Hy

droel
ect
ri
cPowerPl
ant
1.Whatdoy
oumeanbyr
unof
f?Wr
it
ethedi
ff
erentf
act
orst
hataf
fect
r
unoff
.

Rain- f
allismeasur edi nt er
msofcent i
met ersofwat erov eragivenar ea
andov eragi venper iod( usual lyoney ear).Thepor t
ionoft het otal
precipitati
ont hatflowst hrought hecat chmentar eai sknownas“ Run-
off”.Thecat chmentar eaofahy drositei st hetotalareabehindt hedam,
drainingwat erintother eser voir.Thus,
Run- off=Tot alprecipitat i
on–Tot alevapor at
ion
Partoft heprecipit
ationi sabsor bedbyt hesoi landseepsorper colat
es
i
ntogr oundandwi llul timat elyr eacht hecat chmentar eat hrought he
under groundchannel s.Thus.
Totalr un-off=Di r
ectr unof fov ert hel andsur f
aceTRun- offt hrough
seepage.
Theuni tofrun-offarem3/ sorday -secondmet er.
Day -secondmet er=Di schar gecol lectedi nthecat chmentar eaatt he
rateof1i n3/Sf oroneday
=1×24×3600=86400m3/ day.
Thef low ofr un-offcanal sobeexpr essedi ncms.ofwat eront he
drainagear eaf eedingt her iversi t
ef orast atedper i
od,orkm,cm of
wat erperuni toftime.

Factor
sAf f
ectingRunof f
1.NatureofPr ecipit
ation.Shor t
,hardshower smaypr oducer elat
ivelyli
ttl
e
run-
off
.Rainslast ingal ongert i
mer esultsinlargerrun-of
f.Thesoi ltends
tobecomesat ur atedandt herateofseepagedecr eases.Al so,thehumi d
atmospherelower sev aporati
on, r
esult
inginincreasedr un-
off.
2.TopographyofCat chment sAr ea.Steep,imperviousareaswi l
lpr oduce
l
argepercentageoft ot alr
un-off.Thewat erwillf
lowqui ckl
yandabsor pt
ion
andevaporati
onl osseswi llbesmal l.
3.GeologyofAr ea.Ther un-offisv erymuchaf fectedbyt hety pesof
surf
acesoilandsub- soil
,typeofr ocksetc.Rockyar easwi l
lgivemor erun-
offwhi leper vioussoilandsub- soi landsof tandsandyar eawi l
lgi v
el esser
run-off.
4.Met eorology .Ev aporat i
onv ar i
eswi tht emperature,wi ndv elocityand
relati
vehumi dity.Runoffi ncreaseswi thlowt emperat ure,lowwi ndv el oci ty
andhi ghr elativehumi di
tyandv icev ersa.
5.Veget ation.Ev aporation and seepage ar ei ncreased by cul tivat ion.
Cul t
ivati
onopensandr oughenst hehar d,smoot hsur faceandpr omot es
seepage.Thi ckv eget
ationl ikef orestsconsumesapor tionoft her ainf all
andal soact sasobst ructionf orr un-off
.
6.Si zeandShapeofAr ea.Lar gear easwi l
lgiv
emor er un- off
.Awi dear ea
l
ikeaf anwi llgivegreaterr un-off,wher eas,anarrowar eal ikeal eafwi ll give
l
esserr un-off.Inanar eawhosel engthismor ethani tswi dth,t hef low
alongi tswi dthwi l
lgivemor er un-offthani ftheflow i sal ongi tsl engt h,
sincei nthef ormercase, seepageandev aporat
ionwi l
l bel ess.

2.Drawasi mplefl
owsheetofawat
erpowerpl
antandnamei
ts
essent
ialfeat
ures.
Asi mpli
fi
edf low sheetofawat erpowerpl
anti
sshowni
nFi
g.11.
3:The
essenti
alfeaturesofawat erpowerpl
antar
easbelow:
1.Catchmentar ea.
2.Reservoir
.
3.Dam andi ntakehouse.
4.Inl
etwaterway .
5.Powerhouse.
6.Tailr
aceorout letwaterway.

3.Howar
ehy
dropowerpl
ant
scl
assi
fi
ed?Expl
ainbr
ief
ly.

Inhydr
o-pl
ant
s,wateriscol
lectedbehindthedam.Thi sreserv
oirof
watermaybeclassi
fi
edaseitherstor
ageorpondageaccordingtothe
amountofwaterflow r
egul
ationtheycanexert
.Thef uncti
onoft he
stor
ageistoimpoundexcessr i
verfl
ow dur
ingtherainyseasont o
 supplementt helowr atesoff l
owdur i
ngdr yseasons.Theycanmeett he
demandofl oadf luctuationsforsixmont hsorev enforayear.Pondage
i
nvolvesi nst ori
ngwat erdur i
ngl ow loadssot hatthi
swat ercanbe
uti
li
zedf orcar r
yingt hepeakl oadsdur i
ngt heweek.Theycanmeett he
hourl
yorweekl yf l
uctuat i
onsofl oaddemand.Wi thpoundage, t
hewater
l
evelalway sf l
uctuatesdur ingoper at
ionsItrisesatthetimeofst ori
ng
water,fall
satt het i
me‘ offdrawingwat er,remainsconstantwhent he
l
oadi sconstant .

Thehy dro-
powerpl ant
scanbecl assi
fi
edasbel
ow:
l
.Storageplant
(a)Highheadpl ants
(b)Lowheadpl ant
s
(c)Medium headpl ant
s.
2.Run-of-r
iverpowerplant
s
(a)Withpondage
(b)Withoutpondage.
3.Pumpedst oragepowerPlant
s

4.Wri
tedownbri
efl
ytheadv
antagesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofunder
ground
powerhousei
nahydropowerstat
ion.

Advant ages
1.Undersui tablegeol ogicalcondi t
ions,theunder groundcondui tmaypr ov e
theshor testandsomet imesev enst raight.Thepowercondui tmaybe
muchshor tert hant helengthofpowercanalusedf orunder groundpower
houseast hepowercanalusual l
ybui l
ttof ol
lowt hecontour soft het err
ain.
Bylocat ingt hepowerhouseunder ground,t henumberofr estricti
onsas
safet opogr aphicaland geol ogicalcondi t
ions al ong the penst ock and
suff
icientspaceatt hef ootoft hehi l
lforconst ructingthepowerhousear e
compl etelyel iminated.
2.Theconst ructionofunder groundcondui tinsteadofpenst ockr esult
sin
considerabl esav i
ngi nst eel
,thei nternalpr essur eiscarriedpar t l
ybyt he
rockifi ti sofgoodqual ity
.Insoundhi ghqual i
tyrock,t hepenst ocki s
repl
acedbyani nclinedorv erti
calpr essureshaf texcav atedi nr ockand
provi
dedwi thast eellini
ngofgr eatl
yreducedt hicknessincompar isonwi t
h
exposed penst ock ‘ roe pur pose’ofl ining i n such cases i s pr ot ecti
on
agai nstt heseepagel osses.
3.Ther educed l engt h oft hepr essur econdui tr educed t hepr essur es
dev eloped duet o wat erhammer .Ther ef ore,smal lersur get anki sal so
suf f
icient .
4.Fort heeconomi calar rangement ,ther at i
ooft hepr essur econdui tt othe
tai
l-racet unneli sal sosi gnifi
cant .Theov er allcostoft hesy stem i sloweri f
thet ail-racet unnel l
engt hisr elativel ylarge.
5.The const ruction wor k atunder gr ound powerst at i
on can cont i
nue
unint errupt ed ev en under sev erest wi nter condi ti
ons. The ov eral
l
const ruct ioncostandper i
odofconst ruct ioni sreducedduet ocont inui t
yof
wor k.
6.Muchcar ei sdev ot edt odayi nmanycount riest opr eservel andscape
featur essuchaspi ctur esquer ockwal l
s, cany ons, v all
ey sandr i
v erbanksi n
theiror iginalbeaut yagai nstspoi lingbyexposedpenst ocks,canalbasi ns
andmachi nehal l
s.Ther eislessdangerofdi st urbancet oameni tieswi than
under groundpowerhouseandpi pel i
nes.Theot heradv antagesgai nedby
const ruct ing under gr ound power house ar e l isted bel ow. The si x
adv ant agesment ionedabov er educet heconst ruct i
onaldi ff
icultiesand
over allcostoft hepl antandpr eser v et heor i
gi nalbeaut yofl andscape.The
over all costi sf ur t
herr educedbyt hemoder nt echni quesi ntunnel wor kand
bet t
erex cav ationpr ocess.
7.Theshor terpowercondui tofunder groundpowerhouser educest he
headl osses.
8.Ther egul armai nt enanceandr epai rcost sar el owerf orunder gr ound
stationsast hemai ntenancer equi redf orr ockt unnel sisl ess.
9.Thepowerpl anti sf reef rom l andsl ides,av al anches,heav ysnow and
rainfall.
10.Theusef ullifeoft hest ructur esexcav atedi nr ocki sconsi der ably
l
ongert hant hatofconcr eteandr einf orcedconcr et est r
uct ures.
11.I ti s possi blet oi mpr ov et he gov erning oft he t urbines wi tht he
const ruct ionofunder groundpowerhouse.
12.Theconst ructionper i
odi sr educedmai nlyduet ot hepossi bili
tyoff ull
-
scaleconst ruct i
onwor ki nwi nter .
13.Under groundpowerst ationi sbomb- proofandmaybepr eferredf or
mili
taryreasons:Theyareper
fectl
yprotect
edagai
nstai
r-
rai
ds.Themil
i
tary
considerat
ionsbecamemor epredominantwi
ththeincr
easedshadow of
thewarandt hebuil
dingofundergr
oundpowerstati
onsunder
wentarapid
evol
ut i
onaftersecondworl
dwar .

Disadv antages
1.The const ruction costoft he under gr ound powerhouse i s mor e
compar edwi tht heov ergroundpowerhouse:
(a)The excav ation oft he cav er ns r equi red f orhousi ng the t urbi ne
gener atoruni tsandauxi li
aryequi pment s( machi nehal lofKoy napr ojecti s
$00′ ×120′ ×60′ indimensi ons)isv eryexpensi ve.
(b)Thecost sofaccesst unnelsar econsi der abl e.
(c)Thesepar ategal l
eryexcav atedf ort hei nl etv alvesaddst heextr
acost .
(d)Theconst ructionofai rduct sand busgal l
eri
esal so addsi nt ot al
const ructi
oncost s.
(e) Speci al v entil
ati
on and ai r-condi tioni ng equi pment r equired f or
under groundaddsi nt heconst r
uct i
onal cost s.
(f)Insomecases,t het ail
racet unnelofanunder groundpowerhouse
requiresamor eel aboratesolutiont hanat ailr
acet unneldesi gnedf ort he
surface ar rangement .The adv ant age gai ned byr educing the pr essur e
condui twoul dbel ostbyext endingt het ailracet unnel.
(g)Thef i
rstcosti sal soincreasedbyl ocat ingt het ransformerandhi gh-
voltage swi tchgear under gr
ound. The abov e-ment ioned const ructions
i
ncr easet hecapi t
al costoft heplant .
2.Theoper ationalcostoft hepowerpl anti ncreasesduet of ollowi ng
reasons:
(a)Thel i
ghtingcost .
(b)Ther unningcostofai r
-conditi
onedpl ant .
(c)Ther emov alofwat erseepingmaybemor ecost l
yt hanf orthesur face
arrangement .

5.Namet hedi
ff
erentpri
memov
ersusedi
nhy
dropowerpl
antand
expl
ainanyoneofthem.

Aspert
heact
ionofwat
eront
hepr
ime-
mov
er,t
heyar
ecl
assi
fi
edas
 i
mpul se tur bine and r eaction t ur
bine.I nimpul se type t urbine,t he
pressur eener gyoft hewat eri sconv ertedintoki neti
cener gywhen
passedt hrought henozzl eandf ormst hehi ghv eloci
tyjetofwat er.The
formedwat erjeti susedf ordr i
vingthewheel .
I
n case ofr eact i
on turbine,t he wat erpr essure combi ned wi tht he
velocitywor ksont herunner .
Thepoweri nthisturbineisdev elopedf r
om
thecombi nedact i
onofpr essur eandv eloci
tyofwat erthatcompl etely
fi
ll
st her unnerandwat erpassage.
Thecasi ngoft hei mpulset urbineoper atesatat mospher ic:pr essure
wher east hecasi ngoft hereact i
ont ur
bineoper atesunderhi ghpr essur e.
Thepr essur eact sont her otorandv acuum under neathit.Thi si swhy
theeasi ngofr eact i
onturbinei smadecompl etelyleakproof.
1.Pel tont urbine
2.Fr ancist urbine
3.Pr opel l
ert urbine
4.Kapl antur bine

PeltonTur bine.Figur e11. 20showst hel ayoutoft hePel t

ont urbine.Thi s
wasdi scov ered byPel toni n1880. Thisi saspeci alt ypeofaxi alflow
i
mpul se t urbine gener allymount ed on hor izontalshaf t,as ment ioned
earl
ierAnumberofbucket sar emount edr oundt heper ipheryoft hewheel
asshowni nFi g.11. 20.Thewat erisdi rectedt owar dst hewheelt hrougha
nozzle ornozzl es.The f l
ow ofwat ert hrough t he nozzlei s gener ally
controll
edbyspeci alregulatingsy stem.Thewat erj etafterimpi ngingon
thebucket si sdef lectedt hroughanangl eof160°andf lowsaxi all
yi nbot h
dir
ect i
ons t hus av oidi
ng t he axialt hruston t he wheel .The hy draulic
eff
iciencyofPel tanwheell iesbet ween85t o95%.Now- a-day s,Pelton
wheel sareusedf orv er
yhi ghheadsupt o2000met ers.
Arr
angementofj ets.I nmostoft hePel tonwheelpl ants,singlej et
withhor izont alshaf tisused.Thenumberoft hej etsadopt eddepends
upont hespeci fi
cspeedr equired.
Anyi mpul set urbineachiev esi t
smaxi mum ef fici
encywhent hev elocit
yof
thebucketatt hecent erlineoft hej eti sslightl
yunderhal fthej etvelocity
.
Hence,f ormaxi mum speedofr otation,themeandi amet eroft her unner
shouldbeassmal laspossi ble.Ther ei sal imittothesizeoft hej etwhi ch
canbeappl iedt oanyi mpul set urbiner unnerwi thoutseriouslyreducingt he
effi
ciency.Inear l
yt wenti
es,anor malr atioofD/ dwasabout10:I .Ina
moder n Tur go i mpul set ur bine,iti sr educed upt o 4.5t oI.Thebasi c
advantageofTur goi mpul set urbinei sthatamuchl argerjetcoul dbe
appli
edt oar unnerofagi venmeandi amet er.Thej etofpel tont urbine
stri
kest hespl it
teredgeoft hebucket ,bifurcatesandi sdischargedatei ther
side.
Ther eactiont urbinesar ef ur t
herdi videdi ntot wogener altypesasFr ancis
andPr opel l
erTy pe.Thepr opel l
ertur binesar ef ur
thersubdi v
idedi ntofixed
bladepr opellertypeandt headj ustablebl adet ypeasKapl anTur bine.

6.Whatdoyoumeanbyt hespeci
fi
cspeedofat
urbi
ne?Der
ivean
expr
essi
onforspeci
fi
cspeed.
Thespecificspeedofat ur
bineisdef
inedasthespeedatwhichthetur
bine
runsdevelopi
ngoneB. H.P.underaheadofonemet r
e.
Theequat i
onf orthespecif
icspeedofat ur
binecanbeobtainedbyusing
thepri
ncipleofsimil
ari
ty.
 7.Whatdoyoumeanbydraf
ttubeandwhatar
eit
sadv
ant
ages?Name
t
hedif
fer
entt
ypesofdr
afttubes.

Reacti
on turbines mustbe compl etel
y encl
osed because a pressur
e
di
ffer
enceexi stsbet ween t
hewor ki
ng fl
uid(water)inthetur
bineand
at
mospher e.Ther ef
ore,itisnecessarytoconnectt heturbi
neout l
etby
meansofapi peknownasdr afttubeuptotai
lr
acelevel
.
1.Conical draf
ttube
2.ElbowTy peDraftTube.
3.Hy dr
aconeorMoodyDr aftTube.

PAGENO398

8.Whatiscavi
tat
ionandwhatar ei
tsef
fect
s?Ment
ionaboutdi
ff
erent
methodstoavoidcav
itat
ion.
 Thef ormat ionofwat erv apourandairbubbl esont hewatersur facedue
tother educt i
onofpr essurei sknownas" Cav it
ation".Whent hepr essure
ont hewat err educesbel ow thesaturati
onpr essurecor r
espondi ngt o
thetemper atureofthewat er,therapi
df or
mat ionofwat ervapourandai r
bubblesst ar ts.Thebubbl essuddenl ycollapsewi ththev i
ol entaction
andcol lapsingpr essurewillbeveryhigh.
Ther apidf ormat i
onandcol l
apsingoft hebubbl escausest hepi tti
ngof
themet alli
csur f
ace.Italsoreducestheef f
iciencyoft hehydr auli
cpr i
me
mov ercausi ng honey combi ng ofrunnerand bl ade contour s which
reducest hepowerout put

METHODSTOAVOI DCAVI TATI ON

1.I nst allationofTur binebel owTai lraceLev el.Thedangerofcav i
tation
incr easesi ncaseofl owheadandhi ghspeedpr opel lerr unnerast he
val ueof
(V0^ 2–Vd^ 2)/ gisconsi der ablyl ar geasment i
onedear lier.Inor dert o
keept hev alueofpcwi thint hecav i
tationl i
mi t,thev alueofhi smade
negat i
v ekeepi ngt her unnerbel owt ailracel ev el.Forsuchi nst all
at i
ons,
thet ur binesr emai nal way sunderwat er .Itisr i
otadv isabl east he
i
nspect i
onandr epairoft het ur binei sdi ffi
cul t
.Theot hermet hodt o
avoi dcav itationzonewi thoutkeepi ngt her unnerunderwat erist ouse
ther unnerofl owspeci ficspeedasment i
onedear lier.
2.Cav i
tat ionFr eeRunner .Thecav i
tat ionf reer unnercanbedesi gnedt o
fulf
ill
t hegi vencondi tionwi thext ensi v er esear ch.Theshapeoft hebl ade,
theangl eoft hebl ade, t
het hicknessoft hebl adecanbechangedand
experiment scanbeconduct edt of indoutt hebestdi mensi onsoft hebl ade
(shape, size, angl e.etc.
3.UseofMat erial.Thecav i
tationef f ectcanber educedbysel ect i
ng
mat erialswhi chcanr esistbet tert hecav itat i
onef fect.Thecastst eel i
s
bettert hancasti ronandst ai nlessst eel oral loyst eel isstillbet terthan
castst eel .Thepi tti
ngef fectofcav i
t ationoncastst eel canber epai red
mor eeconomi callybyor dinar ywel ding.I thasbeenobser v edt hatt he
weldedpar t
sar emor eresi st antt ocav it
at iont hanor dinaryones.
4.Pol ishi ng.Thecav i
tationef fecti sl essonpol i
shedsur f
acest han
ordinar yone.Mat ,i
swhyt hecastst eel runner sandbl adesar ecoat edwi th
stainl
essst eel .
5.Sel ect ionofSpeci f
icSpeed.Bysel ectingar unnerofpr operspeci fi
c
speedf ort hegi venheadf rom equat ion( c)andf rom Tabl es( 11.5)and
(
11.
6),
iti
spossi
blet
oav
oidt
hecav
itat
ion.

PAGENO395
9.Whatarethevari
ousi
mportantf
actor
sthatmustbetakenint
o
consi
derat
ionwhil
esel
ect
ingthety
peofhy dr
aul
ict
urbineand
expl
ainbri
efl
y.

Thefollowi ngf actorshavet

hebeari
ngont hesel
ecti
onoft
her
ightt
ype
ofhydraul i
ct urbi
newhi chwi
llbedi
scussedsepar
atel
y.
(1)Rotational Speed.
(2)SpecificSpeed.
(3)Maximum Ef fi
ciency
.
(4)PartLoadEf f
ici
ency.
(5)Head.
(6)TypeofWat er.
(7)RunawaySpeed.
(8)Cavitati
on.
(9)NumberofUni t
s.
(10)Over al
l Cost.

10.Whatar
etheadvantagesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofv
eryhi
ghspeci
fi
c
speedt
urbi
ner
unners

Theov erallcostofi nstall

ation(runner+gener at
or+powerhouseand
auxili
aryequipment s)isloweri farunnerofhighspecifi
cspeedi susedf or
agi venheadandH. P.out put.Theselecti
onoft oohi ghspecificspeed
reacti
onr unnerwoul dr educet hesizeoftherunnertosuchanext entthat
thedi schargev el
ocit
yofwat erintothethroatofdr afttubewoul dbe
excessive.Thisi sobjectionablebecauseav acuum maybecr eatedi nthe
extremecase.
Ther unneroft oohighspeci f i
cspeedwi t
hhighav ai
lableheadi ncreases
thecostoft urbineonaccountofhi ghmechanicalstr
engt hrequir
ed.The
runneroft wol owspecif i
cspeedwi thlowavail
ableheadi ncr
easesthecost
ofgener atorduet othelowt urbinespeed.
Ani ncr easei nspeci fi
cspeedoft urbinei saccompani edbyl owermaxi mum
effi
ci encyandgr eat erdept hofexcav at i
onoft hedrafttube.Inchoosi nga
highspeci f
icspeedt urbine, anincreasei ncostofexcav ati
onoff oundation
anddr af ttubeshoul dbeconsi deredi naddi tiontot heef ficiency.The
wei ght ed ef f i
ciency ov ert he operat ing r ange oft he t ur
bine i s mor e
i
mpor tantint hesel ectionofat ur
binei nst eadofmaxi mum ef ficiency.
Inal lmoder npowerpl ant s,iti
scommonpr acticetoselectahi ghspeci fi
c
speedr unnerbecausei ti smor eeconomi calast hesi zeoft heturbo-
gener atoraswel last hatofpowerhousewi l
l besmal l
er.
Highspeci ficspeedi sessent i
alwhent heav ai
lableheadi slowandpower
outputi shi ghbecauseot herwisether ot at i
onal speedwi ll
bev er ylowandi t
willincr easet hecostoft urbo-generat orandt hepowerhouseast hesizes
oft urbi ne,gener atorandpowerhouser equiredatl owspeedwi llbel ar
ge.
Ont heot herhand, t herei snoneedofchoosi nghi ghspeci f
icspeedr unner
whent heav ailableheadi ssuf f
ici
entlyl ar gebecauseev enwi thlowspeci fi
c
speed, hi ghr otati
onal speedscanbeat t ained.