝑖 ∗ 𝑣

𝑛 and 𝑛 are the number of series and parallel cells.

• For efficiency, we want to minimize the 𝑖 R losses (and thinner wire that
increases R), this creates limitations on 𝑛
• To minimize the cost of power electronics voltage has to be <600V, this creates
limitations on 𝑛
• 2P3S module has 2 parallel, 3 series cells

25 Li-Ion Batteries and Battery Management System – SAE India Faculty Development Program
 Packaging - Cell Compression

• Prismatic cells and pouch cells often need compression

• Charging cell causes anode electrode to swell, also known as breathing
• Over life of cell, total thickness will irreversibly increase. Known as swelling.
o compression system must account for this growth
• To ensure good contact between electrodes some amount of
pre-loading is desired
• Cylindrical cells do not require compressions.

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 Thermal Management

Air Cooled
• Air forced through module or pack
• Lowest efficiency and heat rejection

Liquid cooled
ozeninc.com
• Cold plate below cells
• Cooling fins between cells
• Flooded with coolant or oil

Passive
• No active cooling
• May be sealed box

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 Cell Interconnect
• Busbar used for connecting prismatic or large format
cylindrical cells
o Bolted join
o Laser welded

• Pouch cell modules may also include busbars but

typically ultrasonically welded

• Small cylindrical cells use resistance welded connections

or wire bonding

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 Battery Management System

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 Why do we need BMS?

A BMS perform following

• Protects safety of the operator, detect unsafe operating conditions and respond
• Protects cells and battery from damage in abuse/failure cases
• Prolongs life of a battery
• Maintains battery in a state in which it can fulfill its functional design requirements
• Communicate with VCU about best use of the pack with information like functional limits

BMS Requirements
Sensing and high voltage control – Sense voltage, current, temperature, ground fault, contactor
Protection against – Over voltage, over discharge, over current, short circuit, high temperature
Interface – Range estimation, communication, data recording, reporting
Performance management – SoC estimation, Power Limit computation, cell balance and equalize
Diagnostics – Abuse detection, SoH, SoL estimation

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 BMS Architecture

Master

Slave

Slave

researchgate.net
Slave

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 BMS Master and Slave role

Slave Master
• Measure voltage of every cell • Control contactors that connect
within the module battery to load
• Measure temperatures – At cell • Monitor pack current, isolation
level or pack level Using hall effect or resistive sensor
• Balance the energy stored in • Communicate with BMS slaves
every cell within the module • Communicate with host-
This is needed because every application controller
cell has different efficiency, • Control thermal-management
different self discharge rate.
• Communicate this information
to master

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 Cell Balancing
Passive Balancing
• Switch and resistor connected to each cell
• Discharges highest cell to match voltage of lowest

Active Balancing
• Transfer energy from highest to lowest

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 Safety Functions

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 High Voltage Contactors
• When not in use the battery pack internal
high voltage is completely disconnected from
the load at both terminals
• This disconnection is taken care by the high
voltage contactor
• Pre-charging the but voltage is required
because the load to battery pack is
often capacitive.

Precharge is of three types

1. Time based (could be dangerous in shorts)
2. Voltage based
3. Current Based

35 Li-Ion Batteries and Battery Management System – SAE India Faculty Development Program
QUESTIONS?