JOSPAPUBLI

SHERS–0724013786

FORM FOURBI
OLOGY
 Def i
net het er m genet ics
 Different i
atebet weenher edi t
yandv ariati
on
 Distingui shbet weencont inuousanddi scont inuousv ar
iations
 Descr i
becont inuousanddi scont inuousv ariati
ons
 Obser vev ariati
onsi npl ant sandani mal s
 Descr i
bet hest ructure, natur eandpr oper tiesofchr omosomes
 Descr i
bet hest ructure, natur eandpr oper tiesofDNAmol ecule
 Different i
atebet weenDNAandRNA
 Distingui shbet weenF1andF2gener ation
 Det ermineMendel ’
sf i
rstlawofi nher it
ance
 Def i
neot hert ermsusedi ni nheri
t ancesuchasphenot ype, genotype,
domi nantgene, recessi vegene, hapl oidanddi ploid
 Demonst ratemonohy bridi nherit
ancei npl antsandani mal s
 Predi ctout comesofv ar i
ousgenet iccr osses
 Const r
uctandmakeuseofpannetsquar es
 Wor koutgenot ypi candphenot ypi cr ati
os
 Predi ctout comesofv ar i
ouscr osses
 Det erminet heunknowngenot ypesi nacr ossusi ngat estcr oss
 Descr i
beal binism asanexampl eofmonohy bridi nheri
tancei nhuman
beings
 Expl ainthei nher i
tanceofABObl oodgr oupsi nhumanbei ngs
 Expl ainthei nher i
tanceofr hesusf actorasanexampl eofmonohy bri
d
i
nher i
tancei nhumanbei ngs
 Predi ctthei nher itanceofbl oodgr oupshumanbei ngs
 Descr i
bei ncompl etedomi nance
 Descr i
bei nher i
tanceofcol ourinf lower sofmi rabi l
isj
alapa
 Descr i
beI nher i
tanceofsi ckl ecell anemi ai nhumanbei ngs
 Expl ainhowsexi sdet er mi nedinhumanbei ngs
 Descr i
besexl inkagesi nhumanbei ngs
 Def i
nel inkageandsex- l
inkage
 Descr i
bel i
nkagei nhumanbei ngse. g.colourbl indnessandhemophi l
ia
 Descr i
becol ourbl i
ndnessasanexampl eofsex- linkedt raitinhuman
beings
 Interpretpedi greeofi nher itance
 Descr i
bet heI nher i
tanceofhemophi liaasanexampl eofsex- li
nkedtrai
ts
i
nhumanbei ngs
 Def i
nemut ation
 Different i
atebet weenmut at i
onsandmut agens
 Listdowncausesofmut at i
ons
 Stat ethet ypesofmut ati
ons
 Listdownt hev ariouschr omosal mut ations
 Descr i
bechr omosal mut at i
ons
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 Expl aintheEf fect sofchr omosal mut ations

 Descr ibegenemut ati
onsandt hei reffect sonor gani sms
 Descr ibear easi nwhi cht heknowl edgeofgenet i
cshasbeenappl ied
 Expl ainthepr act ical appl icationsofgenet ics
 Def i
neev olution
 Expl ainthecur rentconcept soft heor iginofl if
e
 Expl ainthecur rentconcept sonor i
ginofl i
fe
 Descr ibet hest udyoff ossi lsasev i
denceofor gani cev olutiont heor y
 Descr ibecompar at iveanat omyasev i
denceofor gani cev olution
 Descr ibeoccur renceofv estigial structur esandgeogr aphi cal distributi
on
ofor ganismsasev idenceofor gani cev olut i
on
 Descr ibecompar at iveembr yology ,cellbiologyandbi ochemi stryas
evidenceofor gani cev olut i
on
 Descr ibeev olutionofhomi nids
 Descr ibeLamar ck’st heor y
 Descr ibeanddi scusst hest ruggl ef orexi stenceandsur vival fort hef i
tt
est
 Descr ibeanddi scussnewconcept sofDar win’stheor y
 Descr ibenat ural sel ectioni nact ion
 Descr ibenat ural sel ectioni nnat ur e
 Descr ibet hei sol ationmechani sm i nspeci ati
on
 Descr ibeAr t i
ficial select ioni npl ant sandani malsandhowi tl eadst o
speci ati
on
 Expl ainthei mpor tanceofsexual r
epr oduct i
oninev oluti
on
 Def i
nest imul us
 Def i
nei r
ritabi li
ty
 Def i
ner esponse
 Def i
net act i
candt ropicr esponses
 Li
stdownt act i
cr esponsesi npl ant s
 Li
stdownt ropi cr esponsesi npl ant s
 Differentiatebet weent act icandt r
opi cr esponses
 Def i
negeot ropi sm
 Descr ibegeot ropi sm i nr oot sandshoot sofpl ants
 Differentiatebet weenPhot ot r
opi sm andgeot ropism
 Car ryoutexper iment sdemonst r atingbot hPhot otropism andgeot ropi
sm
i
napl antseedl i
ng
 Car ryoutexper iment st odemonst rat
et act icresponsest ol ightandwat er
 Car ryoutexper iment st oshowchemot acticresponseusi ngf ruitj uice
 Def i
neHy dr otropi sm andt higmot ropism
 Statet hei mpor tanceofTact icandt r
opi cr esponses
 Expl ainthepr oduct ionofPl anthor monesandt heiref fectsonpl ant s
 Car ryoutexper imentt oi nv est i
gat ehy drotropism
 Car ryoutexper imentt oi nv est i
gat eet iolation
 Demonst rat et hekneej erki nar eflexact i
on
 Def i
nedCondi ti
onedr eflexact i
ons
 Descr ibeCondi tionedr eflexact ionusi ngpar l
ousdog
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 Compar esi mpl eandcondi ti

onedr efl
exact ions
 Expl ai
nt her oleofendocr inesy stem i nahumanbei ng
 Expl ai
nt heef f
ectov ersecr etionandundersecr etionoft hyroxinand
adrenal ine
 Isolateandl istt hesi mi lar i
tiesanddi fferencesbet weent heendocr ineand
thener voussy stem
 Statet heef f
ect sofdr ugabuseonhumanheal t
h
 Drawandl abel themammal ianey e
 Statet hef unct ionsoft hemammal ianey e
 Descr ibehowt hest ruct ur eoft hemammal ianey ei sadapt edtoi t
s
funct i
ons
 Dissectanddi spl aypar t
soft hemammal ianey e
 Descr ibehowani magei sf ormedandi nt erpr etedi nthemammal i
aney e
 Descr ibeAccommodat ioni nt hemammal i
aney e
 Nameandexpl ai nt heCommoney edef ect s
 Descr ibeCommoney edef ect sandt heircor rect ions
 Investigat ethebl indspotI nt heey e
 Investigat ewhi chey ei susedmor edur i
ngv ision
 Nameanddescr ibeCommoney edi seases
 Drawandl abel themammal ianear
 Descr ibet hemammal ianearandhowi tisadapt edt oi
tsf unctions
 Descr ibet hemechani sm ofhear i
ng
 Discusst hickeardr um, damagedcochl ea, rapt uredear drum, fussed
ossicles, otiti
smedi a, ost oscel er ossandt inni t
us
 Definesuppor tandmov ement
 Descr ibet henecessi tyofmov ementi npl ant sandani mal s
 Rev iewt het issuedi st ri
but ioni nmonocot y l
edonousandi cotyledonous
plant s
 Descr ibesuppor tinwoodyandnon- woodyst ems
 Descr ibet her oleoft endr il
sandt enderst emsi nsuppor t
 Obser v epr epar edsect i
onsofwoodyandher baceousst ems
 Obser v eawi lt
ingpl ant
 Listt het ypesofskel etons
 Descr ibet her oleofexoskel etoni ninsect s
 Descr ibet her oleandcomponent sofendoskel eton
 Descr ibet her oleofskel etoni nv ertebrat es
 Drawt hest ruct ureofaf innedf ish( ti
lapi a)
 Calcul atethet ai lpower
 Expl ai
nhowl ocomot ionoccur si nf i
sh
 Nameanddr awt hedi fferentf insandst at et heirf uncti
ons
 Drawt hehumanskel etonandi dent i
fyt hecomponentpar t
s
 Ident i
fyanddr awt heskul l
 Ident i
fybonesofAxi al skelet oni nt hev er tebr alcol umn
 Ident i
fyt hecer v i
cal vertebr ae
 Ident i
fyt hest r
uct ur esoft het hor acicv er tebr ae
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 Relatethest ruct ur eoft het hor acicv ert

ebr aetotheirf unct
ions
 Identi
fyt hest ruct uresofl umbar ,sacr alandcandal vertebr
ae
 Showhowr ibsar ticulatewi tht horacicv ertebrae
 Drawandl abel Ribsandst ernum
 Relatethest ruct ur etot heirfunct ions
 Identi
fycomponent sofAppendi cularskel eton
 Drawt hescapul aboneandr elatei ttoitsfunct i
ons
 Identi
fyt hebonesoft hef orel i
mbs
 Drawt hest r
uct ureoft hehumer us, r
adiusandul na
 Drawandl abel bonesoft hehand
 Drawt hepel v i
cgi rdle
 Namet hebonesofThepel v i
cgi rdle
 Relatethest ruct ur etot heirfunct ions
 Identi
fy,drawandl abel thef emur , t
ibiaandt i
bulabones
 Relatetheirst ruct uret otheirf unct i
ons
 Drawandl abel thebonesoft hef oot
 Relatethest ruct ur eofbonesoft hef oottot heirfunctions
 Defineaj oint
 Listthet hreet ypesofj oints
 Descr i
bet het ypesofj oi
nt s
 Listexampl esofmov ablejoint s,hingej oi
nt sandbel landsocketj
oint
s
 DefineImmov abl ej oi
nt s
 NameI mmov ablej oints
 Definemuscl es
 Explainthedi f f
er encesbet weent het hr
eet ypesofmuscl es
 Identi
fyingbi cepsandt r
icepsi nt hear m mov ement

Genet
ics
I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Genet i
csisthestudyofinherit
ance.
 Thef actthatt
heof f
spri
ngofanyspeci esresembletheparentsindicat
est
hat
thecharactersi
nt heparent
sar epassedont otheoffspr
ing.
 Factorsthatdeter
mi necharacter
s(genes)arepassedonf rom parentt
o
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off
springthroughgamet esorsexcell
s.
 Infer
til
isat
iont henucl
eusoft hemalegametefuseswi t
ht henucl
eusofthe
femalegamet e.
 Theoffspri
ngshowt hecharact
eri
sti
csofbotht
hemal eandt hef
emale.
 Geneti
csi st hestudyofhow t hi
sherit
abl
emat er
ialoperatesi
nindiv
idual
s
andtheiroffspri
ng.

Var
iat
ionswi
thi
nPl
antandAni
malSpeci
es
Var
iat
ion
 Thet ermv ariati
onmeanst odif
ferfrom ast
andard.
 Genet i
cs al so deals wi tht he study ofdiff
erences between or ganisms
bel ongingt oonespeci es.
 Or ganismsbel ongingt ohighertaxonomicgroupse. g.phylaorcl assesar e
clearlydifferent.
 Althoughor ganismsbel ongingtot hesamespeci esaresimi l
ar,t
heyshowa
numberofdi ff
erencesorv ari
ati
onssucht hatnot woor ganismsar eexact l
y
thesamei nev eryrespect.
 Ev eni denti
calt wins,thoughsi mil
arinmanyaspect s,
areseent odifferifthey
growi ndifferentenvironment s.
 Thei rdi f
ferencesar easar esultoft heenvir
onmentwhi chmodi f
iest he
expr essionoft heirgenet i
cmake- uporgenotype.
 Thet wocausesofv ariati
onsaret hegenesandtheenv i
ronment .
 Genes det ermine t he char acter whilethe env i
ronment modi f
ies t he
expr essionoft hatchar acter.

Cont
inuousandDi
scont
inuousVar
iat
ion
Cont
inuousVar
iat
ions
 Thedi ff
erencesbet weent heindi vidualar
enotcl ear-
cut.
 Therear eintermedi atesorgr adat i
onsbet weenanyt woext r
emes.
 Continuousv ariat
ionsar eduet oact ionofmanygenese. g.skincompl
exi
on
i
nhumans.
 Incont i
nuousv ari
ation,theenv i
ronmenthasamodi fyi
ngef f
ecti
nthati
tmay
enhanceorsuppr esst heexpressi onsofthegenes.
 Continuousv ar i
ationcanber epresent edinform ofahi stogram.
 Exampl e ofcont i
nuous v ariati
on i n humans i s wei ght,hei
ghtand ski
n
compl exi
on.
 Linearmeasur ement s:
 Inhumans, heightshowsgr adat i
onf r
om tall
,total
lest.
 Sodoest helengt hofmat ur
el eav esofapl ant.
 Inmostcases, conti
nuousv ariat
ioni sasar esul
toft heenv i
ronment.

Di
scont
inuousVar
iat
ions
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 Thesear
edi
sti
nctandcl
earcutdi
ff
erenceswi
thi
naspeci
es.

Exampl esincl ude:

 Abi li
tytor ollthetongue.
 Ani ndivi
dual canei t
herroll
thetongueornot .
 Abi li
tyt ot aste pheny l
thi
ourea (PTC);some i ndivi
dual
s can tast
et his
chemi calot herscannot.
 Bl oodgr oups-andi ndivi
dualhasoneoft hefourbloodgroupsA,BABorO.
 Ther earenoi nt
ermediates.
 Al binism -onei seitheranalbi
noornot .
 Di scontinuousv ar
iati
onsisdeterminedbyt heacti
onofasi ngl
egenepresent
i
nani ndivi
dual .
St
ruct
ureandPr
oper
ti
esofChr
omosomes
 Thesear ethreadli
kestructuresfoundinthenucleus.
 Theyar enormal l
yv er
ythinandcoi l
edandar enoteasil
yv i
sibleunl
essthecel
l
i
sdi vi
ding.
 Whenacel li
saboutt odivide,thechromosomesuncoi landt hi
cken.
 Theirstruct
ure,numberandbehav i
ourisclearl
yobserveddur ingt
heprocess
ofcelldivi
si
on.
 Thenumberofchr omosomesi sthesamei nallt
hebodycel lsofanorgani
sm.
 Inthebodycel ls,
thechromosomesar efoundinpair
s.
 Each pai ris made up oft wo identi
calchromosomes t hatmake up a
homol ogouspai r
.
 Howev ersexchr omosomesi nhumanmal eareanexcept ioninthattheY-
chromosomei ssmal l
er.

NumberofChr
omosomes

Di
ploi
dNumber(
2n)
 Thi
si sthenumberofchr omosomesfoundinsomat
iccel
l
s.
 Forexampl e,i
nhuman2n=46or22pai r
s(44chr
omosomes)ar
eknownas
autosomes( bodychromosomes")
 while1pairisknownast hesexchr
omosomes.
 InDrosophilamelanogaster
,2n=8.

Chr
omosomeSt
ruct
ure
 Allchr
omosomesar enotoft
hesamesizeorshape.
 Inhumanbei ngs;eachofthetwenty
¬t hr
eepai r
shav
euni
quesi
zeand
str
ucture.
 Ont hi
sbasi
stheyhavebeennumber
ed1t o23.
 Thesexchromosomesf or
mthe23r
dpair.
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Pr
oper
ti
esofChr
omosomes
 Chromosomesar everylongandt hin.
 Theyar egr eat l
yandl oosel ycoiledandf itwi thint henucleus.
 Duringcel l divisi
ont heyshor t
en, becomet hi ckerandar eeasi l
yobservabl
e.
 Eachconsi st soft wochr omat i
ds.
 Thet wochr omat idsar eheldatsameposi tional ongthelengt h,atthe
centromer e.
 Chromat i
dssepar atedur i
ngcel ldiv i
sioninmi tosisandi nthesecondst age
ofmei osis.
 Chromosomest akemostdy esandst aindar kert hananyot herpartofthe
cell
.
 Thispr oper tyhasear nedt hem thename" chr omat i
nmat eri
al"
 Eachchr omosomei smadeupoft hef oll
owi ngcomponent s:
 Deoxy ri
bonucl eicaci d(DNA)-t hiscar ri
est hegenes.
 Itisthemaj orcomponentoft hegenet icmat erial.
 Proteine. g.hi stones.
 Ribonuclei caci d( RNA)i spr esenti nver ysmal lamount s.
 Enzy mesconcer nedwi thDNAandRNAr eplication-t hesear eDNAandRNA
polymer asesandl i
gases.
St
ruct
ureofDNA
 Thestr
uct
ureofDNAwasf i
rstexpl
ainedin1953byWatsonandCr
ick.
 DNAwasshownt obeadoubleheli
xt hatcoi
lsar
oundi
tsel
f.
 Thetwost
randsarepar
all
elandthedistancebet
weent
het woi
sconst
ant
.
Component
sofDNA
 DNAi smadeupofr epeat inguni tscal l
ednucl eot
ides.
 Eachnucl eot i
deiscomposedof :
 Afive-carbonsugar( deoxy ri
bose) .
 Phosphat emol ecule.
 Nitr
ogenousbase, fourt ypesar eav ailablei
.e,
 Adeni ne-(A)
 Guani ne-(G)
 Cy tosi
ne-( C)
 Thy mine-( T)
 Thebasesar erepr esent edbyt heiriniti
alsasA, G, CandTrespect
ivel
y.
 Thesugaral ternateswi tht hephosphat e,andthet wofor
mt hebackboneof
thest rands.
 Thebasescombi nei naspeci f
icmanner ,sucht hatAdeni
nepai r
swith
Thy mineandGuani nepai rswi thCy t
osine.
 Thebasesar ehel dt oget herbyhy drogenbonds.Agenei sthebasicuni
tof
inherit
anceconsi stingofanumberofbasesi nli
nearsequenceontheDNA.
 Genesexer ttheiref fectthroughpr oteinsynthesis.
 Thesequenceofbasest hatmakeupagenedet er
minethearr
angementof
ami noaci dstomakeapar ticularpr otein.
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 Thepr otei
nsmanuf act
uredareusedtomakecellul
arst
ructur
esaswel las
hormonesandenzy mes.
 Thet y
pesofpr otei
nsanorgani
sm manufact
uresdet
erminesit
s
characteri
stics.
 Forexampl e,albini
sm isduet ofai
l
ureoft hecellsofanor gani
sm to
synt
hesi setheenzy met yr
osi
nerequi
redfortheformat
ionoft hepigment
melanin.

Fi
rstLawofHer
edi
ty
 Iti
salsoknownasLawofSegr egati
on( Mendel '
sFir
stLaw) .
 Thechar actersofanor ganism arecontrol
ledbygenesoccur r
inginpair
s
knownasAl leles.
 Bydef i
nit
ion, anall
eleisanal t
ernati
veform ofagenecont r
oll
inga
parti
cularchar act
eristi
c.
 Ofapai rofsuchal leles,onlyonei scarr
iedineachgamet e.
 Thisisexplainedbyf i
rstmei oti
canaphasest age,whenthehomol ogous
chromosomesar esepar atedsot hateachcarri
esoneoft heallel
i
cgenes.
Monohy
bri
dInher
it
ance
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 Thisi sthest udyoft hei

nher i
tanceofonechar actert r
aitthatisrepresented
byapai rofgenesonhomol ogouschr omosomes.
 GregorMendel (anAustrianmonk)wast hefir
stper sont oshowt henat ur
eof
i
nher it
ance.
 Hedi dthist hroughaser iesofexper i
mentsusingt hegar denpea, Pisum
sati
v um.
 Asopposedt oot hersbeforehim,thesuccessi nhiswor klayinthef actthat
:
 Hechoset ost udyf ir
stasinglecharacteratatime( monohy bri
di nherit
ance)
.
 Het henpr oceededt ostudytwochar acter
satt i
me( dihybri
dinher i
tance).
 Hequant i
fiedhi sr esul
tsbycount i
ngthenumberofof fspri
ngbear i
ngeach
tr
ait.
 Eachchar act erhechosewasexpr essedintwoclear lycontrasti
ngf orms.
Exampl
es
 Stem l
ength:
somepl ant
swer et
all
whi l
eother
swereshor
t.
 Colourofunr
ipepods:someweregr een,ot
her
syel
l
ow.
 Therewerenointer
mediates.
Mendel
'
sPr
ocedur
e
 Foreachchar acter,Mendel choseapl antthatbr edt r
ue.
 At r
ueorpur ebr eedcont i
nuest oshowapar ti
culartraiti
nallt
heoff
spri
ngi n
severalsuccessi
v egenerationsofsel f
-fert
il
isati
on.
 Hemadeonepl anttoactast hefemal ebyr emov ingthestamensbefor
et he
ovarywasmat ur
eandpr otecting(e.g.bywr appingwi t
hpaper).
 Thef emaleplantfrom contactwi t
hanyst r
aypol len.
 Whent heovarywasmat ure,hecar efull
ydust edpol l
enf r
om theant
hersof
theselectedmalepl antandt ransferredi tt
ot hest i
gmaoft hefemal
eplant.
 Obser v
ations weret hen made on t he r esult
ing seeds oron the plants
obtai
nedwhent hoseseedswer eplanted.

Resul
ts
 Foreachpai rofcont r
asti
ngchar actershest udied,Mendelobtainedthesame
resul
ts.
 Forexampl e,whenhecr ossedpur ebr eedingt al
lplantswithpurebr eedi
ng
shortpl ants,thefirstoff
spring,knownast hef i
rstf i
li
algener ation( FI)
wereal ltal
l.
 Whent hesewer esel f
edi.
e.sel f
-f
ertil
i
sat i
onal l
owedt otakeplace,thesecond
generationof fspri
ngal soknow ast hes econdf il
ialgener ationorF2
occurredi ntheratioof3t al
l:1shor t
.
 Thesamer ati
owasobt ai
nedf oreachoft heot hercharacter
sstudied.
 From thi sitisclearthatonechar acteri.e.tal
lisd omi nantovert heshor t
character.
 Adomi nantchar acteristhatwhi chisexpr essedal oneintheof f
spri
ngev en
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

whent heopposi techaracterisr epresent edinthegenot ype.

 Theunexpr essedchar acterissai dt ober ecessive.
 From t heser esul tsandot hersobt ai
nedwhenhest udiedtwochar actersat
the same t ime,Mendelconcl uded t hatgamet es car ryfactorst hatar e
expr essedi nt heof fspri
ng.
 Thesef actorsar ewhatweknowt odayasgenes.
 Mendel putf orwar dthefoll
owi ngl awsofi nheri
tance:
 Ofapai rofcont rastingcharact ers,onlyonecanber epresentedi nagamet e.
 Fort woormor epai rsofsuchcont r
astingchar acters, eachfactor(gene)in
thegamet eact si ndependentlyoft heot hersandmaycombi ner andoml ywith
eitheroft hef act orsofanot herpai rdur i
ngf ert
il
isation.
 Genet icexper iment scarr
iedoutt odat econf ir
m Mendel '
sLawsofi nheri
tance
e.g. T. H. Mor gan's wor k on i nheritance in t he f rui
tf ly Dr osophil
a
mel anogast er.
Ter
msusedinGenet
ics
Genot
ype:
 Thegenespr
esentinanindi
vidual
.Thegeneti
cconst
it
uti
onofani
ndi
vi
dual
.It
i
sexpressedi
nalphabeti
calnot
ati
on.e.
gTT,Tt
Phenot
ype:
 Theobservedcharacterorappear
ancei.
e.t
heexpressi
onoft hegenesi
nthe
str
uctur
eandphy siol
ogyoftheorgani
sm.
 In some cases the phenoty
pe isthe pr
oductoft he genoty
pe and t
he
envir
onment.Phenotypeisexpressedinwords.
egTALL,SHORT, REDWHITE
.etc.
Al
lel
es:
 Theseareal t
ernat
iveformsoft hesamegenet hatcont
rolapairof
contr
asti
ngcharact
erse.g.t
all
andshort
.
 They aref ound at the same positon or g
i ene-
locus on each
chromosomeinah omol ogouspair.
Homozygous:
 Thi
sisast
atewher
etheal
l
elesi
nani
ndi
vi
dual
aresi
mil
are.
g.TT(
fort
all
)

Het
erozy
gous:
 Thisisast at
ewheretheall
elesaredi
ssi
mi l
ari.
e.eachoft het
wogenes
responsi
bleforapai
rofcont
rasti
ngchar
actersarepresent
 e.g.Tt
.(Tfortal
l;tf
orshort
)
Hy
bri
d:
 Thisisthe off
spr
ing r
esul
ti
ng f
rom cr
ossi
ng oft
wo i
ndi
vi
dual
s wi
th
contr
ast
ingchar
act
ers.
Hy
bri
dvi
gourorHet
erosi
s:
 Thehybri
ddevelopsthebestchar
acter
ist
icsfrom bothpar
ent
s
 i
.e.i
tisst
rongerorheal
thi
er,oryi
eldsmorethaneitherpar
ent
.
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

UseofSy
mbol
s
 Tor epresentgenesi nthechromosomes, l
ett
ersareused.
 Iti
scust omar ytouseacapi t
all
etterfort
hedomi nantcharacter
ist
icand
smal ll
etterfortherecessiveone.
 Thegamet esareenci r
cled.
 Forexampl e,
acr ossbetweenat allandashortpeaplantisil
lust
ratedas
fol
lows;
 Let–T- repr
esentgenef ortall
ness.
 Let- t-representgenef orshortness.

Fer
ti
li
zat
ion-usi
ngcheckerboar
dorPunnetsquar
e
F1genot
y peTt
F1Phenotypicr
ato=Al
i ltal
l.
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

F2Genoty
peTT,2Tt
,tt
F2Phenoty
picr
ati
o;3Tal
l
;1shor
t
TestCr
ossorBackCr
oss
 Thi
sisaer asmadebet weentheF1bear i
ngthedomi nanttr
aitwit
hthe
homozygousrecessiveparent
.
 I
tiscal
l
edabackcr ossbecauseofusi
ngthefi
rstpar
ent.
 I
tisal
soat estcr
ossbecausei tt
est
sthegenot
y peoftheindi
vi
dual.

Compl
eteDomi
nance
 Mendel
happenedt
ochoosechar
act
erst
hatshowedcompl
etedomi
nance,
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 i.e.thedominanttrai
tcomplet
elymaskedt herecessi
veonei ntheF1
generati
on.
 Inman, cer
tai
ncharact
ersar
einheri
tedi
nthesameway
 e.g.col
ouroftheskin;
normalcol
ourisdominanttoalbi
nism (
lackofski
n
pigment).

 Thechi
l
drenar
eal
lnor
mal
buthav
ethegenef
oral
bini
sm.
 Suchi
ndi
vi
dual
sar
eref
err
edt
oascar
ri
ers.
Ot
herchar
actersthatshowcompl et
edomi nancei
nhumansar
e:
 Abil
itytorol
lthetongue.
 Polydactyl
y(havi
ngmor ethan5digit
sinoneli
mb)
.
 Brachydactyl
y-havingshortf
inger
s.
 Achondr opl
asia-dwarfwit
hbowl egs.
I
ncompl
eteDomi
nance
 Inthi
skindofinheri
tancet hereisnodomi nantorr
ecessi
vegenebutt
he
twoareexpressedequallyintheoff
spri
ng,
 Resul
tingi
nblendingoft hecharact
ers.
 Thegenef orredcol our(R)i ncatt
leandt hegeneforwhitecol
our(
W)
showincompletedomi nanceorco-¬dominance.

 Theoff
spr
ingarenei
therr
ednorwr
it
ebutar
eint
ermedi
atebet
weent
he
two.
 Theyar
esaidt
oberoan.
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 I
nhumans,
thesi
ckl
ecel
lgeneandt
henor
mal
genear
eco-
domi
nant
.
I
nher
it
anceofABObl
oodgr
oupsi
nhumans
 Bl
oodgroupsinhumanaredetermi
nedbythreeall
eles,A,
B,andO.
 Anindi
vi
dualcanhaveonl
ytwoofthesegenes.
 GenesAandBar ecodomi
nant,whi
l
egene0i srecessiv
etoAandB.
 Thesearer
eferr
edtoasmu lt
ipleall
eles.

TheABOBl
oodGr
oupSy
stem
RhesusFact
or
 TheRhesusf actorisr esponsi
bleforthepr esenceofapr ot
ein(Ant
igenD)
i
nt heredbl oodcells.
 Ifbloodfrom aRhesusposi ti
ve(Rh+)per soni str
ansfer
redint
oaper son
withouttheRhesusf actor(Rh-)
;
 Ther eci
pients'bodypr oducesantibodiesagainsttheRhesusfactor
.
 This causes aggl utinati
on ofr ed blood cel l
s which can be fatalif
subsequentt ransf
usi onwi t
hRh+bl oodisdone.

SexDet
ermi
nat
ioni
nHumans
 XYt ypee. g.humanmal e
 I
nmal es,twot ypesofsper msareproduced.
 Halfoft hencont ai ngXchr
ni omosomesandhal fYchromosomes.
 Duringf er
t i
li
sati
ononl yonespermfuseswi ththeegg.
 I
fitisanX- carr
y i
ngspermt henafemalezy goteisfor
med;
 I
fitisaY- car r
yingspermt henamalezy goteisformed.
 I
tfol l
owst hent hatthechancesofget ti
ngaboyorgi rlarehalforf
ift
y-
¬fi
fty.
 Noteal sot hatitisessenti
all
ythet
ypeofsper mt hatfer
ti
li
sestheeggthat
determinest hesex.
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

Li
nkage
 Thet erml inkagedescribethesituationwher egenesorcer tai
ncharact
ers
arelocatedont hesamechr omosome.
 Offspri
ng pr oduced by sexualr eproducti
on show onl ythe parental
characteristi
csandonl ysomet i
mesf ewnewr ecombi nant s.
 i
.e.of f
springwi thcombi nati
onsofchar acteri
st i
csnotf oundi neit
herof
theparent sduet ocrossingoverinf i
rstprophaseofmei osis.
 Genesar esai dtobel i
nkedwhent heyarel ocatedcl oset ogetheronthe
samechr omosomesucht hattheyar ealwaysi nheri
tedtoget her.
Sexl
i
nkedgenes
 Thesear egenesthatar
elocatedonthesexchromosomes.
 Sex-l
inkage-refer
stocarryi
ngofthegenesonthesex-¬chr
omosome.
 Genef oratrai
tmaybepr esent,
yetof
fspri
ngdoesnotshowt hetr
ait
.
 This happens in human females (
XX)wher e a gene f
ort he t
rai
tis
recessiv
e.
 Thef emaleactsasacarri
er.

nhuman,
I sexl
inkedchar
act
ersf
oundont
heXchr
omosomei
ncl
ude:
Haemophi
li
a:
 Thisisadi seasethataf fectsther ateofcl ott
ingofbl ood,l
eadi
ngt o
excessivebleedingev enfrom ami norcut .
 Haemophi liaismor ecommoni nmal est haninfemales.
 Af emal e myhav et he gene forhaemophi l
i
a and notshow t he t
rai
t
becauset henor malgenei sdomi nantov erthegeneforhaemophil
ia.
 Suchf emalesar ereferr
edt oascar r
iers.
 Ifthecar r
ierf emal
eof fspringwillbecar ri
erswhiletheotherhal
fwillbe
normal .
 Halfthemal eswi l
lbenor mal andtheot herheamophilic.

Red-
greencol
our
-bl
indness
 Red-gr
eencol
our
-bli
ndnessiscausedbyarecessi
vegenefoundont
heX
chromosome.
 Iti
sinher
it
edi
nthesamewayashaemophi l
ia.
 Mor emal
es1:
10,000,l
essfemale1:100mi
l
lionaff
li
cted.
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 I
tist
hei
nabi
l
ityt
odi
sti
ngui
shbet
weenr
edandgr
eencol
our
sinhumans.

Genesf
oundony
-chr
omosomei
ncl
ude:
 Hai
rypi
nnaandhairynosear
ecar
ri
edont
heY-chr
omosome.
 Pr
ematurebal
ding.

Mut
ati
ons
 Mut ati
onsar esuddenchangesi nthegenot ypethatareinheri
ted.
 Mut ati
onsar erareinnat ur
eandmut atedgenesar eusual l
yr ecessi
vet o
thenor mal (wildtype)genes.
 Mostmut ationsaregener all
yhar mfulandsomear elethal
.
 Asomat icmut ati
oni sagenet icchangei nsomat i
ccell
s.
 Somat icmut ati
onsar eonlyi nheri
tedifasexualreproductiont akesplace
e.g.asinpl antsanduni cell
ularanimals.
 Agenemut at i
onisachangei ngenesofr eproducti
vecel l
sandi sal
way s
i
nher i
ted.
 Ther esultantindiv
idualiscalledamut ant.
 Themut anthasdi ffer
entchar acter
ist
icsfrom therestofthepopul ati
on.
Ty
pesofMut
ati
ons
 Chromosomalmut at
ions-are changesi
n numberorstruct
ure of
chromosomes.
 Genemut at
ions-alsocall
edpointmutat
ions-arechangesinthe
chemicalnatureoft
hegene.
Mut
agens:
 Theseareagent sthatcausemutat
ions.
 Theincl
udeult
r a-v
ioletl
ight
,Gammar ay
s.,x-
raysandcosmi cray
s.
 Cert
ain chemicals e.g.mustard gas and colchi
cines al
so induce
mutati
ons.

Causesandconsequencesofchr
omosomalmut
ati
ons
 Therearet hreemai nt y
pesofchr omosomal mut ati
ons.
 Changesi nt hedi pl
oidnumberofchr omosomes( all
opolyploi
dy).
 Thediploidnumberchangest o3n( t
riploi
d)or4n( t
etraploi
d)andsoon.
 Thi
sr esultsf rom t hedoubl i
ngoft hechr omosomenumberi nt he
gamete( 2n).
 Thi
si sduet of ai
lureoft hechr omosomeset stosepar at
edur i
ng
meiosis.
 Thephenomenoni sknownaspol yploidy.
 Itiscommoni npl ant '
sandhasbeenempl oy edar t
ifici
all
ytopr oduce
var
ieti
esofcr opswi thhybri
dv i
goure. g.breadwheati shexaploid(6n).
Thi
sisal l
opol yploidy).
 Changei nt het otalnumberofchr omosomesi nvolvi
ngt headdi t
ionor
l
ossofi ndividual chromosomes( autopolyploidy )
.
 Thi
si sduet of ail
ureofi ndiv
idualchr omosomest osepar at
edur i
ng
meiosis.
 Onegamet egai nsan ext ra chromosomewhi l
et heot herl osesa
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

chr
omosome.
 The term non-¬di
sjuncti
on is used t
o descr
ibe t
he f
ail
ure of
chr
omosomestosepar at
e.
Non-
disj
unct
ionr
esul
tsinseveraldi
sorder
sinhumans:

Down'
ssy
ndr
ome
 The i ndiv
idualhas 47 chromosomes due to non-
disjunct
ion of
chromosome21.
 Iti
sal soknownast r
isomy21.
 Thei ndivi
dualhasslant
edey eswit
hflatandroundedf ace,mental
ret
ardationandlar
getongueandweakmuscles.
Tur
ner
'sSy
ndr
ome
 Thisbri
ngsabouttoaster
il
eandabnor
mall
yshor
tfemale.
 I
tisduet ol
ossofoneofthesexchr
omosomes
 i
.e.thei
ndiv
idualhasoneXchromosome(44+X)inst
eadoft
wo(
44+
XX).
Kl
inef
elt
er'
sSy
ndr
ome
 Thi
sr esul
tsinasteri
lemalewhomaybement
all
yretar
ded.
 I
tisduet oanadditi
onalXchromosome
 i.
e.theindiv
iduali
.e.47chromosomes(
44+XXY)inst
eadof46(
44+
XY).

Changesi
nthest
ruct
ureofachr
omosomedur
ingmei
osi
s.
 Aport
ionofachr
omosomemaybreakoffandfai
ltouni
teagai
nori
t
maybejoi
nedi
nthewr
ongwayort
ot hewrongchr
omosome.

Thesemut
ati
onsar
edescr
ibedasf
oll
ows:
Del
eti
on:
 Thi
sisthelossofaporti
onofachromosome,
 Del
eti
onresultsi
nindi
vi
dual
sbornwithmissi
ngbodypar
ts.
 e.
g.l
imbsint heext
remeofcases.
I
nver
sion:
 Aporti
onmaybr eakfr
om achr omosomeandt
henr
ejoi
ntoi
taf
ter
t
urni
ngthoughanangl
e-of1800.
Tr
ansl
ocat
ion:
 Thi
siswhenapor
ti
oni
sjoi
nedt
oanon-
¬homol
ogous
chr
omosome.
Dupl
icat
ion:
 Acertai
nsecti
onofani
ntactchr
omosomer
epl
i
cat
essucht
hatt
he
genesar
erepeat
ed.

GeneMut
ati
ons
 Agenemutati
onisachangei
nthest
ruct
ureofagene.
 I
tmayi nv
olveonlyachangeinonebase,e.g.adeni
nei nplaceof
t
hyamineyettheeff
ectontheindi
vi
dualispr
ofounde.g.si
cklecel
l
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

anemia.
 Ther
earetwomai nty
peofgenemutati
ons:
 Duetoinsert
ionordel
eti
onofoneormore(base)pai
rs.
 Substi
tut
ionofbasepair
se.
g.puri
neforpy
rimidi
ne.
Genet
ical
lyi
nher
it
eddi
sor
der
sinhumans
 Albinism i samut at i
ont hatalter sthegener esponsibl
ef orsynt
hesisof
skinpi gment( mel anin).
 Thegenef oralbini sm isr ecessi v
e.
 Sickl ecel lanemi ai sacommoncondi tioninKeny a.
 Individualswi ththesi ckle-cel
l genepr oduceabnor malhaemogl obi
n.
 Itisduet ogenemut at
ioncausedbysubst i
tuti
onoft hebaseadeni ne
fort hymi ne.
 Ther esultist hei nclusionoft heami noacidv ali
ne( i
nplaceofgl ut
amic
acid)i nthehaemogl obinsy nthesised.
 Asar esul tther edbl oodcel lsbecomesi ckleshapedwhenoxy gen
concent rat ionbecomesl owi .
e.i nsidetissues.
 Thisl eadst obl ockageofcapi llari
es.
 Tissuesdonotgetsuf f
icientoxy gen.
 Homozy gous i ndiv i
dual s are ser iousl y anaemic and di ei n earl
y
childhood.
 Het erozy gous i ndi viduals hav e a mi xed population ofnor maland
sickledr edbl oodcel ls.
 Theyar enotser i
ousl yanaemi candcanl eadf ai
rl
ynor malli
ves.

 Haemophil
a( bl
eeder
'sdi
seases)i
sduet olackofgenef
orpr
oduct
ion
ofpr
otei
nsr esponsi
blef
orbloodcl
ott
ing.
Pr
act
icalAppl
icat
ionsofGenet
ics
 St
udyofgenet
icshasbeenputintoawidev ar
iet
yofusesen-
compasi
ng
pl
ant
sandanimalsandi
npart
icularhumans.
Bl
oodt
ransf
usi
on
 Bloodgr oupsaregenet i
call
ydetermined.
 Asdi scussedear l
ieraper sonofbloodgr oupAcanonl ygetbloodf r
om
anot heroneofAorO.
 Incaseofemer genciesandunav ai
labil
i
tyofblood,apat i
entmaybegi ven
bloodgr oupA+whenhe/ sheisA-.
 Firsttransfusi
oni sfinesi
nce,bythet i
meenoughant ibodiesareproduced
mostoft heredbl oodcellsofdonorhav ecompl et
edt heirl
i
fespanbuta
subsequentt r
ansfusionofA+bl oodisfatal
.
Pl
antandAni
malbr
eedi
ng
 Genetics i
s appli
ed most lyin pl
antand animalbreedi
ng in or
derto
producevari
eti
est hataremostsuitablet
oman'sneeds.
 Thisisdonethroughar t
if
icial
sel
ection.
 Variet
iesaredev elopedt hatar
er esist
antt
opest s,di
seasesorharsh
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

cl
i
mat
iccondi
ti
ons.
Genet
iccounsel
li
ng
 Genet i
c counsel l
i
ng i nv
olves advi
sing abouther edit
ary di
seases and
disorderssot hattheycanmakei nfor
meddeci sions.
Thi
sisdonet hrough:
 Takingf amil
yhi st
ory.
 Screeningforgenot ypese.g.t
hroughamni ocentesi
s.
 Inamni ocentesis,cel
lsareobtai
nedfrom amni oti
cflui
dduringpregnancy
.
 Condi t
ionssuchasDown' ssyndromecanbedet ectedusingmicroscopy.
Genet
icEngi
neer
ing
 Thisisat echnol
ogythati
nvolvesthemani
pul
ati
onoft
hegenoty
peofan
organism togetthedesi
redtrai
t.
 I
talsoi nv
olvesthetr
ansferofgenecodi
ngfort
hedesi
redt
rai
tfr
om one
organism toanother
.
Appl
icat
ionofGenet
icEngi
neer
ing
Pharmaceut i
calindustri
es:
 Maki ngofhor monese. g.Humani nsuli
nandhumangr owt
hhormone.
 Enzymese. g.Alph-Ant
i-
Trypsin(AAT)usedt otr
eatemphysema.(c)
Proteins.
 Drugsandv accines.
Agri
cul
turalindustries:
 Transgeni c animals and plants are pr
oduced which are al
so cal
l
ed
Genet ical
lyModi f
iedOrganisms( GMO's).
 Av arietyoftomat owit
hi mprovedpasteandal ongershel
ll
if
e.
 Sheepf orproducingdesir
edpr ot
einsinmilk.
 Plantsr esi
stanttopestsanddi seases.
Cl
oni
ng
 Thisisthemakingofident i
calcopi
esofgenes, DNAandwholeorganisms.
 Cloningisusedi nplants-t hatisti
ssueculturee.g.i
ndevel
opmentof
vari
ousv ar
iet
iesofbananasandEucal yptustr
ees.
 Thef i
rstmammal tobecl onedsuccessfull
ywasDolly-t
hesheep.
 Anucl eusfr
om thecellobtai
nedf r
om theudderofthesheepwasinsert
ed
i
nanunf er
ti
li
sedeggwi thoutanucleus.
 Thisz ygot
ewasi nt
roducedi ntotheuterusofasheepanddev elopedto
ful
lterm.
Genet
her
apy
 Invol
vesinject
inggenesint
opati
entsofcert
aindi
seases
 e.g.Parki
nson'sdi
seases.
 Theinject
edgeneal t
ersmetabol
ism t
obringaboutt
hecureoft
hedi
sease.
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

Pr
act
icalAct
ivi
ti
es
Todemonst
rat
eCont
inuousvar
iat
ions
Hei
ghtofst udents
 St udentsshoul dwor ki
npai rs,usechalkandmet r
er uletomarkl
evelof
topofheadont ot hewall
 Ordoorasonest udentstandsst r
aightwithoutshoes,nexttot
hewallor
door.
 Thehei ghtforeachst udentisrecordedonchal kboard.
 Thef requencydi str
ibut
ionofhei ghtisrecordi
ngast heheighti
sgrouped
i
ntov ariousclasses.
 Ahi stogr am t
or epresentfrequencyagainstheighti
sdr awn.
 Thenor mal bellshapedcur veisobserved.
Di
scont
inuousvar
iat
ions-abi
li
tyt
orol
ltongue
 Thenumberofst udent
swhocanr oll
thei
rtongueisrecordedaswellas
thenumberofnon- t
onguerol
l
ers.
 Therat
iooftongue-rol
l
erstonontongue¬r
oll
ersiswor kedout
.
 Genefortheabi
li
tytoroll
thetongueisdominant
,therefor
eisexpect
ed
moretonguerol
lers.

Demonst
rat
ionofMi
tosi
sandMei
sosi
s
Mit
osi
s
 Plast
icene i
s used to r epresent number and shapes of v
ari
ous
chromosomese.g.8inDrosophilamelanogast
er.
 Eachstageofmitosi
sil
l
ustratede.g.i
nter
phase,

 Eachi sroll
edtoappearl ongi
sandcoi l
ed,prophaseiseachmadei nt
oa
ballandthenshapedt otheappr
opriat
elength;andsplitint
ot wot o
representchromatids.
 Cent r
omer esfordi
fferentchr
omosomescanbei l
lustr
atedindiffer
ent
positi
ons.
 Eachst ageofmi t
osisisill
ust
rat
edandt el
ophasecanbei l
l
ustratedby
surroundingthe"chromosomes"wi thalongmanydr awnpl asti
ceneto
representcellmembr ane.
 Itismani pulat
edtoshowhowt elophasetakesplace.

Mei
osi
s
 Thesamepr ocedureisfoll
owed.
 Plasti
cinewi thcontrast
ingcolour
sisusedtoshowclearl
ygenemixi
ngi
n
crossingov er.
 Eachpai rofhomol ogouschr omosomesisrepr
esentedbypl
asti
cenewi
th
twodi ff
erentcolourse.g.red(pat
ernal
)bl
ueformaternal
chromosome.
 Allthestepsi nthetwost agesofmeiosi
sareil
l
ustr
ateduptothe
productionoff ourhaploidgametes.
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

HumanFi
ngerPr
int
s
 Thef i
ngerpr i
ntsforeachst udent
'sthumb,forefi
ngerandmi ddlefingers
ofthelefthandi simpr i
ntedonawhi t
epaper.
 Ar ubberst ampwi t
hinki susedt oandeachf inger-t
ipphalangeisr ol
led
ontotheinkpad.
 Forbestr esultsstudentswor kinpair
s.
 Observati
onsar emadeatal lfor
efi
ngers,
thumbpr int
sanddi ff
erences
noted.
 Themai npat t
ernsarenot ed.Iti
salsonotedthatnotwo,fingerpri
ntsare
exactl
ysimi lar.
end

EVOLUTI
ON
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

Meani
ngofEvol
uti
onandCur
rentConcept
s
 Evoluti
on ist he dev elopmentofor gani
sms f rom pre-existi
ng simpl
e
organismsov eral ongper iodoft ime.
 Iti
sbasedont hesimi l
ar i
ti
esi nst r
uctureandf unct
ionthatisobser vedi
n
allorganisms.
 Allaremadeupofcel ls, andsi milarchemicalcompoundsar epr esent.
 Thisindicatesthatallorgani sm mayhav ehadacommonor igin.
 Evoluti
onseekst oexpl aint hedi v
ersit
yoflif
eandal sotoanswert he
quest i
onast otheor i
ginofl i
fe,aswel l
asitspresentstat
e.
TheOr
igi
nofLi
fe
 Humanbei ngshav et r
iedtoexpl ainhowl i
febegan.
Curr
entlyheldvi ewsar el istedbelow:
 Speci alcr eation - l
ife was creat ed by a super naturalbeing wi
thina
particul
art ime.
 Spont aneousgener ati
onl i
feori
gi natedfr
om non- li
vi
ngmat t
erall
atonce.
e.g.maggot sar i
sef rom decay i
ngmeat .
 Steadyst ate-l if
ehasnoor i
gin.
 Cosmozoan-l i
feonear thori
ginat efrom elsewhere,outerspace.
 Bio-chemi cal evolution-l
i
feoriginatedaccor dingtochemi calandphy
sical
laws.
 Onl yspecial creationandchemi cal evol
utionwi l
lbediscussed.
Speci
alCr
eat
ion
 Theear li
esti deai sthatofspeci alcr eati
onwhi chisrecor dedint heol d
testament( Genesi s1: 1-
26).
 I
tst atest hatGodcr eatedthewor ldandal lli
vingt hi
ngsinsixday s.
 Some hol dt he si x daysliteral
ly,whi l
e ot hers say itmay r epresent
thousandsofy ears.
 Accor dingt ohi stheory,t
heear thandal lorganismswer ecr eatedmat ur
e.
 Simi l
arit
iesi nst ructureandf unctiondenot et hest ampofa" common
Desi gner"
 Evidencef orthisv i
ewar i
sesf rom obser vationsofl i
feit
self.
 Faithexpl ainsitall.
 Byf aithweunder standthattheuni v ersewascr eatedbyt hecommandof
God.
 Sev eralsci enti
stshol dthisview andt heirresear chconfi
rmsaccount sin
theol dt estamentofauni versalf lood expl ai
nst hedi sappear anceof
dinosaur sasv egetati
ondecr eased.

Chemi
calEvol
uti
on
 Thef
oll
owi
ngi
sthel
i
neoft
houghthel
dint
hisv
iewt
oexpl
ainor
igi
nofl
i
fe:
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 Thecomposi ti
onofat mospher i
cgaseswasdi ff
erentfr
om whati tistoday:
 Ther ewasl essoxy gen,mor ecar bon( I
V)oxide,hencenoozonel ayersto
fi
ltertheul t
ra-viol etlight.
 Thehi ghsol arener gyr eachedt heear thandbr oughtt ogetherhydr
ogen,
carbon( IV)oxi deandni t
r ogent omakeor ganiccompounds.
 Thesewer e:hy dr ocar bons,ami no acids,nuclei
caci ds,sugars,ami no
acidsandpr otei ns.
 Thepr oteinscoal escedandf ormedcol l
oids.
 Proteinsandl ipi dsf ormeda" cellmembr ane"thatencl osedtheorganic
compounds, tof or m apr imitivecel l
.
 Thecel lwassur roundedbyor ganicmoleculesthatitf
edon
heterot rophical ly.
 Thist ookpl acei nwat er.
 From t hiscel lpr ogr essi velyaut otrophsevolved.
 Thatwer esimi lart obl ue- greenal gae.
 Theypr oducedoxy genandasmor eoxygenwasev olvedozonel ay
er
formedanbl ockedul trav iol
etr adiati
on.
 Thisal lowedf or mat ionofpr esentdayphot o-autot
rophs.
Ev
idencef
orOr
gani
cEv
olut
ion
 Mostoft
heev
idencef
orev
olut
ioni
sindi
rect.
 i
.e.i
tisbasedonst
udi
escar
ri
edoutonpr
esent
-dayani
mal
sandpl
ant
s.
 Di
rectevi
denceisobt
ainedf
rom st
udy
ingt
her
emai
nsofani
mal
sand
pl
antsofthepast
.
Fossi
lRecor
ds
 Thest udyoff ossi l
siscal l
edpaleont ol
ogy.
 Fossilsarer emai nsofor ganismst hatli
vedinanci enttimes.
 Mostf ossi lsar er emainsofhar dpar t
soft hebodysuchasbones,t eeth,
shellsandexoskel etons.
 Somef ossi l
sar ejustimpr essi
onsoft hebodypar ts,e.g.footpri
nts,leaf-
vennationpat terns,etc.
 Fossilsareusual l
yfoundi nsediment aryrockswhi chhav ebeenf ormedby
depositionofsedi mentsov ermill
ionsofy ears.
 Thedeepert hel ayerofsedi ments,theolderthef ossil
sfoundi nthatl ayer.
 Modem man,Homosapi ens,evolvedf r
om ape- li
kecr eatures25mi l
li
on
yearsago.
 These ev olved t o upright,toolusi ng creature caled Aust
l r
alopithecus
afarensiswhi chhadacr ani
alcapacityof400- 500cc.
 This ev olved t hrough sev eralintermediates;Homo habi l
is and Homo
erectust omodem dayhuman.
 Homosapi enshasacr anialcapacityof1350-1450cc.
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 Homosapiensi
smor ei
ntel
li
gent
.
 Mainfeat
uresi
nhumanev ol
uti
onincl
udebi
pedalpost
ure,i
sanomni
vor
e
andhasanopposabl
ethumb.

Li
mit
ati
onsoft
heFossi
lEvi
dence
 Onlyparti
alpreservati
onwasusual l
ypossi blebecausesofterpar
ts
decayed.Thef ossi
lrecordsarether
eforeincompl et
e.
 Dist
orti
on -par tsofor gani
smsmi ghthav ebecomef latt
ened dur
ing
sedimentati
on.
 Subsequentgeol ogicalactiv
iti
ese.
g.er osion,eart
hquakes,faul
ti
ngand
upli
ft
ingmayhav edestroyedsomef ossi
ls.

Geogr
aphi
calDi
str
ibut
ion
 Untilabout250mi ll
iony earsago, allthel andmassesonear t
hf or
meda
singl
el andmass( Pangaea) .
 Thisist houghtt ohav eunder gonecont i
nental dri
ft
,split
ti
ngi ntodiff
erent
conti
nent s.
 Consequent ly,organismsi ncer tainr egionsbecamegeogr aphical
ly
i
solatedanddi dnothav eachancet ointerbreedwi t
hot heror gani
smsi n
otherregions.
 Suchor gani smsunder wentev ol
ut ioni nisolationandhav ebecome
characteristicall
ydifferentfrom or gani smsi not herregions.
 Forexampl e, pouchedmammal s( e.g.kangar oo,wall
aby ,koalabear)are
foundal mostexcl usivelyinAust ralia.
 Theopossum i stheonl ysur vivi
ngr epresentat i
veoft hepouched
mammal sinNor thAmer i
ca.

Compar
ati
veEmbr
yol
ogy
 Duri
ngtheear
lyst
agesofdev
elopment,theembr
yosofdi
ff
erent
ver
tebr
atesar
ealmosti
ndi
sti
nguishabl
e.
 Fish,amphi bian,bi
rdandmammal i
anembr y
oshavesi
milar
,feat
ures,
i
ndicatingt hattheyarosefr
om acommonancest or
.
 Si
mi l
ar i
tiesinclude:
 Vi
scer al cl
efts,segmental
muscleblocks(
my ot
omes)andasingl
e
ci
rculation.
Compar
ati
veAnat
omy

 Comparati
veanatomyisthestudyoforgansindiff
erentspeci
eswit
ht he
ai
m ofestabl
i
shingwhethert
heorgani
sm arerel
ated.
 Organi
smswhi chhav
ethesamebasi cfeat
uresarethoughttohav
earisen
fom ac
r ommonancest or
.
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 The v er
tebr ep
at ent adact y
ll i
mb evol ved in dif
fer
entway s as an
adaptati
ontodifferentmodesofl i
fe.
 e.g.asaf l
i
pperi nwhal es,asawi nginbatsandasadi ggi
nghandi n
moles.
 Suchor gansaresai dt obeh omol ogous,i .
e.theyhav eari
senfrom a
commonancest orbutt heyhav eassumeddi ff
erentfunct
ions.
 Thisisanexampl eofd ivergentevol ut
ion.
 Thewi ngofabut terf
lyandt hatofabi rdaresaidtobea nalogous.
 i.
e.theyhav eorigi
nat edf rom di
fferentancestor
sbutt heyperf
ormt he
samef uncti
on.
 Thisisanexampl eofc onver gentevol ution.

Cel
lBi
ology

 Alleucaryoti
ccel lshav eor ganell
essuchasmi t
ochondria,membr ane-
boundnucl ei
,ri
bosomes, golgibodi
es.
 Thusindicati
ngt hatdiff
erentorganismshav eacommonancest or.
 Thepresenceofchl oroplastsandcellulosecellwall
sindicatesthatgreen
pl
antshav eacommonancest or.
 Bloodpigment sareconj ugatedprotei
nswi t
hamet algroup.
 Si
mi l
arpigment saref oundi ndif
fer
entani malgroups.
 e.
g.haemogl obinisf oundi nallv
ert
ebr atesandinannelida(eart
hworm) .
 Thisshowst hatallanimal shaveacommonor igi
n.

Mechani
sm ofEvol
uti
on
 Themechani sm ofev oluti
oncanbedescr ibedasapr ocessofnat ur
al
selectionact ingont heher i
tabl
ev ari
ati
onst hatoccuramongt he
member sofapopul ati
on.
 Apopul ationconsi st
sofagr oupofi ndi
vi
dual softhesamespeci es.
 Eachi ndiv i
dual hasasetofher edit
aryfact
or s(genes)
.
 Allthegenesi napopul at i
onconst it
uteagenepool .
 Whenr epr oductiontakespl ace,genespairwi t
honeanot herrandomly.
 Geneswhi choccuri ngr eatnumber sinthegenepool ,willoccuri
ngreater
number sint henextgener at
ion.
 Sev er
alt heories have been pr oposed ov ert he yearst o explai
n how
evoluti
ont ookpl ace.
Lamar
k’st
heor
y
 Lamarkhadobser v
edthatifapartoft
hebodyofanor ganism wasused
ext
ensi
v el
y,i
tbecameenlargedandmoreeff
ici
ent;
 Ifapartofthebodywasnotf ul
l
yused,
itwoulddegener
ate.
 Byuseanddi suseofvar
iousbodypart
s,theorgani
sm woul
dchangeand
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

acquirecertainchar acteri
sti
cs.
 Hesuggest edt hatthesechar acteri
st i
cswouldt hem bepassedont othe
off
spr i
ng(nextgener ation).
 In1809, l
amar kpublishedhisbook‘ ’TheoryOfEvol uti
on’’
.
 Hepr oposedt hatnew l if
ef ormsar i
sef r
om useanddi suseofpartsof
exi
sting or ganisms and t hrough t he i nheri
tance of acqui red
character
istics.
 Lamar k’
st heor yhasbeendi sappropedi nthatalthoughuseanddi suseof
part
sdoesl eadt oacqui redcharact eri
sti
cs,suchchar acteri
sti
csarenot
i
nheritabl
esi ncet heyar eeffectsproducedbyt heenv i
ronmentandnotby
genes.
Evol
uti
onbynat
uralsel
ect
ion
 In1859, char
lesDar winpubli
shedhi stheoryofev ol
uti
on’i
nabookcalled
ori
ginofspeci esbymeansofnat uralselecti
on’.
 Darwin’stheorywasbasedont hefollowingev i
dence;t
hepopulat
ionofa
giv
enspeci esr emainsconstantoveral ongper i
odoftime.
 Thenumberofy oungonesismor et hant henumberofadults.
 Moreof fspri
ngsar eproducedthancanpossi bl
ysurviv
e.
 Vari
ationoccur swithi
ngagi venpopul at
ion,i
.eall
member softhesame
speciesarenotal i
ke.
 Ont hebasisoft heseobservati
ons.

Dar
winmadet hefoll
owingconcl usi
ons;
 Ther eisast ruggl
ef orexistenceamongi ndi vi
dualsinagi v
enpopul at
ion.
 Indivi
dual swhoar enotsui tablyadapted(e.i.whohav eunf avourabl
e
variati
ons) arel
essabl et opasst hei
rcharacteri
sticstothenextgener ation.
 Nat uralselecti
onoper atesont hepopulation,sel
ect i
ngt hoseindivi
duals
withf avourablevari
ations;
 i.
e.env ir
onmentf av oursindivi
dualsthataremor eadapt ed.
 Theywi ncompet it
ione. g.forfoodandsur vive.
i.
e.‘’
sur vivaloft he
fitt
est ’’
.
 Theyat t
ainsexualmat uri
tyandpassont hechar acter
isticstotheir
offsprings.

Nat
uralsel
ect
ion
 Pepper edmoth( I
ndust rial
mel anism)
 Thepepper edmot h, Bistonbet ul
ari
a,exist
sint wodist
inctfor
ms;
 Aspeckl edwhiteform( t
henor mal f
orm)andt hemelanic,darkform.
 Themot hsnormallyr estont hetreetrunksandbr ancheswher retheyare
camouf lagedagainstpr edators.
 Thef i
rstmelanicmot hswer eobservedin1848ar oundManchest eri
n
Brit
ain.
 Sincethattime,theirnumber shasi ncreasedtremendously,out
-number i
ng
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

thespeckl edwhi teform.

 Thei ncreasei nt hepopul ationoft hemel ani
cf ormi scor relatedwi th
env i
ronment alchangesbr oughtaboutbyi ndustri
ali
zat i
onandpol luti
on.
 Smokeandsootf rom factorieshav edarkenedt hetreet runksov erthe
years.
 Thishasr esultedi nthepr eser vati
onoft hemut at
ioni nBist onbet ul
ari
a
l
eadi ngtot heev olutionoft hemel anicfor m.
 Thisf or
mi salmosti nv i
sibleagai nstt hedarkbackgr oundoft het ree
trunksandi slesssubj ectt opr edat i
onthant hespeckl edf or m.
 Thepepper edf ormi smor eabundanti nareasawayf rom t hesootand
smokeoff actories.
 Thisi sbecausei tiswel lcamouf lagedbyt hel i
chen- cov eredt reetrunks
againstwhi chitrestsandi sther eforenoteasi l
ydet ectedbypr edator
s.
 The exi stence oft wo ormor e distinctf orms wi thin a speci es (as
exempl i
fiedbyBi stonbet ularia)iscal edp
l oly mor phi sm.

Resi
stancet
oDr
ugs
 Certainstr
ainsofor ganismshav edev el
opedr esi
stancet odr ugsand
anti
bioti
cs.
 Following conti
nued useofsuch dr ugsand ant i
bioti
cs,someoft he
i
ndividual
si napopul at
ionofbact eri
aorot hermicroorganismssur vi
ve
andar eabl
et opasstheircharact
eri
sti
cst othenextgenerati
on.
 Whenapat ientfai
l
stot akef ul
ldosageoft heant i
biot
icspr escribedthe
pathogendev el
opsresistancetot hedr ugshencebecomedi fficul
tto
control
.
 Somemosqui toeshavedev el
opedresi
stancet ocert
ainpesticides.

Pr
act
icalAct
ivi
ti
es
Compar
isonofVer
tebr
ateLi
mbs
 Limbsofv ari
ousv ert
ebratesarepr ovi
ded:
 e.g.f ish-Ti lapia,amphi bian-f
rog repti
les,li
zard;bi r
d -domesti
cf owl
(chicken) ,mammal -r
abbit.
 Thei ranat omycanbest udied.
 Thef oll
owi ngcanbenot ed:
 Thatal ll
i
mbshav efi
vesetsofbones;
 Asi ngleupperbone-t hefemuri nhindlimbandt hehumer usi
nfor
elimb
 Twol owerl imbbones- i
.e.thetibi
a&f ibulainthehindl i
mb&ulna&r adius
i
nt hef or
elimb.
 Smal lbones-i .e.ankle(tarsal
s)andwr istbones( carpal
s)
 Thebonesmaki ngthef ootandhandar emet atarsalsandmetacarpals
respect ively.
 Thebonesoft oesandoff ingersi
.e.phalanges
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 Obser vet
hev ari
ousmodi fi
cat
ionsoft hesebonesi nthevar
iousani
mals.
 Limbsofdi f
fer
entmammal se. g.rabbit,cow,donkeyr evealthatthe
anatomyi sadaptedtomodeort y
peofmov ement.
 e.g.t
hehor sehasasi ngledi
git
.
 Anout dooract i
vit
ytoobser vevariousstyl esofmov ementindif
fer
ent
mammal scanbest udied.
 Itisnotedt hatsomemov eont i
psoft oes( donkey)other
sont hewhole
l
eg( rabbi
t).

Compar
isi
onofWi
ngsofbi
rd-
andi
nsect
 Wingsofbir
dsandinsects(grasshopper,but
ter
fl
yormoth)areobt
ained.
 Ahandlensoradissect
ingmi croscopeisusedtoobser
vethespeci
mens.
 Thedif
fer
encesinthei
ranatomyi snoted.
 I
nsectwings are membr anous whilethose ofbir
ds are made up of
feat
her
sthatint
erl
ock.
Educat
iont
ourt
oAr
cheol
ogi
calsi
te/
localMuseum
 Visi
tst othe l
ocalmuseum y i
eldi
mpor
tanti
nfor
mat
ion t
hatgr
eat
ly
supplementst
udyofev
olut
ion.
 TheNati
onalmuseum i
nNair
obihasmanyfossil
s.
 Visi
ttot
hevari
ousar
cheol
ogical
sit
est
hatexisti
nKeny
ais
recommended.
end

RECEPTI
ON,
RESPONSEANDCO-
ORDI
NATI
ON
I
NPLANTSANDANI
MALS
I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Thestruct
uresinvol
vedindetect
ingthechangesmaybelocatedfaraway
fr
om theonesthatrespond.
 Ther
ei sneedforacommuni cati
onsy st
em wit
hint
hebody.
 Thenervoussystem andtheendocri
nesy st
em per
for
mthisfunct
ion,
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 i
.e.li
nki
ngt
hepar
tsoft
hebodyt
hatdet
ectchangest
othoset
hatr
espond
t
ot hem.
I
rr
it
abi
li
ty
 Livi
ngor gani
smsar ecapabl
eofdetecti
ngchangesinthei
rint
ernaland
externalenvi
ronmentsandrespondi
ngt ot
hesechangesinappropri
ate
way s.
 Thischar act
eri
sti
ciscal
ledi
rri
tabi
li
ty,
andisofgreatsur
viv
alvaluetot
he
organism.
St
imul
i
 Ast i
mul usisachangeintheint
ernalorext
ernalenv
ironmenttowhi
chan
organism responds.
 Exampl esofst i
mulii
ncl
udeli
ght,heat
,sound,chemical
s,pH,wat
er,
food,
oxygenandot heror
gani
sms.
Response
 Ar esponseisanychangeshownbyanor ganism i
nreact
iontoasti
mulus.
 Ther esponseinv
olvesmovementsofthewhol eorpar
tofthebodyeit
her
towardst hest
imulusorawayfrom i
t.
 Italsoresult
sinsecret
ionofsubst
ancese.g.hormonesorenzymesby
glands.

Co-
ordi
nat
ion
 Co-or
dinat
ionistheworki
ngtogetherofal
lthepar
tsofthebodyt
obr
ing
aboutappropr
iat
eresponsestochangeintheenvi
ronment.

Recept
ion
 Recepti
onist
hedet
ect
ionofchangesi
ntheenv
ironmentt
hrough
recept
ors.

I
rr
it
abi
li
tyi
nPl
ant
s
 Responseinplant
sisnotaspr onouncedasi nani
mals.
 Thi
sdoesnoti nanywaydi mini
sht heimpor tanceofi
rri
tabil
i
tyi
npl
ant
s.
 I
tisasimpor t
anttot
heirsurviv
al asitisinani mal
s.
 Pl
antsrespondtoav ar
ietyofstimuliintheirenvir
onment.
 Thesestimuli
incl
udeli
ght,moisture,gravit
yandchemi cals.
 Somepl ant
salsoshowr esponset otouch.
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

Tr
opi
sms
 Plant
softenr espondbygr owinginapar ti
cul
ardirecti
on.
 Suchgrowt hmov ement sarecall
edtropisms.
 Theyarether esultofunequalgrowthinthepar toftheplantthatresponds.
 Thestimuluscauseunequal di
stri
but
ionofgr owthhor mones( auxins)
producedinthepl ant.
 Onesidegr owsmor ethantheotherresult
inginabendei thertowar dsthe
st
imulus(posi t
ivetropi
sm)orawayf rom thestimulus(negativetropism).

Phot
otr
opi
sm
 Ifseedli
ngsareexposedt oli
ghtfrom onedirect
ion,
theirshootsgrow
towardst heli
ght.
 Thisr esponseiscall
edphototr
opism.
 Shootsar esaidtobepositi
vel
yphototropi
cbecauset heygr owtowardsthe
l
ight.
 Thet i
poft heshootrecei
vestheli
ghtstimulusfrom onedirecti
on(unil
ater
al
sti
mul us)buttheresponseoccursbelowthet i
p.
 Ther esponseoft heshootisduet oahor monecal ledauxi
npr oducedatt
he
tip.
 Itdif
fusesdownt heshoott ot hiszoneofcel lelongati
onwhereitcausest
he
cell
st oelongate.
 Lightcausesauxint omi gr
atet othedar kerside.
 Theauxi nismor econcent r
atedint hedar ksi
det hanontheli
ghtside.
 Thecel lsont hedarksidegr owf asterthantheonesont hel
ightside.
 Agr owthcur v
atureisthereforepr oduced.
Sur
vivalval
ue:
 Posi
ti
vephotot
ropi
sm byshoot
sensur
ethatsuf
fi
cientl
i
ghti
sabsor
bedby
l
eavesforphot
osynt
hesi
s.

Geot
ropi
sm
 Geotropi
sm isagrowthresponsetogravit
y.
 Rootsarepositi
vel
ygeotropi
cbecausetheygrowdowntowardsthedi r
ecti
on
oftheforceofgravi
ty;
 shootsarenegati
vel
ygeot r
opicbecausetheygr
owawayfrom di
rectionof
for
ceofgr av
ity
.
 Ifaseedl
ingiskeptinthedarkwithit
splumuleandr
adi
cleinahorizontal
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

posit
ion, thepl umul ewi l
levent uall
ygrowv erti
call
yupwar dswhi letheradicl
e
wil
lgrowv ert
icall
ydownwar ds.
 Theef f
ectofgr avi
tyonr ootsandshoot scanbeexpl ainedasf ollows:
 Whent heseedl i
ngi splacedi nahor izontalposi t
ion,mor eauxi nset t
lesonthe
l
owersi deoft her ootandshootduet otheef f
ectofgrav it
y .
 Shootsr espondt oahi gherconcent rati
onofauxi nthanr oot s.
 Thelowersi deoft heshootgr owsf asterthant heuppersi de.
 Resulti
ngi nagr owt hcur v
atur ethatmakest heshootgr owv ert
icall
yupwar ds.
 Rootgr owt hisi nhibit
edbyhi ghconcent rationsofauxi n.
 Therefore, thelowersi deoft her ootgr owsatasl owerr atet hant heupper
si
dewher et her eislessaux i
nconcent rati
on.
 Thisresult sinagr owt hcur vaturethatmakest herootgr owv er
ticall
y
downwar ds.
Survi
valVal ue:
 Rootsinr esponset ogravit
ygr owdownwar dswher etheyabsor bwat erand
getanchor edint hesoi l
.
 Thisresult sinabsor ptionofnut ri
entsneededf orgrowt h.
Hy
drot
ropi
sm
 Hy
drot
ropi
sm i
sthegr
owt
hofr
oot
stowar
dswat
er(
moi
stur
e).

Sur
vivalVal
ue

 I
tensur
esthatplantroot
sgr owtowar
dsmoisturet
oobt
ainwat
erneeded
f
orphotosy
nthesisandtranspor
tofminer
alsalt
s.

Chemot
ropi
sm
 Chemotropi
sm i
sther
esponseofpar
tsofapl
antt
owar
dschemi
cal
subst
ances,

 e.
g.thegrowt
hofthepoll
ent
ubet
owar
dst
heov
ulei
nfl
ower
ingpl
ant
sisa
chemotr
opicr
esponse.

Sur
vivalVal
ue

 Thisensur
esthatf
ert
il
isat
iont
akepl
aceandt
heper
pet
uat
ionoft
he
speci
esconti
nues.

Thi
gmot
ropi
sm
 Thi
gmot r
opism i
sagrowt
hresponsetotouch.
 e.
g.tendr
il
sofclimbi
ngpl
antbendaroundobject
sthatt
heycomei
n
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

contactwit
h.
Sur
vivalVal
ue
 Thisprovi
dessupportandt
heleavesstayi
napositi
onsuit
ablefor
absorpti
onofl
ightandgaseousexchangeforphot
osynt
hesis.
Tact
icMovement
sinPl
ant
sandot
herOr
gani
sms
 At acti
cmovementisonemadebyawhol eorgani
sm oramoti
lepartofan
organisms(e.
g.agamete)inr
esponsetoasti
mulus.
 Tacticmovementsarenamedaccordi
ngtothenatur
eofthest
imulusthat
bri
ngsabouttheresponse.
 Ph otot
axisismov ementi nresponsetodi
rect
ionandi ntensi
tyofli
ght
.
 Free-
swimmingalgaesuchasChl amydomonasusuallytendt o
concent
rat
ewher eli
ghtintensit
yisopti
mum andwi l
lrespondt oli
ghtby
swimmingtowardsit.Thisisanexampleofphototact
icr esponse.
 Osmot
axi
sismov
ementi
nresponset
ochangesi
nosmot
iccondi
ti
ons
e.
g.freshwateramoeba.
Survi
valValue
 Ensuresfavourabl
econdi
ti
onsf
orexist
ence.
 Ch emot axisismovementinr
esponsetoconcent
rat
ionofchemi
cal
substances.

Sur
vialVal
v ue

 Inbryophyt
es,
ant
her
ozoi
dsmov
etowar
dsar
chegoni
atoef
fect
f
ert
il
isati
on

Sur
vivalVal
ueoft
axi
s:

 Theseensur
econdi
ti
onsf
avour
abl
eforl
i
febr
ingmaxi
mum benef
itt
othe
organi
sm.

Nast
icMovement
s
 Anasti
cmov ementi
sonemadebypartofaplanti
nresponset
osti
mulus
whichisnotcomi
ngfr
om anypar
ti
cul
ardir
ect
ion.
 Nasti
cmov ement
sareal
sonamedaccordi
ngtothenatur
eofthest
imulus.
 Seismonast y/haptonasty-responsetoshock.
 The'sensi
ti
vepl
ant'Mimosapudicarespondstotouchbyf
oldi
ngupi
ts
l
eaves.
 Thi
si sanexampleofasei
smonast i
cresponse.
Pr
oduct
ionofauxi
nsandt
hei
ref
fect
sonpl
antgr
owt
h
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 Auxi
nsar epr oducedbypl antapi ces, i
.e.rootapexandshootapex.
 Theybringaboutcel l el
ongationr esulti
ngi ngrowth.
 Theyarediffusiblesubstanceswhi cheffectgrowthwheninv erysmall
amounts.
 Rootsrequirelowerconcent r
ationst hanshoot s.
 Theeff
ectofauxi nsont hegr owt hofr ootsandshoot shasalreadybeen
di
scussed.
 Auxi
nsal soexer tothereffectsonpl antgrowthanddev el
opment .
 Ther
ear evariousot herchemi cal substanceswhichhav ebeenshownt o
i
nfl
uencepl antgr owthanddev elopment .
Ef
fect
sofAuxi
nonPl
antGr
owt
h
Api
calDomi
nance
 Auxinsi nhibitthegrowt hofsi debr anches.
 Thisisr eferredt oasapi caldomi nance.
 Ifthet er
mi nalbudi sremov ed,sidebranchesdev el
opfrom thel at
eral
buds.
 Thisknowl edgei sappliedinpr uning.
 Asl ongast hemai nstem i sal l
owedt oremainintact
,thedev el
opmentof
sidebr anchesi ssuppr essed.
 Pruningt het er
mi nalbudr emov esthemai nsourcesofauxin, t
hus
all
owi ngsi debr anchest ospr out.

Gr
owt
hofadvent
it
iousr
oot
s
 Advent
it
iousr
ootsdevelopfr
om thestem.
 Auxi
nsstimul
atethegrowthofsuchroots.
Par
thenocar
py
 Thisref
erstotheformat i
onoffruitswit
houtfert
il
isat
ion.
 Thiscanbeinducedbyt reati
ngunpol l
i
natedfl
ower swithauxi
n.
 Thisphenomenoni sappliedinthedevelopmentofseedlessfrui
tvar
iet
ies.
 Auxins,
togetherwithotherpl
anthor mones,arei
nv ol
vedinsecondar
y
growth,f
all
i
ngofl eavesandr i
peningoffrui
ts.
Recept
ion,
ResponsesandCo¬or
dinat
ioni
nAni
mal
s
 Thenervousandendocr
inesy
stems(toget
herknownast
heneur
o-
endocr
inesyst
em)actasaco-ordi
nat
ingsyst
em.
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 Theyl
i
nki
ngt
her
ecept
orst
otheef
fect
orsandr
egul
ati
ngt
hei
ract
ivi
ti
es.

Recept
ors
 Recept orsarecellst
hatdet ectorr eceivestimul i.
 Theymaybescat ter
edmor euni f
orml yallov erthebodysurface
 e.g.receptorsforpain,t
ouch, temper ature;ort heymaybel ocatedina
special senseorgane.g.recept or
sf orli
ght, sound, t
asteandsmel l
.
 Mot orner vesl
inktheCent r
al NervousSy st
em ( CNS)totheeffect
ors.
 Itscell bodyislocat
edatoneendoft heaxon.
 Ittr
ansmi t
snerveimpulsesf rom theCNSt ot heeffect
ors.
Ef
fect
ors
 Thesearethecel
l
s,organs,oror
ganel
leswhichenabl
etheor
gani
sm t
o
respond.
 Theyincl
udemuscles,gl
ands,ci
l
iaandflagel
l
a.
TheNervousSystem
Componentsofthener
voussy
stem i
nhumans
 Ev eryorgani sthehumanbodyi sconnectedt onerves.
 Thener voussy stem i smadeupofner vecel l
s(neurons)whi
cht r
ansmi t
i
mpul sesf r
om onepar tofthebodyt oanother.
I
tconsist
soft hef oll
owi ng:
 TheCent ralNer vousSy stem (
CNS)i saconcent rat
edmassof
i
nterconnect edner vecel l
swhi chmakeupt hebrainandthespinalcord.
 Theper i
pher alnervoussy st
em ismadeupofner veswhichl
inktheCNSt o
thereceptorsandt heef fector
s.
 Sensor yner veslinkt hesensor ycell
s(receptors)tothecent
ralner
v ous
syst
em andt ransmi tner veimpulsesfr
om asenseor gantotheCNS.

St
ruct
ureandFunct
ionsofNeur
ons
 Anerv
ecellconsi
stsofacellbody(cent
ron)wher
ethenucleusi
slocat
ed,
andpr
oject
ionscal
leddendri
tesari
se.
 Oneoftheproj
ecti
onsisdrawnoutintoanaxoni.
e.t
helongestpr
ocess.
 Eachaxoncontainsaxopl
asm whi
chi
sconti
nuouswit
hthecytopl
asm i
n
thecel
lbody.
 Theaxonisenclosedinaf
att
ymyel
i
nsheat
hwhichissecr
etedby
Schwarm cel
l
.
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 Themy el
i
nsheathi
sint
errupt
edatapproxi
mat
ely1mm i
nter
val
sby
const
ri
cti
onsknownasnodesofRanvier.
 Themy el
i
nsheathi
senclosedbyathi
nmembranecal
l
edthe
neur
il
emma, whichi
spar heSc
toft hwanncel li
ncontactwi
thaxon.
 Themyel
i handn
nsheat odesofRanvierenhancetr
ansmissi
onofthe
i
mpul
se.

Ther
ear
ethr
eet
ypesofneur
ons:

Sensor
yneur
one
 Alsoknownasaf f
erentneurone.
 Transmitsimpulsesfrom sensor
ycel
lstotheCNS.
 Thecellbodyofasensor ynervecel
li
slocatedatsomedi
stanceal
ongt
he
l
engthoft heaxonout si
detheCNS.

Mot
orneur
one
 Knownasef f
erentoreffectorneur
one
 Transmiti
mpulsesfrom theCNSt otheef
fect
ors(
muscl
esandgl
ands)
 I
tscellbodyi
slocatedinsidetheCNS.
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

I
nter
medi
ateorconnect
orneur
one
 Alsocall
edrel
ayneurone
 Foundinsidet
heCNS.
 Theconnectsensor
yandmotorneur
onswi
theachot
herandwi
th
otherner
vecell
sintheCNS.

Funct
ionsoft
heneur
one
 Thener veimpul seisel ectri
calinnat ur
e.
 It
st ransmi ssiondependsondi fferencesi nelectricalpotentialbetween
theinsi deandt heout sideoft heaxi on.
 Theout sidei sposi ti
vewhi lethei nsidei snegat i
ve.
 Thest i
mul ust r
igger sachanget hataf fect
st heper meabi l
it
yof
neuronemembr ane.
 Ther esul ti
sachangei nthecomposi t
ionofionsonei t
hersi deoft he
membr ane.
 Theout sidebecomesnegat iveast hei nsi
debecomesposi tiveduet o
sodium i onsr ushi ngin.
 Theabov econst i
tutesaner vousi mpul sewhi chistransmi tt
edal ong
thesensor yneur onetot heCNS.
 Thespeedoft r
ansmi ssionisv eryhi gh.
 Cer t
ainmammal i
anaxi onst r
ansmi timpulsesatt herateof100m/ s.
 Thedendr i
tesofneur onsdonotconnectdi rectlytoeachot her,but
theyl eaveasmal l
gapcal ledsy napse.
 Thet ransmi ssi
onofani mpul sef rom onecel l t
othenextt akespl ace
throughsy napse.
 Synapt icknobsar estructuresfoundatt heendsofdendr i
tes.
 Thust hedendr itesofonener vecel l makecont actwi t
ht hedendr it
esof
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

theadjacentnervecel
lthroughthesynapses.
 Impulsesaretransmit
tedinthefor
m ofachemi calt
ransmit
ter
subst
ancewhi chcrossesthegapbetweenonedendr it
eandt henext
.
 Thetransmitt
ersubstanceisfoundwithi
nsynapticv
esicl
es.
 Thechemi
cal
subst
ancei
sei
theracet
ylchol
ineornor
adr
nal
ine.
 Thesy napti
cv esicl
esbur standrel
easet hetransmitt
ersubstance
whenani mpulsear r
ivesatthesynapticknob.
 Impulsesinmot orneuronesar etr
ansmi t
tedtoeffect
ors.
 Thespacebet weenmot orenddendrit
eandmuscl eisknownasneur o-
muscul arJunct i
on.
 Synapticvesiclesintheendsoft hedendr i
tesrel
easethetransmitt
er
substanceacr osstheneur almuscularjuncti
on.

Funct
ionsofMaj
orPar
tsoft
heHumanBr
ain
 TheCent r
al NervousSy stem (CNS)consistsofthebrainandthespi
nal
cord.
 TheCNSco- ordinatesbodyact i
vit
iesbyrecei
v i
ngimpulsesfrom
sensorycellsfrom diff
erentpartsofthebody .
 Itt
hensendst hei mpul sestotheappr opr
iat
eef f
ector
s.
 Thebrainisencl osedwi thi
nthecranium orbrai
n¬case.
 Iti
scov er
edandpr otectedbymembr anesknownasmeni nges.
 Whenmeni ngesar einfectedbybacterial
orfungitheycause
meningiti
s.
Thebr
ainconsi
stoft
hef
oll
owi
ngpar
ts:
Cer
ebr
um.
 Thi
sist
helargestpar
tofthebr
ain.
 I
tconsi
stsoftwocerebr
alhemi
spheres.
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 I
tishighl
yfol
dedinor
dertoincr
easethesur
facearea.
 Thecerebr
um cont
rol
slear
ning,
int
ell
i
gence,t
hought,i
magi
nat
ionand
reasoni
ng.
Themedul
laobl
ongat
a(br
ainst
em)
.
 Themedul l
aoblongatahascent reswhichcontrol
breat
hing(
vent
il
ati
on)
rat
e,
 heartbeatr
ate(cardi
acf requency )
,
 swallowi
ng,sal
ivati
on,bloodpr essure
 temperatur
eregulati
on,hearing,tasteandtouch.
Thecer
ebel
lum
 I
slocatedinfrontoft
hemedullaandi
saf ol
deddor
sal
expansi
onoft
he
hi
ndbrain.
 I
tcontrolspostur
emov ementandbal
ance.

Thehy
pot
hal
amus
 Cont
rol
sfunct
ionssuchasbodyt
emper
atur
eandosmor
egul
ati
on.

Thepi
tui
tar
ygl
and
 I
sanendocr
ineorganthatsecret
esanumberofhormoneswhichcont
rol
osmor
egul
ati
on,growt
h, metabol
ism andsexual
dev
elopment
.

Opt
icl
obes-
cont
rol
thesenseofsi
ght
.

Ol
fact
oryl
obes-
cont
rol
thesenseofsmel
l
.

Spi
nalCor
d
 Thespi nalcordislocat
edwit
hinthev ertebralcol
umnandconsi stoft
he
fol
lowing:
 Theg reymat terformsthecentral
par toft hespi
nalcor
d.
 I
tconsi stsofnerve¬cel
lbodi
esandi ntermedi at
enervefi
bres.
 Thewh itemat terofthespinal
cordcar r
iessensoryner
vef i
berswhi
let
he
ventr
al rootcarr
iesmotorner
v ef
ibers.

Si
mpl
eAndCondi
ti
onedRef
lexAct
ions

Si
mpl
eRef
lexAct
ion
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 Asimplerefl
exacti
onisanautomat
icr
esponsetoasti
mulus.
 Therout
et hati
sfol
lowedbyimpul
sesdur
ingarefl
exact
ioniscal
l
eda
r
efl
exar
c.

Ar
efl
exact
ionf
oll
owst
hef
oll
owi
ngsequence:

 Areceptorissti
mulatedandani mpulseistr
ansmitt
edal
ongasensory
nervef
ibretothespinalcor
d.
 Theimpulseispickedupbyani ntermediat
eneuronewit
hintheCNS.
 Theint
ermediatenervefibr
etransmittheimpul
setoamot orner
vefi
bre
whichisconnectedtoanef f
ector.
 Theeffect
orresponds.
Examplesofrefl
exactionincl
ude:
 Pulli
ngthehandawayf r
om ahotobj ect
.
 Thekneej erk.
 Sneezing.
Condi
ti
onedRef
lexes
 Thesear elearnedresponses.
 Whent woormor est
imul i
arepresentedtoananimal atthesamet ime
andr epeatedly,t
heanimal event
uall
yrespondstoeithersti
mul us.
 Forexampl e, i
fahungr yanimali
spresentedwit
hf ood,itwil
lrespondby
sali
vating.
 Ifabel lisrungatthesamet i
meast hefoodispresentedtotheani mal
,
theanimal willl
earntoassociatethesoundofthebel lwit
hfood.
 Eventually,
theanimal canbemadet osal
ivat
eatthesoundoft hebell
alone.
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 Thi
sresponsei
scal
ledcondi
ti
onedr
efl
exandi
soneoft
heway
sby
whi
chanimalsl
ear
n.
TheRol
eofEndocr
ineSy
stem i
nHumanBei
ngs
 Endocri
nesy stem consistsofgl andst hatsecr et
ehor mones.
 Theglandshav enoduct sandar eknownasendocr i
negl ands.
 Otherglandsar eknownasexocr i
negl andsbecauset heyhav educts.
 Thepancr eashasanout erexocr i
nepor ti
onandani nnerendocr ineporti
on.
 Hormonesar echemi calsubstances, prot
eini nnaturewhi charesecreted
atonepar tofthebodyandhav eef f
ectsonot herpartsnotnecessar i
l
y
nearthepointofsecr eti
on.
 Theyaresecr eteddirect
lyintobloodandt ransportedbybl ood.
 Eachhor moneei therhasagener ali
sedco- ordinat
ingef f
ectont hebodyor
bri
ngsaboutaspeci ficr
esponsei napar ti
culartargetorgan.
Hor
monespr
oducedi
nhumansandt
hei
nef
fect
sont
hebody
.
Endocr
inegl
and Hor
mone(
s)pr
oduced Rol
eofhor
mone Eff
ectof Ef
fectofexcess
defi
ciency
1.Pi
tui
tar
y Tr
ophi
cHor
mones Cont
rol
sgr
owt
h Dwarfism Gi
gant
ism
(
i)Somat otropin
(
GrowthHor mone)
(
ii
)Thy r
otrophic Controlspr oduct i
onSameasf or Sameasf orexcess
Hormone ofthyroxinby defi
ciencyof oft
yroxi
ne
thyr
oidgl and thy
roxin
(
ii
i)Adrenocorti
cotrophi
cSti
mul atest he
Hormone( ACTH acti
vit
yofadr enal
cort
ex
(
iv)Foll
icl
est i
mulating Developmentof
Hormone( FSH) Graafi
anf ol
liclesin
theovary
(
v)Luteini
singHor mone
(
L.H)
2.Thy
roi
d Thy
roxi
ne Regul
atest
he Ret
ardat
ionof Hi
ghmet
abol
i
crat
e,
met
abol
i
crat
e; physi
caland rapidhear tbeat,
mental gener alwast i
ngof
devel
opment thebody : prot
rusion
(cr
eti
nism) ofey ebal ls
(exopt hal r
nic
3.1sl
etsof (
i)I
nsul
i
n Regul atesblood Hy pergly caemia H
goyp
i
to
rg
e)lycaemi a
Langerhansi
n sugarbycausi ng ( hi
ghbl ood (l
owbl oodsugar )
pancreas conv ersionof sugar);diabetes
glucoset oglycogenmelli
tus
(
ii
)Gl
ucagon Regul atesblood Hy pogly caemia Hy pergly cemia
sugarbycausi ng ( l
owbl oodsugar )(highbl oodsugar )
conv ersionof
gylcogeni nt
o
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

glucose
4.Gonads Andr
ogensand Dev elopmentof Secondar ysexualInfemal esl
eadsto
Test
isand oest
rogens secondar ysexual char acterist
ics dev elopmentof
ovar
ies char acteristics. f ai
l t
odev elop mal e.?Inmal es
t
lod
eade
svel
opmentof
female
characteri
sti
cs.
(
i)Ov
ari
es Oest
rogen Repai rofut erine
wal l
Pr
ogest
rone Causest hickeni ng Miscar ri
agewhen
ofwal lofut er us; lev elfall
sdur i
ng
i
nhi bit
sov ulat ion pr egnancy
duringpr egnancy ;
prev ents
ofn
co ut
te
rr
au
cs
ti
on
(
ii
)Test
is Test
ost
erone Promot e Mal esteril
it
y
(
int
erst
it
ial
cel
l
s) sper mat ogenesi s;
andmal e
s
se
ex
cuoa
nl
dar y
char acteristics.
5.
Adr
enal
glands'(
i)Adr
enal
i
ne Changesi n
responset of ear,
stressorshock;
i
ncr eased
co n
hearve
tr
bs
ei
ao
tnof
,
glycogent o
glucose; di l
at ionof
pupi l
s;incr eased
bloodf lowt o
skeletal muscl es
(
ii
)Hy
drocor
ti
sone Met abol i
sm of Lessgl ycogen
carbohy dr ates, storedint heli
ver
l
ipidsandpr oteins andmuscl es
(
ii
i)Al
dost
erone Promot esr et entionKidney sexcrete
ofsodi um chl or i
de toomuch
andbi car bonat e sodi um, chlori
de
i
ons andbi carbonate
i
ons

Adr
enal
ine
 Enhanceact i
vit
yofsy mpat
het
icner
voussy
stem.
Oversecretion
 Increasedhear tbeat
 Highbl oodpr essure
 Thint onelessmuscl es.

Undersecr
eti
on

 Lowbl
oodpr
essur
e
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 I
nabi
li
tytowi
thstandst
ress
 Muscul
arweakness
Thy
roxi
ne
Oversecreti
oni stermedhy pert
hyroidism thiscauses:
 IncreasedBasal MetabolicRate( BMR)hencei ncr
easedtemperat
ure.
 Personbecomesv eryangr y,
ner vousandhandsmayshake.
 Increasedhear t
beatwhichleadt ocardiacfailure.
Undersecretionistermedhy pothyroidism:
 Poorgr owt handment alret
ardat i
on(cret i
nism) .
 Reducedmet aboli
cratehencedecr easedt emper atur
e.
 Personbecomesi nactiv
eandsl othf
ul.
 Eyesandf acebecomepuf f
yasf l
uidget sstoredunderskin.
 Inextremecasest het ongueisswol l
enandski nbecomesr ough.
 Enlargedt hyr
oidgl
and.
Compar
isonbet
weenendocr
ineandner
voussy
stem
Ner
vouscommuni
cat
ion Endocr
inecommuni
cat
ion

Speedof Usual
l
yrapi
d Usual
l
ysl
ower

Tr
ansmi
ssi
on

Response Usual
l
yspeci
fi
cinagi
ven Usual
lywi
despr
ead;
insome
cases
Ef
fect
or
i
npar
ti
cul
art
argetor
gan.

Nat
ureof El
ect
rochemi
cal
along Chemi
cal
;i
nthef
orm ofa
i
mpulse hor
mone
Axion;chemi
cal
acr
oss
synapses t
hatt
rav
elsi
nbl
ood

Dur
ati
onof Usual
l
yshor
tli
ved Usual
l
ylong-
last
ing.
e.g.

r
esponse gr
owt
h

Si
mil
ari
ti
es
 Bot
hendocr
ineandner
voussy
stem ar
einv
olv
edi
nthecoor
dinat
ionof
bodyfuncti
ons.
 Bothhavetargetorgans.
 Botharecontrol
ledviaanegativ
ef eedbackmechani
sm,
i.
etoohi
gh
product
ionresul
tsinar educedproducti
on.
Ef
fect
sofdr
ugsabuseont
hehumanheal
th.
 Dr
ugabusecanbedefi
nedasmisuseofdrugs.
 Dr
ugsarechemi
calcompoundst
hataff
ectthewor
kingofbodyorki
l
l
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

diseasecausi ngmi croorgani

sms.
Prescript
iondr ugs
 Ar edr ugspr escri
bedbyadoct or
.
 Pr escribeddr ugscanbeabusedt hr
oughtaki
ngoverdosewhi
chmay
causedeat h.
Overt hecounterdr ugs(OCD)
 Ar esel fpr
escr i
beddr ugs.
 Thesehav ehar mfuleffect
sandmayl eadtot
oler
ancesuchthathi
gher
dosesar eneeded.
Bel
owi
sal
istofef
fect
sofhar
ddr
ugsonhumanheal
th
 Lungcancercausedbyni cot ine.
 Emphy sema.
 Liverci rrhosis-causedbyal cohol .
 Interfereswi thv isi
on-alcohol .
 Ster i
l
ity-khat( r
ni r
aa).
 Sleepl essness-i nsomnia-khat( mir
aa).
 Hal l
uci nations-Canabi ssat iva( Bangi).
 Digest ivesy stem isupset, nausea.
 Diar r
hoeaandv omi ti
ng.
 Headacheanddoubl ev i
sion.
 Skint onechanges-e. g.toodar k.
 Appet itei sextreme-v erypoororv erygreat
.
 Wei ghtl oss.
 Per sonal it
ychangese. g.i
r r
itableandconf used.
 Conv ul si
ons, lethargyanddepr essionsduet oinhal
ati
onofsol
vent
se.
g.
glue.

St
ruct
ureandFunct
ionofPar
tsoft
heHumanEy
e
St
ruct
ure
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 Thehumaneyeisspher
icali
nshapeandsi
tuat
edwithinasocketoror
bit
i
ntheskull
.
 I
tisat
tachedt
otheskul
l byt
hreepai
rsofmuscl
e,whichal
socontroli
ts
movement.
I tismadeupoft
hreemainl
ayer
s;scl
erot
icl
ayer
,chor
oidandt
he
l
ightsensi
ti
veretina.
Scl
eroticl
ayer
 Out
ermostwhi
tepartsi
tuat
edatthesi
desandbackoft
heey
e.
 Madeupofcol
lagenfi
bres.
 I
tprot
ect
stheeyeandgivesit
sshape.
Cor
nea
 Thi
sist
het
ranspar
entf
rontpar
toft
hescl
erat
hatal
l
owsl
i
ghtt
opass
t
hrough.
 I
tiscurved,
bul
gingatthefr
ont.I
tthusr
efl
ect
sli
ghtr
ayshencehel
pst
o
f
ocuslightr
aysontotheret
ina.
Chor
oid
 Thesecondormiddlelayer
.
 I
thasmanybl oodvessel
sthatsuppl
ynutr
ient
stotheeyeandremove
metabol
icwastesf
rom theeye.
 I
thasdarkpigmentstoabsorbstr
ayli
ghtandprev
enti
tsref
lect
ioni
nsi
de
theeye.
Ci
li
arybody
 I
sgl
andul
arandsecr
etesaqueoushumour
.
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 Ithasbloodvessel
sforsuppl
yi
ngofnutri
entsexcr
eti
onandgaseous
exchange.
 Ithascil
iar
ymuscles-whichcont
ractandrel
axtochanget
heshapeof
l
ensdur i
ngaccommodat i
on.
Suspensor
yli
gament
s
 Ar
einel
ast
icandat
tacht
hel
ensont
otheci
l
li
arybodyhol
dingi
tinposi
ti
on.

Lens
 Biconvexinshape,t
or efr
actli
ght.
 Crystal
li
neandtransparenttoall
owli
ghtt
opasst
hroughandf
ocusi
ton
tothereti
na.
Aqueoushumour
 Foundbet weenlensandt hecornea.
 Transparenttoall
owlighttopasst hr
oughit
.
 I
tiswat erythushelpi
nginfocusing.
 Helpsmai nt
ainshapeofey eball
.
 Toconv eynutri
entsandoxy gentocornea,
andr
emov
ewast
epr
oduct
s.
I
ri
s
 Thecolour
edpartoftheeyehasanopening-thepupi
latt
hecentr
e.
 I
r i
shascir
cul
arandradialmuscl
eswhichcontr
olssi
zeofthepupi
l
,hence
theamountofli
ghtenteri
ngtheeyet
hroughthepupi
l.
Vi
tr
eoushumour
 Iti
saf lui
d.
 Foundbet weenlensandreti
na.
 I
sv i
scousandgi veseyetheshape.
 I
tistransparentandref
ract
slight
.
Ret
ina
 Reti
nacont
ainsl
ightsensit
ivecel
lsandi
ssi
tuatedatthebackoft
heey
e.
 Therear
etwotypesoflightsensi
ti
vecel
l
sintheret
ina:
 Rods-ar
esensi
ti
vet
olow-
int
ensi
tyl
i
ghtanddet
ectbl
ackandwhi
te.
Noct
urnal
mammal
shav
emor
erods.
 Con es-aresensiti
vetohighi
ntensi
tyofl
i
ght
;
 Theydetectbr
ightcolour
.
 Diur
nalmammal shav emorecones.
Foveacent
ral
is
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 Foveacent
ral
is(yel
lowspot)i
st hemostsensi
ti
vepartoft
heret
ina.
 Consist
smainlyofconesforaccurat
evi
sion(v
isual
acuit
y).
Opt
icner
ve
 Opti
cnerve,hasneur
onsf
ort
ransmi
ssi
onofi
mpul
set
othebr
ainf
or
i
nter
pret
ation.
Bl
indspot
 Bl
indspotisl
ocat
edatt
hepointwher
etheopti
cner
vel
eav
est
heey
eon
i
tswaytothebrai
n.
 I
tisnotsensi
ti
vetol
i
ghti
thasnorodsorcones.
Ey
eli
d
 Ey
elidi
salooseski
nt hatcover
stheeye.I
tcl
osesbyref
lexacti
on.
 Pr
otect
sitf
rom mechanicaldamageandfr
om toomuchlight
.
Ey
elashes
 Pr
eventdustandot
herpar
ti
clesf
rom ent
eri
ngey
e.
Conj
uct
iva
 I
tist
ranspar
entandthinandal
lowsl
ightt
opassthr
ough.
 I
tisatoughlay
erthati
sconti
nuouswit
htheepi
thel
i
um oft
heey
eli
ds.
 I
tprotect
sthecornea.

Accommodat
ion
 Accommodat i
onr eferstothechangei ntheshapeoft helensinor derto
focusi mages.
 Raysf rom adi st
antobj ectwouldbef ocusedatapoi ntbehindther et
inaif
thelenswer enotadj ustedappropri
ately.
 Whent heeyei sfocusingatadi stantobj ect,thecil
l
iarymusclesar e
rel
axedandt hesuspensor yli
gamentar est r
etchedtight
.
 Thel ensispul l
edt hi
n, t
husallowinglightr aysfrom adistantobjecttobe
properlyfocusedont ot heret
ina.
 Whent heeyei slookingatnearobj ect,theci l
iar
ymuscl escontractand
thesuspensor yl
igamentbecomesl ack.
 Thel ensbecomesmor econvex.
 Thisal lowslightraysf r
om nearobj ecttobef ocusedontot hereti
na.
Cont
rolofl
ighti
ntensi
tyent
eri
ngt
heey
e
 I
nbrightli
ght(
highint
ensi
ty)t
hecir
cul
armuscl
esoftheir
iscont
ract
.
 Thediameterofthepupi
ldecr
easesandl
essli
ghtent
ers.
 Thi
spr ot
ectsret
inafr
om damagebytoomuchli
ght.
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 I
ndimlightcir
cul
armusclesofi r
isr
elax(r
adial
onescontr
act
).
 Pupi
l
'ssize(di
ameter
)increases,moreli
ghtenter
stheey
e.
I
magef
ormat
ionandI
nter
pret
ati
on
 Lightraysf rom anobj ectent erthecorneaandar edir
ectedontothelens
throught hepupi l.
 Theyar er efractedbyt hecor neaandt helens.
 Thel at
terbr ingst heray sintof i
nefocus.
 Itmakest hel ightraysconv ergesothatani magei sfocusedatapointon
theretina.
 Thei mageont her eti
nai sinv er
ted.
 Thisstimul ate, t
her odsandconesont hereti
naandimpul sesgener
ated
aretransmi ttedt hrought heopt icnerv
et othebrain.
 Thebr aininterpr etstheimageasupr i
ght.
CommonEy eDefect
sandthei
rCor
rect
ion
Shor
t-
sight
edness(Myopi
a)
 Ashortsight
edpersoncannotf ocusdistantobjectsproper
ly.
 Li
ghtraysf r
om adistantobj
ectfallatapointinfrontoftheret
ina.
 Thi
smaybeduet ot heeyeballbei
ngt oolong.
 Thi
sdef ectcanbecor r
ectedusingspectacleswi t
hconcavelenses.
 Thelensesmaket hel i
ghtraysdivergebeforetheyreachtheey e.
Long-
sight
edness(
Hyper
met
ropi
a)
 Along-si
ghtedpersoncannotf ocusnearobj ectsproperl
y.
 Li
ghtraysf r
om theobjectarenotf ocusedont hereti
na.
 Thi
smaybeduet otheey eball
beingt ooshort.
 Thi
sdef ectmaybecor rectedbyusi ngspectacleswithconvexl
enses
whichmakel ightr
aysconv ergebeforetheyreacht heeye.
Ast
igmat
ism
 Astigmat i
sm ref
erstoacondi ti
oninwhi chthecor neaorthelensis
unev en,sothati
magesar enotfocusedpr operlyonthereti
na.
 Thisdef ectcanbecor rectedbywearingspect acl
eswi t
hspecialcyl
indr
ical
l
enses.
 Presby opiai
sacondi ti
oni nwhichli
ghtraysf r
om anearobj ectarenot
focusedont her
etina.
 Thisi scausedbyhar deningorlossofelasti
cityoflenseduet ooldage.
 Thisdef ecti
scorrectedbywear ingconvex( convergi
ng)lenses.
St
ruct
ureandFunct
ionsofPar
tsofHumanEar
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

TheMammal
ianEar
 Themammal i
anearperformstwomajorf
unct
ions:
 hear inganddetect
ingchangesint
heposi
ti
onsofthebodyt
obr
ingabout
balanceandposture.
Theearisdi vi
dedi
ntothr
eesections.
TheOut
erEar
Thi
sconsi
stsof
:
 Anout
erf
lap,hep
t i
nnawhichi
smadeupofcar ti
lage.
 Thef
unct
ionofthepi
nnai
stocatchanddi
rectsounds.
 Theext ernalaudi
torycanalisatubet
hroughwhi
chsoundt r
avel
.
 Theli
ningofthet
ubesecr
eteswax,whi
chtr
apsdustpar
ti
clesand
micr
oorganisms.
 Thetympanum i samembranestr
etchi
ngacr
ossthei
nnerendoft
he
ext
ernal
audit
orycanal
.
 Thetympanum vi
brat
eswheni
tishi
tbysoundwaves.
TheMiddleEar
 Thi
sisachambercont
aini
ngt
hreesmal
lbonescal
l
edt
heearossi
c1es,
t
hemal
l
eus,
incusandst
apes.
 Thethreeossic1esart
icul
atewi
thoneanothert
oampl
if
yvi
brati
ons.
 Thevibrat
ionsaretr
ansmittedf
rom t
hety
mpanum tot
heovalwindow.
 Attheendoft hechamberi samembr anecal l
edtheov al
wi ndow.
 Whent het y
mpanum v ibr
ates,i
tcausest heearossic1estomov e
forwardsandbackwar ds.
 Thiscausest heov alwindowt ovibr
ate.
 TheEust achi
ant ubeconnect sthemi ddleeart othepharynx .
 Itall
owsai rtogeti nandoutoft hemi ddl eear,t
husequalisingthe
pressurebetweent heinsideandt heout sideofthetympanum.
TheI
nnerEar
 Thisconsistsofaseriesofchamber sfi
ll
edwi thflui
d.
 I
tcompr isesthecochleaandsemi ¬ci
rcularcanals.
 Cochleaisacoi l
edtubethatoccupiesasmal l spaceandaccommodat
es
alargenumberofsensor ycell
s.
 Thecellsareconnectedtothebrainthrought heauditor
ynerve.
 Theydetectv i
brat
ionswhichleadtohear i
ng.
Hear
ing
 Thesoundwav
essett
het
ympanum v
ibr
ati
ngandar
etr
ansf
ormedi
nto
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

vi
brati
ons.
 Thevibrati
onsaretransmittedtotheovalwindowbyt hethreeossicl
es.
 Vibr
ationsoftheov alwi
ndowcauset hefl
uidsinsidethecochleatubeto
vi
brate.
 Themembr anesinsidethecochleahavesensor ycell
swhi chchangethe
soundv i
brati
onstoner v
ei mpulses.
 Thesear etransmittedt
ot hebraint
hrought heauditorynerve.
 Heari
ngi spercei
vedi nt
hebr ai
n.

Bal
anceandposture
 Thesemi-
circul
arcanal
s
 Therear et
hreesemi -ci
rcularcanalsineachear .
 Theyar esi
tuat
edatr i
ghtanglest oeachot herandeachonei ssensit
ivet
o
mov ementinadifferentplane.
 Theyar efi
ll
edwithf l
uidandeachhasaswel l
ingcall
edtheampullaatone
end.
 Insidetheampullaar esensor ycell
s.
 Balanceandposturear edetectedbyt hesecells.
 Mov ementoftheheadi nagi vendirecti
oncausest hefl
uidtomov ethe
hair
sonsensor ycells.
 Thistransmiti
mpul sest othebr ai
nthrought heaudit
oryner
vesot hatthe
mov ementisregi
ster ed.
Defect
softheear
Acutel
abyr
int
hit
is
 Thisi
sani nf
lammat i
onofthemiddl
eearandcochl
ea.
 I
tmayl eadtodeafness.
 Itcanbetreatedbyusingcer
tai
ndrugsbutsometi
mesanoper
ati
onmay
benecessary.
Ti
nni
ti
s:
 Thisisasensationofnoisesi
ntheear.
 Itiscausedamongot her
sbyaccumulati
onofwaxintheearoruseof
cert
aindrugse.g.quini
ne.
 Treat
menti sbyr emovalofwax,
stoppi
nguseofthecausat
ivedrug.
Ver
ti
go-Gi
ddi
ness
 Thisi
sdi
sor
ient
ati
onofbodyi
nspace-oneoft
hecausesi
sdi
l
ati
onof
endol
ymph.
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 Cor
rect
ions:Useofappr
opr
iat
edr
ugs.
Deaf
ness.
 Thisisinabili
tytohear.
 Iti
spr esentedinv ari
ousdegreesinvari
ousi
ndi
vi
dual
s,somehav
epar
ti
al
hearing,othersarecompl et
elydeaf.
Thi
smaybeasar esultof:
 Chronicinfecti
onofcochl ea.
 Lackofsensor ycell
s.
 Excesswaxi nexternalaudit
orycanal
.
 Fusionofearossi cl
es.
Ot
it
isMedi
a
 Thisistheinf
lammat i
onofmi ddleearduet obuil
d-upoffluid.
 I
tismar kedbyt heswell
ingoftissuessur r
oundi
ngt heEustachi
ant
ube
duetoinfecti
onorsev er
econgest i
on.
 Ast r
ongnegat i
vepressurecreatesav acuum i
nthemi ddl
eear .
 Treatment-useofant i
bioti
csorsur gery
.

Pr
act
icalAct
ivi
ti
es
 Toi nvest
igatetacti
cresponse
 Tact i
cresponsei nfl
ymaggotsar ei
nvestigat
edusi ngchoicechamber s(
s).
 Responsest ovari
oussti
muliareobservede.g.tochemi calsubst
ances-
chemot axis.
 Ononesi deofchoicechambersisplacedbeef /f
ishthathasbeendr iedi
n
thesun.
 Ont heopposi techambersispl
acedrottingmeat /f
ish.
 Tenmaggot sarepl
acedatthecenterandchoi cechamberi scovered.
 After10mi nut
esthenumberofmaggot sateachendi scounted.
 Mostoft hemaggot shavemov edtothechamberwi throt
tingmeat.
Tr
opi
sms
 Maizeorbeenseedsar esoakedandgerminated,t
othest
agewhen
radi
calandcol
eoptil
e/pl
umul ej
ustappear.
 (about5daysforbeansandsev endaysformaize)
.
 Seedli
ngswit
hst r
aightr
adic1esandplumulesareused.
.
Geot
ropi
sm
 Theseedl
ingsar
eplacedhor
izontal
lyonthemedium (
Soilorv
ermi
cul
i
te
orsawdustorsand)
.
 Obser
vati
onsaredoneaft
ert
hr eedaysandresul
tsr
ecorded.
Phot
otr
opi
sm
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 Apottedplantorayoungseedli
ngplant
edinabeakeriskeptnextt
oa
windowwhi chist
heonlysourceofl
ighti
nthelaborat
ory.
 Alt
ernati
vel
y ,
adarkboxmaybeused.
 Observat
ionsaremadeafter3-5daysandresul
tsrecor
ded.
 Theshootsgr owbendi
ngtowardsthesamel i
ght.
Et
iol
ati
on
Youngseedl i
ngsar epl acedi nadar kbox.
Itiskeptmoi stbutnotexposedt ol ight.
Aftert woweekst heseedl ingsarer emov edandobser v
ationsmadetonote
thefoll
owi ng:
Colourofl eav esisy ellow.
Sizeofl eav esissmal l
Lengt hofi nternodesi sl ong
Lengt hofst em elongat edlongandt hin.
Otherseedl i
ngst hatwer egrowni nl i
ghtareobserved(ascontrol
)andsimil
ar
measur ement st aken.
Theyar egreeni ncol ourwi thlar
gerl eaves,shor
terint
ernodesandthestem i
s
shorterandt hicker.
Thosei nthedar khav esmal lery
ellowl eaves,l
ongthingstemswithlong
i
nternodes.( eti
olated) .
Exper
imentt
oDet
ermi
neDi
stanceoft
heBl
indSpot
 Student sshouldwor kinpair
ssot hatonet akesmeasurement swhi
l
ethe
otherobser ves.
 Acr ossandadotar emar kedonawhi tepaper.
 Thet wopoi ntsare6- 9cm apart.
 Thepaperi sheld50cm awayf r
om thef ace.
 Closingt helefteye,thepaperisslowlymov edtowardsthefaceast
he
ri
ghtey ei sfi
xedont hecross.
 At50cm di stancethecr ossandt hedotar eseenclear
ly.
 As-thepaperi smov edclosertotheface, thedotdi
sappears.
 Thedi stanceatwhi cht hedotdisappearsi smeasured.
 Thisist hedistanceoft heblindspot.
 Whent helightraysfrom thedotar efocusedont hebli
ndspoti t
di
sappear shencet hedoti snotseen.
TheKneeJer
kExper
iment
 St
udent
swor kinpair
s,onestudentsit
sont
het
abl
e,hi
ghst
ool
orbench
wi
thonelegcrossedovertheother.
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 Theotherstudentchopsthecrossedkneej
ustbel
owt
hekneecapwi
th
theedgeofpalm orwoodenr ul
er.
 I
tisobservedthatthecrossedkneejer
ks.
 Thisi
saspi nalr
efl
ex.END

Suppor
tandMov
ementi
nPl
ant
sandAni
mal
s
Necessi
tyf
orsuppor
tandmovement
 Movementisacharacter
ist
icofal
l l
ivi
ngorgani
sms.
 I
tenabl
esanimalsandplantstoadjusttothei
renv
ironment.
 Mostanimalsmovefrom pl
acetopl acebutsomearesessil
e(i.
e.f
ixedt
o
t
hesubstrat
um).
 Maj
orit
yofplant
smov eonlycert
ainpar t
s.
 However,t
houghnoteasil
yobservedallli
vi
ngprot
oplasm shows
movementofonetypeoranother.

Necessi
tyf
orsuppor
tandmovementi
npl
ant
s
 Theyenabl epl
antstobehel duprightt otr
apmaxi mum li
ghtfor
photosynthesi
sandgaseousexchange.
 Toholdf l
owersandf ruit
si nappropr iat
epositi
onf orpol
l
inati
onand
di
spersalrespecti
vely.
 To enable plantst o grow t o greathei ghts and wit
hstand f
orces of
envir
onmente. g.str
ongwi nds.
 Mov ementofmal egamet est oeffectfert
il
isat
ionandensureperpetuat
ion
ofaspecies.
 Plantpart
smov einresponset ocer tainst
imuliintheenvi
ronmentof
tr
opisms.
Ti
ssuedi
str
ibut
ioni
nMonocot
yledonousandDi
cot
yledonouspl
ant
s
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 Vascularbundlesarethemai nsuppor tti

ssuesinplants.
 Inmonocot yl
edonousst em theyarescatteredalloverthestem.
 whileindicot
yledonousst em t
heyar efoundinar i
ngorr ings.
 Inmonocot sthexy l
em andphl oem alt
ernat
ear oundwi thpit
hinthecent
re.
 Indicotsofthexylem formsast ari
nt hecentre-thereisnopi t
h.
 Phloem isfoundinbetweent hearmsofx yl
em.
 Dicotyl
edonous plants hav e cambium whi ch brings aboutsecondary
growthr esult
ing i
nt hickeni
ng oft he stem and r oothence pr ov
idi
ng
support.
 Secondar
yxy
lem becomeswood,
prov
idi
ngmor
esuppor
ttot
hepl
ant
.

Rol
eofsuppor
tti
ssuesi
nyoungandol
dpl
ant
Pl
ant
sar
ehel
dupr
ightbyst
rengt
heni
ngt
issues;
 par
enchy ma,
 col
lenchyma,
 scl
erenchyma
 xyl
em tissue.
 Par
enchy maandcol
lenchy
maar
ethemai
nsuppor
tti
ssuesi
nyoung
pl
ant
s.
Par
enchy
ma–
 Theyar efoundbel owtheepidermis.
 Theyf or
m t hebul kofpackingt issuewi t
hint heplantbetweenot
her
t
issues.
 Theyar etightl
ypackedandt urgi
dtheypr ovi
desupport.
Col
lenchy ma–
 Thei rcel
lwallshaveaddit
ionalcel
lulosedepositedi
nthecorners.
 Thi sprovi
dest hem wi
thextramechani calst
rength.
Scl
erenchy
ma–
 Theircell
saredeadduetolargedeposi
tsofl
igni
nont hepri
marycel lwal
l.
 Thelignifi
edwal
listhi
ckandinnerl
umenissmall,henceprovi
desuppor t
.
 Scl
er enchymafi
bresarearr
angedinelongat
edandi nlongit
udinalsheet
s
gi
vingext r
asupport
.
 Theyar efoundi
nmat ur
eplants.
Xy
lem –
 Hast wotypesofspecial
isedcel
l
s.
 Vesselsandtrachei
ds.
 Vesselsarethi
ck-wall
edtubeswit
hli
gnindeposi
tedint
hem.
 Theygivesupportandstrengt
htotheplant
.
 Trachei
dsarespindle-
shapedcell
sarr
angedwithendsover
lappi
ng.
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 Thei
rwall
sar
eligni
fi
ed.
 Theyhel
ptosuppor
tandst
rengt
hent
hepl
ant
.

Pl
ant
swi
thweakst
emsobt
aint
hei
rsuppor
tint
hef
oll
owi
ngway
s.
 Someuset hornorspinest oadheret ootherplantsorobject
s.
 Somehav et wi
nningst emswhi chgr ow aroundobj ectswhi
chtheycome
i
ntocontactwith.
 Othersusetendri
lsforsupport.
 Tendri
lsarepartsofast em orleafthathavebecomemodi fi
edfor
twinni
ngaroundobjectswhent heygai nsuppor t.
 Inpassionfrui
tandpumpki n,
par t
sofl at
eralbranchesaremodifi
edt
o
for
mt endri
ls.
 I
nt hemorningglory
, t
hel eafi
smodi fi
edintoat endril
.

Suppor
tandMovementi
nAni
mal
s
Necessi
tyf
orsuppor
tandmovementi
nani
mal
s.
Ani
mal
smovef
rom pl
acet
opl
ace:
 Insearchoffood.
 Toescapef rom predator
s.
 Toescapef rom hosti
leenvir
onment.
 Tolookformat esandbr eedi
nggrounds.
 Theskeleton,whichisasuppor tst
ruct
urehelpst
omaintai
ntheshapeof
thebody.
 Mov ementiseffectedbyactionofmusclest
hatar
eat
tachedtothe
skel
eton.

Ty
pesandFunct
ionsofSkel
etons
 Twomaintypeswi
llbeconsi
dered.
 Thesear
eexoskel
etonandendoskel
eton.
Exoskel
eton
 Exoskel
etonishardoutercoveri
ngofar t
hropodsmadeupofmai nl
ychiti
n.
 Whi chi
ssecr et
edbyepidermal cel
lsandhardensonsecreti
on.
 I
ti s st
rengthened byadditi
on ofot hersubstances e.g.tanni
ns and
prot
einstobecomehar dandr i
gid.
 Onthejointssuchasthoseint helegstheexoskel
etonisthinandflexi
ble
toall
owf ormov ement
.
Funct
ionsofExoskel
eton
 Pr
ovidesuppor
t.
 At
tachmentofmusclesformovement.
 Pr
otecti
onofdeli
cat
eorgansandti
ssues.
 Pr
eventi
onofwaterl
oss.
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

Endoskel
eton:
 I
tformsani nternalbodyfr
amewor k.
 Thi
sisat y
peofskel et
oncharact
eristi
cofallver
tebr
ates.
 Theendoskeletonismadeofcar ti
lage,boneorboth.
 Iti
smadeupofl i
vi
ngt i
ssuesandgr owssteadil
yasanimalgr
ows.
 Musclesareat t
achedont heskel
eton.
 Themusclesar econnectedtobonesbyl igaments.
Funct
ions
 Thef unct
ionsofendoskeletoni ncludesuppor
t,pr
otect
ionandmovement
.
 Locomot i
oninaf innedfi
she. g.til
apia.
 Mostoft hef ishesarestreaml inedandhav ebackwar ddir
ect
edfi
nsto
reduceresist
anceduet owat er.

Ext
ernalf
eat
ures-
ofTi
lapi
a
 Scalest aper stowar dst hebackandov erl
apf orwar dst opr ovi
deasmoot h
surfacef orast r
eaml i
nedbody .
 Theheadi snotf l
exi ble.
 Thishel pst hef i
sht omai ntainf orwar dthrust.
 Slimymucousenabl est hef i
sht oescapepr edatorsandpr otectst he
scalesf rom get ti
ngwet .
 Thepect oralandpel vicf insar eusedmai nlyforst eering,ensuringt hatthe
fi
shi sbal anced.
 Theyassi stthef i
sht ochangedi r
ect i
on.
 Thedor salandanalf i
nskeept hef ishupr i
ghtpr event i
ngitf r
om r oll
ing
sideway s.
 Thecaudalort ailfinhasal argesur facear ea,anddi spl acesal otofwat er
whenmov edsideway scr eatingf orwar dmov ementoft hef i
sh.
 Inor dertochangeposi ti
oni nwat erthef i
shusest heswi m bl
adder .
 Whenf il
ledwi t
hai rther elativedensi tyoft hebodyi slower edandt hefish
mov esupi nthewat er.
 Whenai risexpel led, ther elat i
vedensi t
yrisesandt hef ishsinkstoal ower
l
ev el.
 Swi mmi ngact i
oni nf ishi sbr oughtaboutbycont ractionofmuscl ebl ocks
(my otomes) .
 Thesemuscl esar eant agoni sti
cwhent hoseont helef tcontract,thoseon
ther i
ghtr elax.
 Themuscl esar eat t
achedt ot het ransversepr ocessesont hevertebra.
 Thev er
tebr aaref lexiblet oal lowsi deway smov ement .

Mammal
ianskel
eton
Themammalianskel
etonisdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wo:
 Axi
alandappendi
cular
.
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

 Axial
skelet
onismadeupoftheskul
landt
hever
tebr
alcol
umn.
 Appendicul
arskel
etoni
smadeupofthepel
vi
candpector
algi
rdl
esandl
i
mbs
(hi
ndlimbandf or
eli
mbs)
.

TheAxi
alSkel
eton
Thi
sconsist
softhe;
 s kull
,
 thest er
num,
 ribs,
 thever t
ebralcol
umn.
TheSkul
l
 Theskul lismadeupofcr ani
um andf aci
al bones.
 Thecr anium; enclosesandpr otect
st hebrain.
 I
tismadeupofmanybonesj oinedtogetherbyimmovablej
oint
s.
 Thef aci
al bonesconsi stsoftheupperandl owerj
aws.
 Atthepost er
iorendoft hecranium aretwosmoot hrounded
protuberances, theoccipi
talcondyles.
 Thesecondy l
esar ti
culatewiththeatlasvertebr
atofor
m ahingejoi
nt,
whichper mi t
st henoddingoft hehead.

St
ernum andr
ibs–
 Theyformt her
ib-cage.
 Therib-
cageenclosest hethor
aciccavi
typr
otecti
ngdel
icat
eorganssuch
astheheartandlungs.
 Theribsart
icul
atewi t
ht hever
tebral
col
umnatt hebackandthester
num
atthefront
.

TheVer
tebr
alCol
umn
 Thev ertebralcol umni smadeupofbonescal l
edv ertebraepl acedendt o
end.
 Thever tebraear ticulatewi t
honeanot heratthear ti
culat i
ngf acets.
 Inbetweenonev ertebraandanot herist hecar t
il
agi nousmat er
ialcal
led
i
ntervertebal disc.
 Thediscsactasshockabsor bersandal l
owf orslightmov ement .
 Eachv ertebraconsi stsofacent rum andaneur alar chwhi chpr oject
sinto
aneur alspine.
 Theneur al
canal isthecav i
tyenclosedbyt hecent rum andt heneur alar
ch.
 Thespi nalcor disl ocatedi nsi
det hecanal.
 Theneur al
spi neandot herprojecti
onse.g.transversepr ocessesser veas
point
sofat tachmentofmuscl es.

Ty
peandnumberofv
ert
ebr
aei
nhumanandr
abbi
t
 JOSPAPUBLI
SHERS–0724013786

Vertebr
ae Human Rabbi
t
l
. Cer
vical(
Neck) 7 7
2. Thor
aci
c(Thor
ax) 12 12
3. Lumbar(
UpperAbdomen) 5 7
4. Sacr
al(
LowerAbdomen) 5 3-
4

5. Caudal 4(
cocy
x) 16

Cer
vicalVer
tebr
ae

 Thesear ef oundi nt heneckr egi onofamammal .

 Thedi stinguishingf eatur ei sapai rofv ert
e-brat
eri
alcanalsint
heneur
al
arch, t
hroughwhi cht hebl oodv esselsoftheneckpass.
 Anot herfeatur eisthest r uctureoft het r
ansverseprocesses.
 Theyar ef l
attenedoutandar eknownascer vi
calri
bs.
 Thef Ir
stcer vicalvertebr ai sknownast heAtlas.
 Ithasal argeneur al canal andnocent rum.
 Thesecondcer v
icalv er
t ebr a,iscalledaxis.
 Theot herf i
vecer vical ver t
ebr aehav enospecifi
cnames.
 Theyhav ethesamest r
uct ure.
 Thecer vicalver t
ebraepossessnumer ousprocessesformuscle
attachment .

Thor
aci
cVer
tebr
ae

 Eacht horaci
cv ert
ebrahasal argecent r
um ,alar
geneur alcanal,neural
archandal ongneur al
spinethatprojectsupwardsandbackwar d.
 Thereisapai rofprezygapophysesandpost zy
gapophysesforarti
culati
on
withothervertebr
a.
 Theyhav eapairofshorttr
ansversepr ocess.
 Thet horaci
cv ert
ebraalsoarti
culateswi thpairofri
bsatt ubercularand
capit
ularfacets.

LumbarVer
tebr
ae
 Eachl umbarv er
tebrahasal arge,thi
ckcentrum forsupportoft
hebody .
 I
thasaneur alspinethatprojectsupwardsandf orwards.
 Ther eisapairoflargetr
ansv erseprocessthataredirectedf
orwards.
 Abov etheprezygapophy sesliesapairofprocessescal l
edmetapophyses,
 Belowpost zygapophysesl i
est heanapophyses.
 Met apophysesandanapophy sisserveforatt
achmentpfmuscl esofthe
 JOSPAPUBLI
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abdomen.
 Insomemammals,t
heremaybeanotherpr
ocessonlowersi
deof
centr
um cal
l
edhy
papophy
sisal
soformuscleat
tachment
.

Sacr
alVer
tebr
ae

 Thesacralvertebr
aear efusedt ogethertoform arigi
dbonystructur
e,the
sacr
um.
 Thecentrum ofeachv ert
ebrai slarge,buttheneuralcanali
snarrow.
 Theneuralspineisreducedt oasmal lnotch.
 Thetransverseprocessesoft hef i
rstsacralver
tebraarelar
geandwi ng-
l
ike
 Theyarefirmlyatt
achedt otheupperpar tofthepelvi
cgirdl
e.
CaudalVer
tebr
ae
 Humanbei ngshaveonlyfourofthesev
ertebraewhichar
efusedtoget
her
tof
orm coccyx.
 Ani
malswi thl
ongtail
shavemanycaudal vert
ebrae.
 Atypi
calcaudalver
tebraappear
sasasol i
drectangul
armassofbone.
 Theenti
reboneconsistsofthecentr
um only
.
Appendi
cul
arSkel
eton
 Theappendi
cul
arskel
etonconsi
stoft
hel
i
mbsandt
hei
rgi
rdl
es.

BonesofFore-
li
mbs
Pector
algi
rdl
e
 Pect
oralgirdlei
smadeofscapula,coracoi
dandclavi
cle.
 Acavi
t yknownasglenoidcav
ityoccursattheapexofthescapul
a.
 Thehumer usofthefor
elimbfi
tsintothiscav
ity
.
 Theclavi
cei sacur
vedboneconnectingthescapul
artothester
num.

Humer
us
 Humerusisfoundint
heupperarm.
 Itar
ti
culat
eswitht
hescapulaatthegl
enoi
dcav
ityoft
hepect
oral
gir
dle
andformsaballandsocketj
oint
.

Ul
naandr
adi
us
 Thesearetwobonesf oundinthefor
earm.
 Theulnahasapr oj
ecti
oncall
edolecranonpr
ocessandasi
gmoi
dnot
ch
whichart
icul
ateswit
ht hehumerus.
 JOSPAPUBLI
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Bonesofhi
ndl
imb
Pel
vicGi
rdl
e

 Thepelvicgi rdleconsi st
softwohal vesfusedatt hepubi
csy mphy si
s.
 Eachhalfismadeupoft hr
eefusedbones:
 thei li
um,
 i schi um
 pubi s.
 Eachhalfhascup- shapedcav i
tyfortheacetabulum f
or
art
icul
ationwi t
ht heheadoft hefemur .
 Betweent hei schium andpubi sisanopeni ngobturat
orforamenwher e
spi
nalner ves, bloodv essel
sandat oughi nfl
exi
bleconnectiv
etissues
pass.
 Theili
um, ischi um andpubi sarefusedtof or
mt heinnominatebone.

TheFemur
 Thef emuri sthelongbonejoiningthepel
vicgirdl
eandtheknee.
 Theheadoft hef emurarti
culateswit
hacet abul
um for
mingtheballand
socketjointatt hehip.
 Thef emurhasal ongshaft.
 Att hedist alendi thascondylesthatart
iculat
ewiththeti
biatoforma
hingejoi
ntatt heknee.
 Thepat el
lacov ersthekneejointandpreventstheupwardmov ementof
thelowerl eg.

Ti
biaandFi
bul
a

 Theti
biai
sal ar
gebone,
andt hef
ibulaasmall
erbonei
sfusedt
oitont
he
di
stal
part
.
 I
nhumanst heti
biaandf
ibul
aareclearl
ydi
sti
ngui
shabl
e.
Joi
ntsandMovement
 Ajointi
saconnect ionbetweentwoormorebones.
 Jointsprovi
dearti
culati
onbetweenbonesmakingmov ementpossibl
e.
 Howev ersomej ointsdonotall
owanymov emente.g.thejoi
nts,bet
ween
bonesoft heskull
.
 Mov abl
ej oi
ntsareofthreemaintypes:
Gl
idi
ngj
oint
 e.
g.,
joi
ntswhichoccurbetweenthever
tebraewrist
sandankl
es.
 Theendsofthebonest hatmakethej
ointarecover
edwit
hcarti
l
age.
 Thebonesarehel
dt ogetherbyt
oughli
gament s.
Sy
novi
alj
oint
 JOSPAPUBLI
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 Thejointisencl osedbyf i
br ouscapsuleli
nedbysynov
ial
membr
anewhi
ch
secr
etessy nov i
alflui
dint
ot hesy nov
ialcavi
ty.
 Thesy novialfluidlubri
catesthejoint
.
 Theyar ecal l
edsy novialj
oints.
 Theyincludehi ngej oi
ntandbal landsocketjoi
nt.
Hi
ngej
oint
 e.g.kneejoint
.
 Thejointal
lowsmov
ementi
nonepl
ane.
Bal
landsocketj
oint
.
 e.g.
,hi
pjoi
nt.
 Thejoi
ntal
l
owsrot
ati
oni
nal
ldi
rect
ions.

Ty
pes,
Locat
ionsandFunct
ionofMuscl
es
 Therearethreetypesofmuscl es,l
ocat
edatvar
iouspar
tsoft
hebody
.
 I
nor dert
of unct
ionalluseenergyinfor
m ofATP.
 Theseincl
udesmoot h,skel
etalandcar
diacmuscl
es.

Smoot
hMuscl
e(I
nvol
unt
aryMuscl
es)
 Thesearespi ndl
e-shapedandcont ai
nf i
l
ament swithmy ofi
bril
s.
 Eachmuscl eisboundbypl asmamembr ane.
 Theyarefoundl ini
nginter
nal organssuchasal imentar
ycanal ,bl
adder
,
andbloodv essels.
 Theyarecont rol
ledbyinvoluntarypartofthenervoussystem.
 Theyareconcer nedwithmov ementofmat er
ial
salongtheor gansand
tubes.
 Theycontractslowlyandf ati
guesl owly.

Skel
etalMuscl
e(st
ri
atedorvol
unt
arymuscl
e)
 Skeletalmuscl esar estriat
edandhav esev eralnucl
ei.
 Theyar elongf ibreseachcont ai
ningmy ofi
bri
lsandmanymi tochondr
ia.
 Theyhav ecr oss-stri
ationsorst r
ipes.
 Theyar ealsocal ledv olunt
arymuscl esbecauset hecontract
ionis
controll
edbyv oluntarynervoussy stem.
 Theyar esurroundedbyconnect ivetissueandar eat t
achedtobonesby
tendons.
 Theircontractionbr i
ngsaboutmov ementofbone, resul
ti
nginl ocomoti
on.
 Theycont ractqui cklyandf at
iguequi ckl
y .

Car
diacMuscl
e
 Consi
stofanetworkofst
riat
edmuscl efi
bresconnect
edbybr
idges.
 Areshortcel
lswi
thnumerousmitochondri
aanduninucl
eat
e.
 Theyarefoundexcl
usi
vel
yintheheart.
 JOSPAPUBLI
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 Contr
acti
onsofcar diacmuscl esaregenerat
edf r
om withi
nthemuscl
es
andarerhythmicandcontinuoushencetheyaremy ogeni
c.
 Theydonott i
reorfati
gue.
 Theratecanbemodi fiedbyinvol
untar
ynervoussystem.
 Thei
rcontract
ionsresulti
ntheheartpumpingblood.

Rol
eofmuscl
esi
nmovementoft
hehumanar
m
 Musclesthatbr
ingaboutmovementar
eant
agoni
sti
c,i
.e.whenoneset
cont
ractstheot
herrel
axes.

Ant
agoni
sti
cmuscl
esofhumanf
orel
imb
 Thebi cepsmuscl esoft heforel
imbactasf lexor
swhil
et hetr
iceps
musclesactasext ensors.
 Thebi cepshasi t
spoi ntoforigi
nont hescapulaandthepointofinsert
ion
onther adius.
 Thetricepshasi tspointsofor i
ginonthescapulaandhumer usandi s
i
nsertedont heulna.
 Whent hemuscl escont ract
,thelimbactsasal ev
erwiththepivotatt he
j
oint
.
 Contractionofbi cepsmuscl esbends( f
lexes)thearm whil
econt r
acti
ons
oftr
icepsext endst hearm.

Pr
act
icalAct
ivi
ti
es
To obser
ve pr
epar
ed sl
ides oft
ransver
se sect
ion ofst
ems of
her
baceousandwoodypl
ants.
 Permanentsl i
desoft ransver
sesect ionsof:
 Herbaceouspl antandWoodypl antareobt ained.
 Theper manentslideofaher baceouspl antispl acedontothestageofthe
microscope.
 Observationsundert helowpowerandmedi um powerobj ect
ivei
smade.
 Aplandi agram i
sdr awnandl abelled.
 Theper manentsl ideofawoodypl antispl acedont hestageoft he
microscope.
 Observationsundert helow powerand medi um powerobj ect
ivesare
made.
 Aplandi agram i
sdr awnandl abelled.
 In both cases,suppor tt i
ssues such as par enchy
ma,col l
enchyma,
sc1erenchy maandxy l
em areobser ved.
Toobser
vewi
lt
ingi
nyoungher
baceouspl
ant
s.
 Aher
baceouspot
tedpl
ante.
g.beanpl
anti
sobt
ained.
 JOSPAPUBLI
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 Theplanti
splacedonthebenchnearawi ndowandl ef
tfor3day
swithout
water
ingonthethir
dandsubsequentday.
 Theshootdroopsduetofal
li
nturgorpressure;
causedbywaterl
oss.
Toexami
net
heexoskel
etoni
nanar
thr
opod.
 Obtainabeetl
eandobser vet
heexternalst
ructur
e.
 Theexoskeletonisont heoutersur
facewi t
hmuscl esatt
achedoni
nner
si
de.
 Theexoskelet
oni shar
denedbychiti
n.
 Mov ementisduet oj
oint
sonthelimbs.
 Alsoexaminev ar
iousshedcocoonsofinsectse.
g.,
butter
fl
y.
Toobser
vet
heext
ernalf
eat
uresofaf
innedf
ish.
 FreshTil
apiaisobt
ainedandplacedonat r
ay.
 Observat
ionsaremadeont heexternal
feat
uresoft
hefi
sh.
 Alabell
eddrawingismade.
 Featur
eslikescal
es,fi
nsastr
eaml i
nedbodyandanopercul
um ar
eseen.
 Openedoper cul
um r
eveal
sthegill
s.
Toexami
nebonesoft
heaxi
alskel
etonofar
abbi
t.
 Bonesofthevertebr
acol umnareobtained.
 Thesearecerv
ical,t
horacic,
lumbarandsacral.
 Foreachofthebonest hedisti
ngui
shi
ngf eatur
esar
eli
steddown.
 Label
leddrawi
ngsoft heanteri
orandlateral
v i
ewsi
smade.

Toobser
vebonesofappendi
cul
arskel
eton.
 Bonesofpect oralgir
dleandforeli
mbareobtainedi.
e.,scapul
a,humer
us,
ul
naandr adius.
 Label
leddrawi ngofeachboneismade.
 Observat
ionsonhowt hebonesarti
cul
atewit
honeanot herismade.
 Bonesofpel vi
cgirdl
eandhi ndl
imbsareobt
ainedi.e.
,pelvi
cgir
dle,f
emur,
ti
biaandfibula.
 Label
leddrawi ngsofeach,boneismade.
 Thedisti
nguishingfeatur
esofeachboneisnoted.
 Observat
ionsonhowt hebonesarti
cul
atewit
honeanot herismade.
END

BESTWI
SHES
JOSPAPUBLI
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