SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

SPECIFICATIONS as per BIS standard:

Following are the ratings of synchronous machines:

 Rated Voltage: 3.3 KV, 6.6 KV, 11 KV

 Power Rating: 10 MW, 20 MW, 50 MW, 100 MW, 500 MW
 Excitation Voltage : 100 V – 1000V dc
 Excitation Current : 5-20A
 Speed : Speed in rpm is mentioned (say 3000 rpm)
 Cooling System: Forced air, Hydrogen cooled, Water cooled.
 Type of rotor : Salient pole or cylindrical
 Short circuit ratio: 0.5-1.5
 Class of Insulation:
 Temperature limits:
 Connections:
 Frequency:

INSTALLATION

Physical Inspection:

The synchronous generator received at site must be stored in a safe place. Before keeping in
store, the machine should pass an acceptance procedure intended to check it for missing or
damaged parts so as to take necessary measures for excluding the violation of installation
terms. For this, the machine is partially unpacked for checking preferably in presence of
representative of the supplier. Large capacity synchronous generators are delivered in a
disassembled condition

Foundation
Large alternators require strong foundation depending on the type of mounting i.e. horizontal
or vertical mounting. Alternators in generating stations are usually vertically mounted
covering two flours, the basement and the ground floor. Foundations should be separated
from columns and other supporting structures of the building so as to prevent the transfer of
vibrations of the machine to the building. Basic dimensions of the foundations are specified
by the manufacturer in the foundation drawing. The foundation must be provided with holes
to receive anchor bolts securing the bed plates. The holes and anchor bolts shall be fixed in
the concrete. The alternator is installed in a strong structure constructed for this purpose only.

Various steps in installation of an alternator

 Installation of bed plate and the levelling of bed plate

 Installation of the bearing pedestals and levelling of the bearing pedestals

 Checks on stator and rotor
 Assembly of the rotor onto the shaft
 Installation of the stator
 Installing the rotor in the stator
 Checking of the air gap between stator and rotor
 Preparation of shaft couplings
 Mounting of shaft couplings on shaft
 Preparation of shafts and alignment of shafts.
 Installation of cooling systems
 Drying out
 Testing
 Commissioning

Each of the above activities should be carried out by technically skilled staff. The instruction
manual supplied by the manufacturer should be referred in practice.
Shaft alignment should be perfect to get trouble free mechanical performance of the generator
with the driven equipment. The rating plate is of definite dimensions as per IS Code. The
ratings are engraved and are fixed to the machine in a clearly visible position.

Procedure to start synchronous generator

The starting of synchronous generator is a slow and complex process as it involves starting of
Boilers, turbine auxiliaries, boiler auxiliaries etc. When starting synchronous generator from
“cold" the following steps to be followed
 Starting of boiler auxiliaries
 Starting of turbine and auxiliaries
 Starting of boiler
 Roll turbine.
 Keep the unit as a spinning reserve.
The above said activities may take several hours.
Excitation system
The rotor of a synchronous machine needs dc current for excitation. The field current is
supplied and controlled by the excitation system. An excitation system includes all the
equipment required for supply of field current and voltage regulator system. Excitation
response is the rate of change of exciter voltage and is expressed in terms of volts per second.
The maximum voltage that may be attained by an exciter under specified condition of load is
termed as excitation ceiling voltage. The function of the excitation system is to supply and
regulate field current.

Brushless (static) excitation system:

Requirement
1. Permanent magnet alternator (Rotating field, stationary armature)
2. Magnetic amplifier
3. AC exciter (Rotating armature, stationary field) d - Silicon diode rectifier (Revolving
with rotor)
4. Main generator field or rotor
5. Feed back of generator voltage for control and regulation

The silicon diode rectifier is mounted on the same shaft to excite the field of the main
generator directly. An ac exciter is used to feed power to the revolving rectifier. The field of
the ac exciter is fed by a magnetic amplifier that controls and regulates the output voltage of
the main generator. The excitation power for the magnetic amplifier is obtained from a small
permanent magnet alternator which is also driven from the main shaft. The voltage and
frequency of ac exciter are selected so as to optimize the performance and design of the
overall system.

Cooling:

The 12R losses and other losses in electrical machine appear as heat raising the temperature
of each internal part above the ambient temperature of the surrounding air. The temperature
rise is related to the rate of heat production, the rate of cooling and the thermal capacity. The
temperature rise is significant as it affects the life of the winding insulation. Heat is removed
by a combination of conduction, convection and by radiation from outer surfaces. Terms used
in cooling system are as below:
Primary coolant: A medium, being at lower temperature than that part of machine and is in
contact with it which removes the heat.
Secondary coolant: A medium, which being at Lower temperature than that of primary
coolant which removes the heat given up by primary coolant.
Heat exchanger: A component of cooling system that transfers heat from one coolant to
another by keeping the two coolants separate.
Inner cooled (direct cooled) winding: A winding which has either hollow conductors or
tubes which form an integral part of the winding through which the coolant flows.
Open circuit cooling: A method of cooling in which the coolant is drawn from the medium
surrounding the machine, passes through the machine and then returns to the surrounding
medium.
Closed circuit cooling: The primary coolant is circulated in a closed circuit through the
machine and if necessary through heat exchanges. Heat is transferred to the secondary
coolant.
Further the cooling system may be standby or emergency cooling system.

Components of cooling system:

 Dependent circulating circuit components
 Independent circulating circuit components
 Integral circulating circuit components
 Machine mounted circulating circuit components
 Separately mounted circulating components

Hydrogen cooling of turbo - generators:

The thermal conductivity of hydrogen is about 7 times that of air. The density of hydrogen is
0.07 times that of air. The specific heat of hydrogen is 14 times that of air. Hence hydrogen
gas is preferred than air as a coolant in Large turbo generators of capacity 60 MW and above.
It reduces noise and improves heat transfer. The hydrogen cooling is direct cooling i.e. the
cooling medium is in direct contact with conductors. The hydrogen gas is passed through the
rectangular tubular cross section rotor conductors. The stator conductors are hollow and
hydrogen gas from a separate circuit is circulated through the stator conductors. The pressure
of the gas is of the order of 1.5 Kg/m2 and flow rate is about 15 m3/sec. Hydrogen blowers
are required to circulate hydrogen gas through direct cooled machine.

Water cooled machines:

In direct water cooling, water is the cooling medium and it is circulated through stator
conductors and rotor conductors. The speed of the water flow in the chillness is about 2.5
m/sec. The water at higher speed efficiently removes the heat.

Types of enclosures

The method of cooling is closely related to the construction and the type of enclosure of the
Machine.

Open - pedestal: In this the stator and rotor ends are open to the outside ambient air, the
rotor being supported on pedestal bearings mounted on the bed plate.
Open end bracket: In this the bearings forms part of the end shields which are fixed to the
stator housing. The air is in comparatively free contact with the stator and rotor through the
openings. This is common for small and medium size Motors and Generators.
Protected or end-cover type with guarded openings: The protector may be screen or fine-
mesh covers.
Drip, splash or hose proof: This is a protected machine with the openings in the end shield
for cooling. The end shields are designed to prevent entry of falling water or dirt or jets of
liquid.
Pipe or duct cooled: With end covers closed except for flanged openings for connection to
cooling pipes.
Totally enclosed: In this type, the air will not be in contact with the ambient air. The
machine is totally air tight. Total enclosure may be associated with an internal rotor fan, an
external fan, cooling or closed air circuit cooling in which the air is circulated to a cooler and
returned to the machine.
Flame proof or explosion proof: This motor is used in hazardous location such as mines,
chemical industries etc.
The ratings of machines are dependent upon their respective cooling systems. For complex
cooling systems, the machines may have to be de-rated.

Duty of rotating machines:

The limits of temperature rise have a reference to the standard duty specified for the machine.
According to IEC, IS and BIS standard specifications, the standard duty cycles are designated
as S1, S2 ... S8. The standard operating conditions are designated by letters N, R, D, F, and
V. The temperature rise depends on the duty and local conditions.

Standard duty cycles for synchronous motors:

S1- Continuous operation at rated load

S2- Short time operation
S3- Intermittent periodic operation
S4- Intermittent periodic operation with starting
S5- Intermittent periodic operation with starting and electric braking
S6- Continuous duty with intermittent periodic operation
S7- Continuous duty operation with starting & electric braking
S8- Continuous duty operation but with periodic speed change.
Symbols for operating Duty:
N- Operation with Normal Rated Load
R- Machine at rest and de-energised
D- Starting Duty
F- Braking Duty
V- Operation at No load but rotating
Cyclic duration factor:
It is the ratio of operating period to the total period of a cycle.
For example: S3- N/(N+R), S4- N+D/(D+N+R), S5- D+N+F/(D+N+F+R), S6: N/(N+V)

Procedure for drying out synchronous machines:

The insulation of rotating machines is hygroscopic in nature. The moisture absorbed by the
insulation is to be removed by drying till the insulation resistance reaches specified value.
The moisture is evaporated from the winding due to thermal diffusion Moisture gradient
depends on temperature gradient within wet insulation. The desired temperature is obtained
by heating the winding. During drying it is necessary to record the temperature at various
stages of drying out, insulation resistance and time.

The circuit for drying out of synchronous machines are shown. This is the most convenient
method of drying. The machine stator windings are supplied with low voltage. The input
voltage, current, power & temperature of winding, temperature of body, temperature of air
are periodically measured. The end shields of the machine are removed. The machine body is
covered with tarpaulin. No cool air blow shall come over the hot winding.

Testing of Synchronous machines:

A. Testing of Synchronous Generators

The tests are conducted to demonstrate that the machine gives the required performance.
These tests are

1. Open circuit test (no Load test)

2. Short circuit test
3. Zero Power factor characteristics tests and loss measurement
4. Temperature rise test by
 Full load ZPF over excited run
  By equivalent heat run
5. Over speed test
6. High voltage tests
7. Insulation resistance tests
8. Waveform interference, gap length, balance, vibration, bearing currents, magnetic
symmetry
9. Measurement of DC resistance of armature and field windings.
10. Dielectric test
Commissioning test of Generator
1. Insulation resistance tests
2. Measurement of DC resistance of armature and field windings.
3. Waveform interference test
4. Line charging capacity
Performance test of Generator
1. Slip test
2. Sudden short circuit test
3. Determination of transient and sub transient parameters
4. Determination of sequence impedance
5. Separation of losses
6. Temperature rise test & retardation test
Factory test
1. Gap length
2. Magnetic symmetry
3. Balancing vibrations & Bearing performance
4. Open circuit test
6. Short circuit test
7. Zero Power factor characteristics tests and loss measurement
8. over speed test
9. High voltage tests
10. Waveform interference test, Gap length, Balance, Vibrations , Bearing currents, Magnetic
symmetry etc
11. Dielectric test
B. Tests on synchronous motors:

1. Measurement of DC resistance of armature and field windings.

2. Dielectric test on armature and field windings.
3. Mechanical balancing test
4. Temperature rise test
5. Over speed test
6. Harmonic analysis
7. Telephone interference
8. Short circuit test
9. Reactance and time constants
10. Speed torque characteristics
11. Efficiency calculations
12. Bearing insulation test
13. Direction of rotation
14. Current balance on no load
15. Commissioning tests

Measurement of insulation resistance

The insulation resistance of stator winding to earthed frame, rotor winding to earthed frame,
phase to phase winding pedestal and bearing insulation resistance is measured using megger.
The megger readings for 15 seconds and 60 seconds are taken to find the polarization index.
The polarization index gives the extent of dryness of the insulation and given by
PI = IR60/IR15

Measurement of dc resistance of windings

The dc resistance of armature windings, field windings and field discharge resistance are
measured using the following methods.

a. Voltmeter ammeter method: In which voltage applied across the winding and
current through the winding are noted at the specified temperature. Then the
resistance is calculated.
b. Bridge Method: This is suitable for field resistance measurement. Built in bridges via
Wheatstone bridge and Kelvin's double bridge are used to measure field resistance &
armature resistance respectively. As resistance is sensitive to temperature,
temperature is also recorded and three to five readings are taken.
Open circuit test (No load saturation test):

The open circuit characteristics of a synchronous machine are the curve showing the
relationship between armature terminal voltage and field excitation current. The prime mover
is run at rated speed. The excitation is varied in steps and corresponding no load voltage is
recorded. The characteristic curve may be plotted in per unit where unit voltage and unit
excitation corresponding to rated voltage and excitation current on the air gap Line. The open
circuit characteristics represent the relation between the space fundamental component of the
air gap flux and the mmf on the magnetic circuit when the field winding constitutes the only
mmf source. During no Load test the no Load Losses of the machine can be obtained.

Sudden 3-phase short circuit test on generator:

This test is performed to determine Time constant, transient and sub-transient reactance of the
machine. Here all the three phases are shorted suddenly at rated speed and desired no load
voltage byu closing the circuit breaker. Short circuit current is measured with the help of
storage Oscilloscope. The terminal voltage of the machine, excitation current and winding
temperature is measured just before the short circuit. The test is performed at several
armature voltage (0.1 top 0.3 pu of rated value to obtain quantities corresponding to the
unsaturated state. To obtain the quantities at saturated state, the test is conducted with rated
voltage just before short circuit. To determine the machine quantities, oscillogram is taken of
the armature current in each phase and the current in the excitation circuit.

Negative phase sequence test:

This test is performed to determine X2. The test is conducted when reduced symmetrical
voltage (0.02-0.2) pu is applied to the machine driven at rated speed, connected to an external
source of supply with negative phase sequence i.e. operating as an electromagnetic brake
with the slip equal to 2. The excitation winding is short circuited. If the residual voltage of
the machine under test exceeds 0.30 times of the supply voltage, the rotor should be
demagnetized before testing the machine. The voltage and current in all the three phases and
power are noted.
Negative sequence reactance and resistance are determined from the negative phase sequence
test by the formulae.

where P = input power

I = average current measured V = average voltage measured
Lower case letters indicate per unit values
Measurement of sub transient reactance

The voltage is applied across any two terminals except neutral, with the rotor at rest and short
Circuited on itself through an ammeter as shown in the fig. The rotor is rotated by hand and it
will be observed that for a fixed voltage applied, current in the field varies with the position
of the rotor. When the rotor is in the position of maximum induced field current direct axis
sub transient reactance is obtained. When the rotor is in a position of minimum induced field
current quardrature axis sub transient reactance is obtained.

Slip test:
Performed to determine Xd and Xq. Here 3 phase voltage of magnitude 0.2 pu is applied to
the stator terminal by keeping field of the alternator is either open circuited or short circuited.
The prime mover is run at slightly less than synchronous speed to get a slip of 0.01. Armature
current and voltages are measured using indicating instruments or recorded by using
oscilloscope. The ammeter & volt meter readings will indicate two values which are to be
taken as minimum and maximum quantities respectively.

Power frequency voltage withstand test:

This test is conducted on 3 phase ac windings of an ac generator with the specified values of
power frequency test voltage. The test voltage of (2V+l) KV is applied for specified time (1
minute) between windings and earthed frame. The machine parts should not exhibit flash
over, to consider it to have passed the test.
Over speed tests on motors:

In certain applications over speed can occur occasionally. This test is an essential Type test
and even may be a routine test. Eg: for traction motors, over speed test is conducted at speed
of 120 to 150% of the rated speed for two minutes. This test is carried out on hot motor. After
the test, profile of rotor, end coils, air gaps and bearings can be observed visually. Minor
repairs can be attended. If the serious damage occurs, the design/manufacture should be
reviewed.
The test is considered satisfactory if
•There is no evident deformation of the motor.
•The rotor winding passes the high voltage test.
•The vibrations of the test are within the prescribed limits as per IS 4729-1968.

Vibration test:

The vibration test is carried out on the complete machine after assembly and balancing of the
machine. A set of three orthogonal accelerometers are fixed on each bearing. The vibrations
are measured in two directions normal to the shaft. For vibration test the machine is run at no
load without coupling to any machine.

Measurement of audible noise:

In applications where driven machine makes more noise, motor noise is ignored.
In applications where audible noise levels are to be held within permissible limits, the audible
noise test on motor may be an acceptance test in work or at site. Motor design features
including enclosure, degree of protection, power rating and speed influences audible noise
directly. For example, 6 pole motor gives 76 dB (A) and 2 pole motor gives 84 dB (A) 1.1
KW motor gives 76 dB (A) and 1.1 MW motor gives 105 dB (A).

Sound measurement: This requires sound meter fitted with filters to accept noise at set
frequencies. The table gives IEC A weightings of standardized curves of frequency (Hz) to
relative sound pressure level (dB) as

Noise Reduction:

Noise is due to
 Magneto striation ./ Aerodynamics
 Bearing noise of rotating shaft
Speed and power affect aerodynamics and bearing noise of the rotating shaft.

 Totally enclosed machine gives least sound, open ventilated machines give maximum
sound.
 Ventilation noise predominates in 2 pole machine
 When bearing noise becomes audible, the other two are less significant.

Methods to reduce noise:

 By reducing magnetic loading

 By increasing number of armature slots
 By skewing slots
 By continuously grading main pole gap or By increasing air gap length
 By providing brace commutating poles against main poles
 By using 12 pulse thyristor for speed control instead of 6 pulse converter
 Semi enclosed slots or totally closed slots for compensating windings.

Double line to neutral sustained short circuit test

The L-L-N sustained short circuit test is considered to determine zero sequence resistance of
a synchronous machine. The short circuit is applied to any two of the stator and the neutral of
the stator winding. To conduct the line-line and neutral sustained short circuit test armature
winding is star connected, two line terminals are short circuited to neutral and the machine is
driven at rated speed and is then excited. Zero sequence resistance is given by

Value of R0 is calculated when neutral current is equal to the 3 times the phase current.

Line to Line Sustained Short Circuit Test:

This test is conducted to determine X2 and R2. Any two lines are shorted and the machine is
driven at rated speed. The short circuit current, excitation current and the voltage between the
open line terminals are noted. Negative sequence resistance is obtained from the test data.

To avoid serious overheating of solid parts, the duration of the line-to-line sustained short-
circuit test at currents above 30 percent. In should be limited to the time required for taking
the readings of the instruments. For non-salient pole machines the armature current is usually
limited to 50 percent of the rated value.
Measurement of temperature:

The temperature of various parts of electrical machines can be measured by one of the
following means.
1. Thermometer: This gives the temperature of the surface at one point only
2. Embedded temperature detector (thermo couple or resistance coil): This gives the
temperature at one internal point
3. Estimating the mean rise in temperature using the resistance temperature co-efficient
Loading of the machine should be within its specified limits as per duty. Over loading leads
to temperature rise. Standard limits of temperature rise in electrical machines and the class of
insulation temperature for different insulating materials are as shown

Mechanical alignment:

When the rotor is supplied, without shaft assembled is to be fitted on to the shaft before
installation. While fitting the rotor on to the shaft the difference b/w the rotor & shaft temp
are to be taken into account. The rotor hub bore & shaft diameters are to be matched
properly. Place the rotor in position such that the air gap b/w the rotor & rotor stocks is
approximately uniform
Air Gap Symmetry:

The air gap b/w the stator & the rotor are checked & adjusted after the shaft is fully aligned.
Set the air gap with the help of wedge type gauges on both sides of the rotor. Permissible
values of difference b/w max & min air gap for an induction motor is 10%

Bearings:
The selection of bearings depends upon the following factors
 Speed
 Temperature limit
 Load capacity
 Noise and vibrations
 End thrust
 Corrosion resistance
 Cost
 Space and weight limitation
The different methods of lubricating the bearings are:
Oil bath: In this rolling element will pass through the oil pool during each revolution.
Drop feed: To avoid agitation & churning drop feed method in high speeds is used
Oil mist: It is used for speeds of the order of 1,00,000 rpm.
Oil circulation system: This is used for medium & large motor bearings for
continuous use.