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HBMT3403
Teaching of Lower Secondary
Mathematics Part II
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
HBMT3403
TEACHING OF
LOWER
SECONDARY
MATHEMATICS
PART II
Dr Ling Siew Eng
Mohd Nasir Mahmud
Copyright © Open University Malaysia
(OUM)
Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Chung Han Tek
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Dr Ling Siew Eng
Mohd Nasir Mahmud
Moderator: Assoc Prof Dr Lim Tick Meng
Open University Malaysia
Reviewed by: Lai Kim Leong
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology
Open University Malaysia
First Edition, August 2008
Second Edition, April 2014
Third Edition, August 2016 (rs)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), August 2016, HBMT3403
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).
Copyright © Open University Malaysia
(OUM)
Table of Contents
Course Guide xi�xvi
Topic 1 Operations on Numbers 1
1.1 Concept of Integers 3
1.1.1 Number Lines and Integers 6
1.1.2 Comparing the Values of Two Integers 8
1.2 Operations on Integers 10
1.2.1 Addition and Subtraction 10
1.2.2 Multiplication and Division 14
1.2.3 Combined or Mixed Operations of Integers 15
1.3 Fractions and Decimals 18
1.3.1 Positive and Negative Fractions 18
Positive and Negative Decimals 19
Operations Involving Integers, Fractions and Decimals
20
1.4 Word Problems with Mixed Operations 26
Summary 28
Key Terms 29
References 30
Topic 2 Squares, Square Roots, Cubes and Cube Roots 31
2.1 Square Numbers 32
2.1.1 Squares of Positive and Negative Numbers 35
2.1.2 Estimate the Squares of Numbers 36
2.2 Square Roots of Positive Numbers 37
2.2.1 Estimate the Square Roots of Numbers 40
2.3 Cubes of Numbers 43
2.3.1 Basic Concept (Cubes of Positive Numbers) 43
2.3.2 Cubes of Positive and Negative Numbers 46
2.3.3 Estimate the Cubes of Numbers 47
2.4 Cube Roots of Numbers 48
2.4.1 Estimate the Cube Roots of Numbers 50
2.5 PythagorasÊ Theorem 53
2.5.1 Right-angled Triangle (Relationship of Sides) 53
2.5.2 The Converse of the Pythagorean Theorem 56
2.5.3 Word Problems 57
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iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
Summary 60
Key Terms 60
References 61
Topic 3 Algebraic Expression II 62
Algebraic Terms in Two or More Unknowns 64
Basic Concept of Algebraic Terms in One or More Unknowns (Like and
Unlike Terms, Coefficients) 64
3.1.2 Multiplication of Two or More Algebraic Terms 68
3.1.3 Division of Two or More Algebraic Terms 71
Operations on Algebraic Expressions 73
Multiply or Divide Algebraic Expressions by a Number
73
3.2.2 Mixed Operations 75
3.3 Write Algebraic Expressions 79
3.3.1 Write Daily Life Problems in Algebraic 80
Expressions
Summary 83
Key Terms 84
References 84
Topic 4 Index 85
Concepts of Index Numbers 86
Concepts of Repeated Multiplication and Index Notation
89
4.1.2 Computations Involving Multiplication and
Division of Numbers in Index Notation
(Simplify Algebraic Terms) 92
4.1.3 Computations Involving Mixed Operations of
Numbers in Index Notation 96
4.2 Perform Computations Involving Raising Numbers and
Algebraic Terms in Index Notation to a Power 97
Multiplication and Division of Algebraic Terms 97
Multiplication Involving Negative and Fractional Indices
(Laws of Indices) 102
Summary 111
Key Terms 112
References 112
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TABLE OF CONTENTS v
Topic 5 Linear Equations 114
5.1 Concept of Equality of Two Quantities 115
5.1.1 Use of Symbols or Terms 115
5.1.2 Linear Equations 117
5.1.3 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and
Division 118
of Linear Equations
5.2 Linear Algebraic Equations 120
5.2.1 Linear Equations 120
5.2.2 Linear Equations in One Unknown 121
5.3 Solving Linear Equations in One Unknown 123
Find the Unknown in a Linear Equation 123
Problem Solving of Routine and Non-routine
Problems Involving Linear Equations 131
5.4 Solving Linear Equations in Two Unknowns 134
Linear Equations in Two Unknowns 134
Solving Simultaneous Linear Equation Problems in Two
Unknowns 139
Summary 142
Key Terms 143
References 144
Topic 6 Geometric Constructions 145
Geometric Constructions of Mathematical Figures 146
Drawing Parallel and Perpendicular Lines, and Circles
Using the Construction Set 147
6.1.2 Drawing Figures at Different Angles and
Constructing Angle Bisectors 155
6.1.3 Construction of Figures and Problem Solving 161
6.2 Loci in Two Dimensions 165
6.2.1 Definition of Loci in Two Dimensions 165
6.2.2 Loci of Sets of Points 167
6.2.3 Construction of Loci 168
Intersection of Two Loci 170
Find the Intersection Points When Conditions are Given
170
6.3.2 Drawing Two Loci and Finding the Intersection
Points 171
6.3.3 Loci 172
Summary 174
Key Terms 175
References 176
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vi TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 7 Coordinates 177
Introduction to the Cartesian Plane 178
Definitions and Terms 179
Axis and Scale 179
Plotting of Points and Coordinates 181
Cartesian Plane: Distance between Two Points and
Midpoints 186
Distance between Two Points on the Cartesian Plane 186
Use of the Pythagorean Theorem to Find the
Distance between Two Points 186
Coordinates of the Midpoint of Two Points 188
Solve Problems Involving the Distance between Two
Points and Midpoints 191
7.3.1 Find the Other Point When the Distance and One
Point are Given 191
7.3.2 Find the Other Point When the Midpoint and
One Point are Given 192
7.3.3 Problem Solving Involving Two Points on the
Cartesian Plane 193
Summary 196
Key Terms 197
References 197
Topic 8 Transformation 198
8.1 Terms and Concepts (Object and Image) 199
8.1.1 The Basic Properties of Equilaterals 200
8.1.2 Concepts of Isometry and Congruence 202
8.1.3 Coordinates and Transformation 206
8.2 Basic Concepts of Transformation 209
8.2.1 Reflection 209
8.2.2 Rotation (From 0À to 360À) 210
8.2.3 Translation 211
8.2.4 Glide Reflection 212
8.3 The Properties of Transformation 214
8.3.1 Translation 214
8.3.2 Rotation 215
8.3.3 Reflection 217
Summary 222
Key Terms 223
References 224
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TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
Topic 9 Circles 225
Definition of Circle 226
Definitions of Terms Related to Circles 227
Deriving the Formula for the Circumference of a
Circle 230
Finding the Unknown Values of Radii and Diameters 232
Arc of a Sector 233
Deriving the Formula of the Length of an Arc 234
9.2.3 Problem Solving Involving the Length of Arc 238
Area of Sector (Circular Sector) 240
9.3.1 Deriving the Formula of an Area of a Sector 240
9.3.2 Finding the Area of a Sector and the Angle 242
9.3.3 Problem Solving Involving the Area of Sector and
the Combined Parts of Circles 244
Summary 248
Key Terms 248
References 249
Topic 10 Solid Geometry 250
10.1 Properties of Prisms, Pyramids, Cones, Cylinders and
Spheres 252
10.1.1 Properties of Prisms and Pyramids 252
10.1.2 Properties of Cones and Cylinders 256
10.1.3 Properties of Spheres 258
Surface Area and Volume 258
Construction, Drawing and Folding of Two Plane, and Solid
Geometric Forms 259
10.2.2 Deriving the Formula for Surface Area and Volume 264
The Volume of Cylinders and Right Prisms 268
Deriving the Formula for the Volume of Cylinders and Prisms
268
10.3.2 Solving Problems Involving the Volume of
Cylinders and Prisms 272
The Volume of Right Pyramids and Circular Cones 273
Deriving the Formula for the Volume of Pyramids
and Circular Cones 273
Solving Problems Involving Pyramids and Circular Cones 275
Composite Solids 276
Nets of Geometrical Solids 276
Solving Problems Involving Volumes of Composite Solids 277
Copyright © Open University Malaysia
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viii TABLE OF CONTENTS
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Summary 248
Key Terms 248
References 249
Answers 283
Copyright © Open University Malaysia
(OUM)
COURSE GUIDE
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia
(OUM)
COURSE GUIDE xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION
You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
Copyright © Open University Malaysia
(OUM)
HBMT3403 Teaching of Lower Secondary Mathematics Part II is one of the
courses offered by Faculty of Education and Languages at Open University
Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over
8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to learners taking the Bachelor of Teaching (with Honours)
programme, majoring in Mathematics. This module aims to develop
learnersÊ thinking skills so that they can use real mathematical problems in
mathematics teaching practice.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning
independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please ensure that you have the
right course material, and understand the course requirements as well as how the
course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia
(OUM)
xii COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial
3
discussion
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Utilise various teaching styles in mathematics instruction;
2. Create mathematics lesson plans, unit plans and methods of assessment;
and
3. Use available technologies for teaching mathematics.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is presented as
follows:
Topic 1 describes operations on numbers. Developing number sense in
students is an important aim of mathematics instruction. Essential to this goal
is that teachers themselves have good number sense. Analyses such as these
can benefit teachers, curriculum developers and teacher educators. It is also
significant that the integration of authentic mental mathematics activity into an
existing curriculum supports studentsÊ development of number sense without
any of the course content being sacrificed.
COURSE GUIDE xiii
Topic 2 aims for students to understand squares, square roots, cubes and cube
roots. The radical in radical equations can be any root, whether a square root, a
cube root or any other root. Solving radical equations involves mostly the square
roots and cube roots. Thus, most of the examples in this topic use this kind of
radicals. At the end of this topic, some examples dealing with the Pythagorean
Theorem are also provided.
Topic 3 describes algebraic expressions. Upon completion of this topic,
students should be able to apply the relationship between variables involving
the use of symbols instead of numbers. The purpose of this topic is to develop
organisational and analytical processes for algebraic expressions and
equations for use in further education and training.
Topic 4 defines index and its concepts. The first section of this topic focuses
on indices. Students learn how to calculate indices, first with numbers and
then with algebra. They then extend this to find the first two laws of indices
and practise using them to manipulate expressions. In the next section of this
topic, students learn how to use formulas with words and numbers, and then
write their own formulas. They use substitution to find solutions to formulas
and practise their work on indices. The activities involve solving equations by
trial and improvement.
Topic 5 describes linear equations. In this topic, students study linear equations,
with attention to both basic skills and structure, while focusing on the concept of
equality of two quantities. They are exposed to using the language of
mathematics and algebraic properties to define and solve problems.
Topic 6 describes geometrical constructions on numbers. The primary goals
are to teach the informal geometry and measurement method, and to foster an
understanding of how children learn geometry. The students identify and
construct angle-pairs (adjacent, complementary, supplementary and vertical
angles), congruent segments and angles, perpendicular and angle bisectors
of segments, and use a formula to determine the sum of the measures of the
interior angles of a polygon. They also have to draw the two loci and find the
intersection points.
Topic 7 defines coordinates. Our focus in this topic is the application of the
Cartesian plane that relates to the distance and midpoints. The informal
geometry taught in this topic is a foundation that our students need to have to
understand the position of any object in two-dimensional spaces. When the
material is taught well, students find this subject matter to be interesting and
motivating, but when students do not develop an intuitive understanding of the
way our world fits together, that is, an understanding of geometric attributes,
xiv COURSE GUIDE
proportions and relations, they may face difficulty in science, technology, and
mathematics studies later on.
Topic identifies transformation. When students study the history surrounding
8 particular idea such as symmetry, they can get a sense of the excitement
a
that surrounded that particular idea when it was a „hot‰ topic. They also have
to explore line symmetry and rotational symmetry, and identify the properties
of translation and reflection.
Topic 9 talks about circles. Students will use basic circle geometry principles to
solve questions related to circle problems. According to the Chinese philosophy,
the circle is yin. It is a good shape in which to do all kinds of spiritual activities.
It is good for groups to work in circles. In this topic, students have to find the
area of sector, which is part of a circle. They also learn how to derive formulas
related to the circumference and the length of arc of a circle.
Topic 10 describes solid geometry. Physical activities are often used in
classrooms to help students understand abstract concepts such as the volume
and surface area of three-dimensional shapes. This teaching method enables
students to visualise volume and surface area, and investigate nets and cross-
sections for solids of each manipulative. However, numerous studies show that
dynamic geometry software (DGS) such as the Geometer's Sketchpad can be an
effective tool for teaching geometry and suggest that DGS can facilitate the
development of studentsÊ spatial skills.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE
Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise
your study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the
text arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can
continuously gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self- This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations
Check:
throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
COURSE GUIDE x
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various
locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you
come across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered
from the module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time,
engage yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to
analyse, synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This
component helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the
summary, you should be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should
you find points in the summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a
good idea for you to revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful
textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The
list can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the
References section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module.
You are encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the
additional information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of
the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
xvi COURSE GUIDE
REFERENCES
Allyn, J. W. (2005). Introduction to technical mathematics. New York, NY:
Addison-Wesley.
Blair, R. M. (2006).Intermediate algebra. New York, NY: Addison Wesley.
Cheong, Q. L., & Teh, W. L. (2008). Essential mathematics form 2. Petaling
Jaya,
Malaysia: Pearson.
Fleming, W. (1984). College algebra. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall. George, W., & David, E. S. (1913). Solid geometry. Boston, MA:
Ginn.
Kolman, B. (1993). College algebra. Rochester, NY: Saunders College.
Lee, L. M. (2007). Mathematics form 2. Shah Alam, Malaysia: Arah Pendidikan.
Lim, S. H. (2008). Mathematics topical exercise form 3. Shah Alam, Malaysia:
Oxford Fajar.
Swokowski, E. W. (1989). Fundamentals of college algebra. Boston, MA: PWS-
Kent.
Wilder, S. J., Primm, D., & Westwell, J. (2005). Learning to teach mathematics in
the secondary school. London, England: Routledge Falmer.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)
DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books247, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.
Topic
Topi Operations
1 on Numbers
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to teach your students how to:
1. Add and subtract integers by using a horizontal number line or a
vertical number line;
2. Multiply and divide integers by introducing the rules of
multiplication and division of same or like terms and different or
unlike terms of integers;
Perform computations involving combined or mixed operations of
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of directed numbers
(integers, fractions and decimals);
Solve problems involving combined operations of directed numbers including
the use of brackets by introducing the BODMAS rule; and
Solve word problems involving operations on numbers.
INTRODUCTION
We can introduce numbers to students through things that we normally
experience and see in our daily lives. For example, we can start by showing them
the following figures. Figure 1.1(a) shows that water freezes at 0ÀC; Figure 1.1(b)
is a picture of a refrigerator whose temperature is normally around 5ÀC; and
Figure 1.1(c) is a picture of a kettle filled with boiling water at 100ÀC.
2 TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS
(a) Water freezes at 0ÀC (b) Fridges run (c) Water boils
at 5ÀC at 100ÀC
Figure Different temperature
1.1: conditions
Numbers were introduced to students when they were in preschool and lower
primary school. They were introduced small and positive numbers during that
time. Students started to learn and use bigger numbers and negative numbers
during their upper primary and lower secondary school years.
In this topic, we will focus on the basic concepts of adding and subtracting
positive and negative integers by using a horizontal number line or simply
known as number line.
We will also look at the real-life application of using a thermometer to add and
subtract integers. A thermometer can be regarded as a vertical number line as
we normally read it in the vertical position.
We will then introduce the basic concept of multiplying and dividing same or
like and different or unlike terms. This is very important as we will teach
terms
students to solve combined or mixed operations.
Next, we will introduce the BODMAS rule. Students need to understand which of
the arithmetic operations should be done first when solving problems involving
combined operations of directed numbers (integers, fractions and decimals).
Students will be guided to use acalculator to check their answers.
Finally, a glossary which can help students to identify various terms used in
word problems is given at the end of this topic.
TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS 3
Pedagogical Content Knowledge
In the early years of primary school, many students are comfortable with
numbers larger than the suggested size limits indicated at particular levels, but
they need to develop a sound understanding of these larger numbers as well.
These are not meant to be narrowly prescriptive. At the same time, there is a
need for continued work over several years to establish a strong sense of the
nature of whole numbers. This work continues after fractions have been
introduced. At all levels, concepts and skills will be practised and developed
beyond the level of first usage.
Complex calculations involving fractions are limited, but students need to be
familiar with the underlying meaning of fractions and their operations. Students
in the secondary school need to know that whole numbers are only a part of the
family of real numbers. They have to learn about the use of negative numbers in
different situations such as rising and falling temperatures, and stock market
gains and losses.
The use of algorithms for the four operations relies on accurate automatic
response. Teachers will choose from possible algorithms in line with students'
needs. In teaching particular algorithms, teachers should focus on
opportunities for developing the confidence and proficiency of students in
working with numbers. Children's invented methods provide similar
opportunities. Students will also need to make informed choices as to when a
calculator is an appropriate tool for carrying out computations.
1.1 CONCEPT OF INTEGERS
We shall explain the basic idea of integers by using a horizontal number line or
simply known as a number line, as shown in Figure 1.2.
Figure Number line
1.2:
(a) We can see that the number line goes along a horizontal line in two
directions.
4 TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS
(b) Whole numbers greater than zero are called numberspositive integers. These
are to the right of zero on the number line.
(c) Whole numbers less than zero are called negative integers. These numbers
are to the left of on the number line.
zero
(d) The integer zero is neutral. It is neither positive nor negative.
(e) The sign of an integer is either positive (+) or negative (-), except zero, which
has no sign.
(f) Two integers are opposite if they are each of the same distance away from
zero, and on opposite side of the number line. One will have a positive sign
while the other will have a negative sign. In Figure 1.2, (+3) and (-3) are
labelled as opposite.
You can ask your students to give some examples related to integers in their
daily lives.
Example
1.1:
State four real-life situations in which integers can be used:
(a) Spending and earning money;
(b) Increasing and decreasing temperatures;
(c) Stock market gains and losses; and
(d) Increasing and decreasing speed indicated on a car speedometer.
Negative Numbers (Practical Examples)
Negative numbers are used in different situations. For example:
(a) Reading a thermometer;
(b) Parking a car at a basement; and
(c) Bank statements.
TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS 5
Reading a Thermometer
A thermometer is an instrument that is used to measure the temperature of a
place or object. We can consider a thermometer to be a vertical number line
since we normally read a thermometer in the vertical position. When you visit a
doctor, he or she might take your body temperature with a thermometer or you
might have one to measure how hot or cold it is inside your house.
Thermometers come in all shapes and sizes. The digital ones give the
temperature in numbers such as
5ÀC, while with other thermometers, you have to read off the scale � the numbers
along the side. Look at where the liquid inside the thermometer is against the
scale.
Take a look at the thermometers in Figure 1.3 and their readings. What do you
notice about the scales?
Figure Thermometers with different scales
1.3:
Do you notice that the scales on the thermometers are different?
(a) On the first thermometer, the scale is between -3ÀC and 24ÀC, and it goes
up by 1ÀC;
(b) On the second thermometer, the scale is between -6ÀC and 20ÀC, and it
shows only even numbers; and
(c) On the third thermometer, the scale is between -25ÀC and 40ÀC, and it
goes up by 5ÀC.
6 TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS
Buildings
You may ask your students whether they have been in a lift that goes
underground. If they have, they might have noticed the figures or numbers
written at the side of the door of the lift or sometimes on top of the door of the
lift. Ask them to watch and read the figures as the lift goes down. For example,
if the lift starts to move down from the third floor, they will see the numbers
shown on the lift start changing one by one, as follows:
3, 2, 1, 0, -1, -2
„-2‰ indicates the second floor underground or the second basement floor (see
Figure 1.4).
Figure Car parks are often built at the underground of a building
1.4:
Number Lines and Integers
Ask your students to take a look around them and find an example whereby
negative numbers are used to show less than zero.
Examples of negative numbers are:
(a) Temperatures during winter; and Negative numbers are
numbers less than zero!
(b) Altitude below sea level.
Explain to your students that the numbers we call natural numbers are positive
integers (1, 2, 3, �) while the negatives of natural numbers are negative integers.
Positive integers,negative integers and zero form integer numbers.
TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS 7
Ask your students to draw an integer number line such as the one shown in
Figure 1.5:
Figure Integer number line
1.5:
They can think of adding and subtracting as they move along the line.
Moving to the left of zero means a subtraction, but moving to the right of
means an addition will take place. zero
Ask your students to practise all the questions in the following examples.
Example
1.2:
Write an integer to represent each description:
Description Integer
„Ten‰ degrees above zero +10
A loss of „sixteen‰ dollars -16
A gain of „five‰ points +5
„Eight‰ steps backwards -8
Example
1.3:
State the opposite of each integer.
Integer Opposite
-12 +12
+21 -21
-17 +17
+9 -9
Note: A positive integer does not need to have a + sign in front of it. For
example, +3 and 3 are interchangeable.
8 TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS
Comparing the Values of Two Integers
In this subtopic, we will look at how we can help students to solve problems
involving negative numbers.
Increasing and Decreasing Temperatures
The temperature will go up or down depending on changes in the weather. If it
gets warmer, the temperature increases; if it gets colder, the temperature
decreases.
Example
1.4:
When you woke up in the morning during autumn, the temperature could be
3ÀC. By lunchtime, it might go up to 10ÀC. Thus, the temperature would have
increased by 7■C.
Temperature increased by 7■C
Figure
1.6:
Example
1.5:
In the early afternoon, the temperature was 15ÀC. By early evening, the
temperature went down to 12ÀC. Thus, the temperature decreased by 3ÀC (see
Figure 1.7).
Figure Temperature decreased by 3■C
1.7:
But what happens if we have negative temperatures?
TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS 9
Example
1.6:
During winter, the temperature in the early morning could be -3ÀC. By lunchtime,
it might go up to 6ÀC.
From -3ÀC to 0ÀC is
3ÀC.
From 0ÀC to 6ÀC is a further 6ÀC.
The total of 3ÀC and 6ÀC makes
9ÀC.
Thus, the temperature would have increased by 9ÀC (see Figure 1.8).
Figure Temperature increased by 9■C
1.8:
Example
1.7:
In the early afternoon, the temperature was 3ÀC. By early evening, the
temperature went down to -5ÀC.
From 3ÀC to 0ÀC is 3ÀC.
From 0ÀC to -5ÀC is a further 5ÀC.
The total of 3ÀC and 5■C makes 8ÀC.
The temperature decreased by 8ÀC (see Figure 1.9).
Figure
1.9:
Temperature decreased by 8■C
10 TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS
Now, we can use Figures 1.10(a), (b) and (c) for students to compare the
differences in temperature during three different seasons (spring, autumn and
winter).
(a) Spring, 5ÀC (b) Autumn, -4ÀC (c) Winter,
Figure -12ÀC Temperature during three different seasons
1.10:
ACTIVITY 1.1
Guide your students to answer the following
questions.
(a) Write an integer to represent each of these
descriptions:
(i) Earnings of „fifteen‰ Ringgit Malaysia
(ii) A loss of „twenty‰ marks in a maths quiz
(b) What is the opposite of -231?
(c) What is the opposite of +1,096?
1.2 OPERATIONS ON INTEGERS
This subtopic will introduce the common mathematical operations involving
integers.
Addition and Subtraction
Addition
In order to add by using a number line, guide your students to start from the first
number and move towards the with the number of units equal to the second
number. right
TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS 11
The addition of integers by using a number line is shown in the following
examples.
Example
1.8:
Calculate -3 + 5.
Figure Sum of -3 and 5
1.11:
Solution:
Draw a horizontal number line with the scale as shown in Figure 1.11. Start from
(-3) and move 5 units towards the right from it, and you will end up at the
number 2. Hence, the answer is 2, that is, (-3) + (5) = -3 + 5 = 2.
Example
1.9:
Gopal owes his friend Ah Seng RM5. If he has RM6, how much money will he
have left after paying his debt?
Solution:
The problem can be solved using the addition of integers. The debt of RM5 can be
represented by -5 and the money Gopal has can be represented by 6. The problem
becomes: -5 + 6.
Look at the number line in Figure 1.12. If we start at -5 and move 6 units to
the right, we will land on 1. Hence, the answer is 1, that is, (-5) + (6) = -5 +
6 = 1.
Figure Sum of -5 and 6
1.12:
12 TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS
Addition Glossary
In this section, we will introduce some of the terms used in addition. These terms
are normally used in word problems. Students need to be familiar with these
terms (refer to Figure 1.13).
Figure Common terms used in addition
1.13:
For example, 3 + 4 = 7 can be written in different ways as shown in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Words/Terms Used in Addition Statements
Word/Term Statement
Add 3 add 4 is 7.
Altogether Altogether, 3 and 4 make 7.
Increase If you increase 3 by 4, you get 7.
More 7 is 3 more than 4.
Plus 3 plus 4 is 7.
Sum The sum of 3 and 4 is 7.
Total The total of 3 and 4 is 7.
Subtraction
Explain to your students how they can subtract two numbers by using a
number line. They need to draw a number line with an appropriate scale. Mark
the first number on the number line and then move towards the left of it with
the number of units equal to the second number given.
TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS 13
Example
1.10:
Calculate 2 � 4.
Figure The answer is -2
1.14:
Teach your students how to use a number line to obtain the right answer. First of
all, ask your students to draw a horizontal line with the required scale, let us say
from -7 to +7, as shown in Figure 1.14.
Then, ask them to start marking at 2 on the number line. From 2, the students
have to subtract 4. This means they have to move 4 units towards the left of
the number 2. From this operation, the students should see that the number
will end up at (-2), which is the answer, that is, 2 � 4 = -2.
Please emphasise to your students that when they move 4 units from 2 towards
the left, they will end up at -2, which is 2 units from the left of zero.
Subtraction Glossary
In this section, we will introduce some of the terms used in subtraction (refer to
Figure 1.15). These terms are important when dealing with word problems
involving subtraction.
Figure Common terms used in subtraction
1.15:
For example, let us consider the different ways in which this subtraction 8 � 5 = 3
can be written (refer to Table 1.2).
14 TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS
Table 1.2: Words/Terms Used in Subtraction Statements
Word/Term Statement
Decrease If you decrease 8 by 5, you get 3.
Difference The difference between 8 and 5 is 3.
Fewer than 3 is 5 fewer than 8.
Less than 3 is 5 less than 8.
Minus 8 minus 5 is 3.
Reduce If you reduce 8 by 5, you get 3.
Subtract 8 subtract 5 is 3.
Take away 8 take away 5 is 3.
Multiplication and Division
Ask your students to study the following examples and see if they notice any
patterns. Remind them to figure out the rules for the multiplication and division
of integers.
2 (-3) -6 -6 2 -3
-2 3 -6 6 (-2) -3
236
623
-2 (-3) 6
-6 (-2) 3
Based on the examples, when we multiply or divide two integers with same or
like signs, the result is always positive. On the other hand, when we multiply or
divide two integers with different or unlike signs, the result is always negative.
Please refer to Table 1.3.
Table 1.3: Effects of Multiplication on Positive and Negative Numbers
Positive Positive = Positive (+) (+) = +
Negative Negative = Positive (�) (�) = +
Positive Negative = Negative (+) (�) = �
Negative Positive = Negative (�) (+) = �
Note: The same rule applies to division.
TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS 15
The Multiplication/Division Rule:
(a) If the two numbers we are multiplying or dividing have the same signs
(+, + or -, -), then the result will be positive.
(b) If the two numbers we are multiplying or dividing have different signs
(+, - or -, +), then the result will be negative.
Another way of saying this:
SAME SIGNS +
DIFFERENT �
SIGNS
Combined or Mixed Operations of Integers
To perform any computation involving a combined or mixed operation, we
need to introduce the BODMAS rule to the students. The letters in the
acronym BODMAS represent the operations of numbers, as follows:
Brackets
Of
Division
Multiplication
Addition
Subtraction
This rule simply means that the students should:
Step Solve operations in brackets (if they exist). If there is more than one
1: pair of brackets embedded in a problem, students should solve the
operations in the innermost brackets first, followed by the operations
in the outer brackets.
Step Carry out operations involving addition, subtraction, multiplication
2: and division of integers from left to right. When a number has an
addition or subtraction operation on one side, and a multiplication or
division operation on the other side it should be multiplied or divided
first, and be added or subtracted later.
16 TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS
Example
1.11:
Ask your students to do the following exercises and then discuss the answers
with them.
(a) 7 � (-6 + 2) + (-5)
(b) -12 + (-6) � (-3)
(c) 3 (-4) (-2)
(d) 10 (-6) (-12)
(e) -6 + (8 (-2)) 3 + 5
Solution:
(a) 7 � (-6 + 2) + (-5) = 7 + 4 � 5 = 6
(b) -12 + (-6) � (-3) = -12 � 6 + 3 = -15
(c) 3 (-4) (-2) = -12 (-2) = 6
(d) 10
10 ÷ (-6) × (-12) = × (-12) = 10 × 2 = 20
-6
(e) -6 + (8 (-2)) 3 + 5 = -6 + (-4) 3 + 5 = -6 � 12 + 5 = -13
TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS 17
ACTIVITY 1.2
Give the following exercise to your students. Ask them to fill in the
missing numbers. Then, discuss the answers with them.
6 -10 -60
1. 3 -4 -12 11.
-60 6
-12 -4
-6 6 -36 -8 -4
2. 12.
-36 6 32 32
-8
9 10 90
3. 13.
90 10 -6 -10
60 (-6) -10
-10 -1
10 14. 6 -2 -12
4.
10 -10 -2 6
-3 10 -30
5. 15. 24
4
10 -3 24 4 6
5 -1 -5
6. 1 -10
5 16.
-10 1 -10
-1
-2 2 -4 1 4
7. 17.
2 -2 441
-9 -5 8 -40
8. 18.
81 81 -9 8 -5
-9
99
9. 19.
8 8 64 991
64 8
3 -8 -24
10. 20.
-3 7 -21 -24 -8
-21 -3
18 TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS
1.3 FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS
This subtopic will introduce fractions and decimals and show how operations
are performed on these numbers.
Positive and Negative Fractions
Let us start by looking at how fractions can be represented on a number line, as
shown in Figure 1.16.
Figure Representation of fractions on a number line
1.16:
Please note that:
(a) Fractions to the right of zero have
positive values;
(b) Fractions to the left of zero have negative values;
(c) A positive fraction is a fraction with a „+‰ sign and the sign is normally
omitted; and
(d) A negative fraction is a fraction with a „-„ sign.
Ask your students to complete the number line in the following example. Discuss
with them the correct answers after they have completed it.
Example
1.12:
TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS 19
Positive and Negative Decimals
We will now continue with the representation of decimals on a number line.
Example
1.13:
Ask your students to fill in the missing numbers.
To represent a decimal on a number line, divide each segment of the number line
into ten equal parts.
Example
1.14:
Represent 8.4 on a number line.
To represent 8.4 on a number line, divide the segment between 8 and 9 into ten
equal parts.
The arrow is four parts to the right of 8 where it represents 8.4.
Example
1.15:
Represent 8.45 on a number line.
To represent 8.45 on a number line, divide the segment between 8.4 and 8.5 into
10 equal parts.
The arrow is five parts to the right of 8.4 where it represents 8.45.
20 TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS
Example
1.16:
Represent 8.456 on a number line.
To represent 8.456 on a number line, divide the segment between 8.45 and 8.46
into 10 equal parts.
The arrow is six parts to the right of 8.45 where it represents 8.456.
Operations Involving Integers, Fractions and
Decimals
If your students know how to add and subtract whole numbers, then they will
know how to add and subtract decimals. Please remind your students to line
up the terms so that all the decimal points are in a vertical line as shown in
Example 1.17.
Example
1.17:
Find:
(a) 45.12 + 3.71
(b) 48.18 � 3.01
Adding Decimals
To add decimal numbers:
(a) Write the numbers one under the other by aligning decimal points in a
vertical column.
(b) Add each column of digits, starting from the right and working left. If the
sum of a column is more than 10, carry digits to the next column on
the left.
(c) Place the decimal point in the answer directly below the decimal points in
the terms.
TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS 21
Multiplying
Decimals
To multiply decimal numbers:
(a) Multiply the numbers just as if they were whole numbers.
(i) Line up the numbers on the right; do not align the decimal points.
(ii) Starting from the right, multiply each digit in the top number by
each digit in the bottom number, just as with whole numbers.
(iii) Add the products.
(b) Place the decimal point in the answer by starting from the right and
moving a number of places equal to the sum of the decimal places in
both numbers multiplied.
Example
1.18:
Example
1.19:
10 0.6284 = 6.284 (1 zero, 1 space to the right)
100 0.6284 = 62.84 (2 zeroes, 2 spaces to the right)
1,000 0.6284 = 628.4 (3 zeroes, 3 spaces to the right)
10,000 0.6284 = 6,284 (4 zeroes, 4 spaces to the right)
100,000 0.6284 = 62,840 (5 zeroes, 5 spaces to the
right)
Dividing Decimals
To divide decimal numbers:
(a) If the divisor is not a whole number, move the decimal point to the right
to make it a whole number and move the decimal point in the dividend
the same number of places.
(b) Divide as usual. Keep dividing until the answer terminates or repeats.
22 TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS
(c) Put the decimal point directly above the decimal point in the dividend.
(d) Check your answer. Multiply the quotient by the divisor. Does it equal the
dividend?
Example
1.20:
424.9
38
16146.2
152
94
76 � _
186
152 � _
342
342 �
..0
Adding
Fractions
To add fractions:
(a) Change any mixed to improper
numbers fractions.
(b) Find the lowest common multiple (LCM) of the denominators.
(c) Express all fractions with the same denominator.
(d) Add the numerators to obtain the numerator of the answer and then
simplify the fraction, if possible.
fractio
n
(e) Write the answer either as a proper or as a mixed number as
appropriate.
TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS 23
Example
1.21:
3 1
Simplify 1 + 2 .
4 6
Solution:
3 1 7 13 Multiples of 4 are : 4, 8,12,16...
1 +2 = +
4 6 4 Multiples of 6 are : 6,12,18, 24...
6 LCM = 12
21 + 12 4 = 3 and 3 7 = 21
=
26
12
12 6 = 2 and 2 13 = 26
47
= 12
11
= 3 12
Multiplying Fractions
To multiply fractions:
(a) Change any mixed numbers to improper fractions.
(b) Cancel any factors common to both the numerator and denominator.
(c) Multiply the remaining terms in the numerator and denominator.
(d) Write the answer either as a proper fraction or as a mixed number as
appropriate.
Example
1.22:
2 2
Simplify 2 2 .
3 5
Solution:
2
2 2
2 Change to improper fractions
3 is a common factor to the numerator and denominator
3
5
8 12
3
32 5 3 3314
12
5
2
6
5
24 TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS
Dividing
Fractions
To divide one fraction by another:
(a) Change any mixed numbers into improper fractions.
(b) Multiply the first fraction by the reciprocal of the second fraction.
Example
1.23:
a c a d
2 1 In =
Simplify 2 1 . general: b d b c
3 3
Solution:
2
2 1
1 Change mixed numbers to improper fractions
3 4
Change into and invert
3 3
8 4 Cancel any common factors
= 33
8 3
= 34
8 1
= 14
=2
Directed
Numbers
Directed numbers are those numbers that include integers, fractions and
decimals.
Example
1.24:
Ask
solvestudents to 1
5.3 -5 10 .
2
Solution (Change to decimal)
1:
1
5.3 10
-5 2
= 5.3 + -5.5 10
= 5.3 + 5.5
-
10
= 5.3 0.55
= 4.75
TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS 25
Solution (Change to fraction)
2:
1
5.3 + -5 10
2
11 1
11
5.3 + -
20
3 11
5 10 20
53 11
10 20
106 11 95 19 3
= 4
20 20 4 4
The solution for Example 1.24 is as shown above. It is very important to
emphasise to the students the use of the BODMAS rule in computing the
fraction
1
of -5 . This fraction has an addition operation in front of it and a division
2
operation after it. According to the BODMAS rule, division should be conducted
first before addition.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
1
Ask your students to solve 3.5 -2
5
4.
26 TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS
ACTIVITY 1.3
The following are two questions for in-class activity. Please
encourage
your students to form group discussion.
Fill in the blanks.
1.
2.
1.4 WORD PROBLEMS WITH MIXED
OPERATIONS
Once your students have mastered the concepts well, you can gradually
introduce some examples related to directed numbers in our daily lives, that is,
word problems.
Example
1.25:
A diver was diving 118m below sea level. He dived 15m deeper and ascended
40m. How far below sea level was his final position?
Solution:
Initial position = -118m
Final position = -118m + (-15m) + 40m
= -93m
Therefore, his final position was 93m below sea level.
TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS 27
Example
1.26:
During winter, Town B records a temperature of -7ÀC. In summer, the
temperature rises to +33ÀC. What is the difference between the two temperatures?
Solution:
The difference between the two temperatures = 33 � (-7) = 33 + 7 = 40ÀC.
Example
1.27:
The price of 6 pendrives is RM132. Shamsul bought 12 pendrives and paid
RM300. How much money was returned to him?
Solution:
The price of one pendrive = 132 6 = RM22
The price of 12 pendrives = 12 22 = RM264
The amount of money returned to Shamsul = 300 � 264 = RM36
Example
1.28:
1
Mr Koh had RM2,500. He then used of the money to buy some clothes and gave
5
1
of the balance to his wife. How much money did he have
left? 4
Solution:
1
RM2,500 = RM500
5
1 1
(RM2,500 � RM500) = RM2,000 = RM500
4 4
RM2,500 � (RM500 + RM500) = RM1,500
28 TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS
ACTIVITY 1.4
This activity will help your students to develop a greater
understanding of operations on numbers.
(a) The temperature in a freezer was -7.1ÀC. During a power failure,
the temperature rose by 11.3ÀC. An hour later, when the electricity
supply was restored, the temperature dropped by 10.4ÀC. What
was the final temperature of the freezer?
(b) A submarine is situated 800 metres below sea level. If it ascends
250 metres, what is its new position?
(c) Roman civilisation began in 509 BC and ended in 476 AD. How
long did the Roman civilisation last?
(d) In the Sahara Desert, a temperature of 136ÀF was recorded. In the
Gobi Desert, a temperature of 50ÀF was recorded. What is the
difference between these two temperatures?
(e) The Punic Wars began in 264 BC and ended in 146 BC. How long
did the Punic Wars last?
Whole numbers greater than zero are called positive integers, while whole
numbers less than zero are called negative integers.
The positive numbers, the negative numbers and zero together are called
integers.
On a number line, you lef to subtract and you to add.
move t move right
The sum of two negative integers is a negative integer, while the sum of two
positive integers is a positive integer.
TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS 29
If two numbers you are multiplying or dividing have the same signs (+,
+ or -, -), then the result is positive. However, if the two numbers you
are multiplying or dividing have different signs (+, - or -, +), then the
is
negative.
result
Directed numbers include integers, fractions and decimals.
Add Mixed number
Altogether Mixed
operations
Decimal More
Decimal places Move left
Decrease Move
right
Denominator Multiply
Difference Negative integers
Directed numbers Number
line
Divide Numerator
Fewer than Plus
Fraction Positive integers
Greater than Proper
fraction
Improper fraction Reduce
Increase Subtract
Integers Sum
Less Take away
than
Lowest common multiple Total
Minus
30 TOPIC 1 OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS
Cheong, Q. L., & Teh, W. L. (2008). Essential mathematics form 2. Petaling Jaya,
Malaysia: Pearson.
Connie, E. (1996). Fractions. New York, NY: Prentice Hall.
Connie, E., & Jean, R. (1996). Decimals: Addition and subtraction. New York,
NY: Prentice Hall.
Connie, E., & Mary, G. (1996). Whole numbers: Multiplication and division.
New York, NY: Prentice Hall.
Hawking, S. W. (2005). God created the integers: The mathematical
breakthroughs that changed history. New York, NY: Running Press.
Kolman, B. (1993). College algebra. Rochester, NY: Saunders College.
Lee, L. M. (2007). Mathematics form 2. Shah Alam, Malaysia: Arah Pendidikan.
Swokowski, E. W. (1989). Fundamentals of college algebra. Boston, MA: PWS-
Kent.
Topic
Topi Squares,
2 Square Roots,
Cubes and
Cube Roots
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to teach your students how to:
1. State the square, square root, cube and cube root of a number;
2. Determine the squares, square roots, cubes and cube roots of integers
or numbers without using a calculator;
3. Estimate the squares, square roots, cubes and cube roots of numbers;
4. Perform computations involving addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division and mixed or combined operations on squares, square
roots, cubes and cube roots; and
5. Solve word problems involving squares, square roots, cubes and cube
roots.
INTRODUCTION
The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, which is a copy from 1650 BC of an even
earlier work, shows us how the Egyptians extracted square roots. The knowledge
of square and square root was introduced in ancient India as old as the Sulba
Sutras dated around 800 to 500 BC. The square root symbol, , was first used
during the 16th century representing the Latin radix, meaning „root‰. For
example, the method of finding 2 and 3 was found in the Sulba Sutra
composed by Baudhayana, a famous ancient Indian mathematician.
Determination of the cube of large numbers was very common in many ancient
32 TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS
civilisations. Aryabhatta, the ancient Indian mathematician in his famous work
Aryabhatiya, explains the mathematical meaning of cube as the continuous
product of three equals as also the (rectangular) solid having 12 equal edges‰.
Similar definitions can be seen in ancient texts such as Brahmasphuta
Siddhanta, Ganitha Sara Sangraha and Siddhanta Sekhara.
Pedagogical Content Knowledge
It is very important for you to find ways of representing and formulating this
topic to make it comprehensible to your students. At the heart of pedagogical
content knowledge is the manner in which subject matter is transformed for
teaching. This occurs when the teacher interprets the subject matter, finds
different approaches to represent it and makes it accessible to learners.
Knowledge of mathematics and knowledge of mathematical representations are
related to content knowledge, while knowledge of students and knowledge of
teaching are related to pedagogical content knowledge. How you interpret your
studentsÊ misconceptions or misunderstanding of mathematical knowledge is
important. For
example:
(a) What kind of questions can be asked to understand your studentsÊ
misconceptions?
(b) What kind of real-world activity can be carried out to help your students?
The following subtopics will guide you in teaching this topic.
2.1 SQUARE NUMBERS
To help your students to master the square numbers concept, you may guide
them to do the following exercise.
Exercise 2.1:
1. Give each student a piece of paper and a unit square (see Figure 2.1). Ask
them to cut the paper according to the size of the unit square.
A unit square
Figure
2.1:
TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS 33
2. Ask your students the following questions:
(a) What is the length of the unit square?
(b) What is the width of the unit square?
(c) What is the area of the unit square?
3. Now, ask your students to form a bigger square by increasing the length by
one unit square (see Figure 2.2).
A 2 2 square
Figure
2.2:
(a) What is the length of the bigger square? Answer: 2 units
(b) What is the width of the bigger Answer: 2 units
square?
2 2 units square
(c) What is the area of the bigger square? Answer:
(d) How many unit squares form Figure 2.2? Answer: 4
4. Now repeat Step 3 by increasing the length by one more unit square (see
Figure 2.3).
Figure A 3 3 square
2.3:
5. Fill in the following table (refer to Table 2.1). Can you see the
relationship between the number of unit squares and the area of the
squares?
34 TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS
Table 2.1: The Relationship between Unit Squares and Their Areas
Length Width Area Number of
(Unit) (Unit) (Unit2) Unit Squares
1 1 11
Now, fill in the blanks by writing the areas in index form (refer to Table 2.2).
Table 2.2: Different Forms of Writing the Areas of Unit Squares
Area (Expanded Form) Area (Index Form) Number of Unit Squares
11 12 1
12 (one squared), 22 (two squared) and 32 (three squared) are squared numbers.
Based on Table 2.2, you can make a conclusion that „a square number is the
product of a number with itself‰.
Guide your students to see the relationship between a square number and the
area of a square.
Ask them to write the square numbers in general form:
n2nn
Guide your students through the following examples.
Example
2.1:
What are the square numbers of 4, 5, 6 and m?
Solution:
42 44 16
5 2
55 25
6 2
66 36
m 2
m
m
TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS 35
SELF-CHECK 2.1
Find the following square numbers through mental arithmetic:
(a) 72 (b) 82 (c) 92 (d) 102
(e) 112 (f) 122 (g) 132 (h) 142
(i) 152 (j) 162 (k) 172 (l) 182
(m) 192 (n) 202
Check your answers with a calculator.
Note: The square numbers are formed from whole numbers. A square number is
also called a perfect square.
quares of Positive and Negative Numbers
Guide your students to
52 and -5 .
2
find
52 =55 = 25
(-5)2 = (-5) (-5) = 25
What can you conclude from the example above?
Note: Squaring a negative number gives a positive number.
Guide your students to find the values of positive and negative numbers using
Example 2.
Example
2 1 2
2.2:
Find the values
of 3.12 , 4.08 2 , -1.7 , 2 and -1 .
2 3
36 TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS
Solution:
3.12 3.1 3.1 9.61
4.082 4.08 4.08 16.6464
-1.7 -1.7 -1.7 2.89
2
1
2 1 1 1
22 4
2
5 5 25
22 - -
-1
3 3 3 9
Estimate the Squares of Numbers
You need to revise the approximation concept with your students first before
proceeding with this part.
Guide your students to approximate 3.1 to the nearest whole number. Then,
ask them to square the number.
3.1 3 and 32 9
Guide your students to approximate a bigger number to tens, hundreds and
other bigger units.
52.4 50 and 502 2,500
715 700 and 7002 490, 000
Tell your students that a number can also be estimated by determining its
range. Ask them to state the range of 5.4.
is in between 5 and 6.
Ask them to square both 5 and 6 and thus, they may conclude that 5.4 2 is in
between 25 and 36.
TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS 37
SELF-CHECK 2.2
Estimate the square numbers by approximation or by determining the
range:
(a) 6.72 (b) 2.82 (c) 392 (d) 582
(e) 2912 (f) 5122 (g) 1,1032
2.2 SQUARE ROOTS OF POSITIVE NUMBERS
Square roots are seen as the opposite of the squared numbers.
What number multiplied by itself is 1?
What number multiplied by itself is 4?
What number multiplied by itself is 9?
What number multiplied by itself is
16?
You may guide your students to conclude the concept of square roots: A square
root of a number is a number that can be multiplied by itself to give the original
number.
You may also introduce the symbol for square root and ask students to
rewrite the square roots in Figure 2.4. Then, ask students to read it out.
Figure
2.4:
The relationship between a square root and its root
38 TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS
Example
2.3:
1 1 1
The square root of 1 is 1
1
4 2 The square root of 4 is 2
2 2 The square root of 9 is 3
9 3 The square root of 16 is 4
3 3
The square root of 25 is 5
16 4
4 4 The square root of 36 is 6
25 5
5 5
36 6
6 6
1 1 can be written as 1 1 1 2
1
can be written as 2 2 2
2
2
2
2
3 can be written as 3 3
2
3 3
3
Guide your students to get the general n n
form: n 2
n.
Guide your students to use the key on their calculator.
Enter the number and press key; then press the = sign.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
Find the square roots of the following perfect squares without using a
calculator:
(a) 36 (b) 49 (c) 64 (d) 81 (e) 100
(f) 121 (g) 144 (h) 169 (i) 196 (j) 225
(k) 256 (l) 289 (m) 324 (n) 361 (o) 400
TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS 39
By applying the knowledge of perfect square numbers, some square roots of
fractions and decimals can be determined without using a calculator.
Square roots of fractions can be determined by considering the numerator and
denominator. For example,
4
consists of perfect square numerator and denominator.
9
Therefore, the square root can be determined by considering the perfect
squares of the numerator and denominator separately.
2 2
4
2
9 3
3
3
Some square roots of decimals can be written as a product of a decimal with
itself.
0.36 can be written as 0.6
0.6
Therefore, 0.36 0.6 0.6
0.6
Sometimes, the product of two square roots gives a perfect square.
3 27 81 9
0.2 500 100 10
SELF-CHECK 2.4
Find the square roots of the following numbers without using a
calculator:
(a) 0.0025 (b) 2.25 (c) 0.0169 (d) 3.61 (e) 0.0009
4 (g) 144 (i) 289
(f) (h) (j)
25 9 49
49 81
100 121
40 TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS
2.2.1 Estimate the Square Roots of Numbers
Ask your students whether they can find the square root if the number is not
perfect squared? Ask them to suggest methods that they think can solve the
square roots of non-perfect square numbers.
You may introduce the approximation method and determine the range to
estimate the square roots of numbers.
First, ask your students to prepare a square table as shown in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Square Table
Number,
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x
Number,
1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100
2
x
Guide them to estimate the range for 40.
(a) Determine the perfect squares before and after 40.
The perfect square before 40 is 36 and the perfect square after 40 is 49.
(b) Then, determine the range for 40.
6 40 7
Therefore, 40 is between 6 and 7.
You may also guide students to find the answer for 40 using a calculator.
40 =
TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS 41
Example
2.4:
Evaluate the following without using a calculator:
(a) 98 (b) 1.21
72
(c) 37 (d) 18.5
Solution:
7
(a) 98
49 49 36 6
72
36
(b) = 11
1.21 121 = 121 100 = = 1.1
100 10
(c) 36 37 49
Therefore, 37 is between 6 and 7.
(d) 18.5 is between 16 and 25.
16 18.5 25
Therefore, 18.5 is between 4 and 5.
42 TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS
ACTIVITY 2.1
This is fun for your students to try.
1. Given the side and area of this square, discuss why this flow
chart works.
2. So, if the area of a square is given as 81, discuss how to complete
the flow chart.
3. Discuss how to evaluate 62 by using the diagram.
4. Evaluate 8 by using the diagram.
2
TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS 43
5. Ask your students to simplify these expressions:
6
2
(a) (b) 842 (c) 1.92
x
2 2
(d) 0.082 (e) 2.6 (f)
6
2
(g) y 2
y2 22
(h) (i)
2 2 2
2
(j) 44 43 (k) 0.09 (l) mn
6.
What are the lengths of the sides of these
squares?
2.3 CUBES OF NUMBERS
You need to revise the volume of a cube with students before proceeding with
this part. Ask them whether they still remember how to find the volume of a
cube.
asic Concept (Cubes of Positive Numbers)
To help your students to master the cube concept, you may guide them to do the
following exercise.
44 TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS
Exercise 2.2:
1. Group your students and each group will be given 27 cubes (see Figure
2.5).
Figure A unit cube
2.5:
2. Ask your students the following questions:
(a) What is the length of the cube?
(b) What is the width of the cube?
(c) What is the height of the cube?
(d) What is the volume of the cube?
3. Now, ask your students to form a bigger cube by increasing the length,
width and height by one unit (see Figure 2.6).
Figure A 2 2 2 unit cube
2.6:
(a) What is the length of the bigger square?
Answer: 2 units
(b) What is the width of the bigger square?
Answer: 2 units
(c) What is the area of the bigger square?
Answer: 2 2 units square
(d) How many unit squares form Figure 2.6?
Answer: 8
TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS 45
4. Now, repeat Step 3 by increasing the length, width and height by one more
unit (see Figure 2.7).
Figure A 3 3 3 unit cube
2.7:
5. Fill in the following table (refer to Table 2.4). Can you see the
relationship between the number of unit cubes and the volume of the
cube?
Table 2.4: The Relationship between Unit Cubes and Their Volumes
Length Width Height Volume Number of
(Unit) (Unit) (Unit) (Unit3) Unit Cubes
1 1 1 111 1
2
3
Now, fill in the blanks by writing the volumes in index form (refer to Table 2.5).
Table 2.5: Different Forms of Writing the Volumes of Unit Cubes
Volume Volume Number of
(Expanded Form) (Index Form) Unit Squares
111 13 1
13 (one cubed), 23 (two cubed) and 33 (three cubed) are cubed numbers.
Based on Table 2.5, you can make a conclusion that a cube number is the
number multiplied by itself twice.
46 TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS
Guide your students to see the relationship between cube numbers and the
volume of cubes.
Ask them to write the cube numbers in general form:
n3nnn
Guide your students through the following examples.
Example
2.5:
Write the cubes of the whole numbers from 4 to 10.
4 cubed 43 4 64
5 cubed 53 44
6 cubed 63
7 cubed 7 3
8 cubed 83
9 cubed 93
10 cubed 103
You may tell your students that the above numbers are perfect cubes, which are
the cubes of whole numbers.
Cubes of Positive and Negative Numbers
Guide your students to find 43 and (-4)3.
43 44 64
4
-4
3
-4 -4 -4 -64
What can you conclude from the example above?
The cube of a positive number gives a positive number and the cube of a negative
number gives a negative number.
Guide your students to find the values of positive and negative numbers using
Example 2.6.
TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS 47
Example
2.6: 3 2 1
Find the values of 0.5 , -4.2 , 3 and -1
3
.
7 2
Solution:
0.5
3
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.125
4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 74.088
3
2 3 2 2 2 8
7
7 7 7 343
1 3 3 3
27
3 1
2 2 2 2 8
Guide your students to use a calculator to check their answers in Example 2.6.
stimate the Cubes of Numbers
Ask your students whether they still remember how to estimate the squares of
numbers. Do revision if necessary.
Guide your students to approximate 3.8 to the nearest whole number. Now,
ask them to cube the number.
3.8 4 and 43 64
Guide your students to approximate a bigger number to tens, hundreds and
other bigger units.
12.5 10 and 103 1,000
685 700 and 7003 343,000,000
Ask your students to estimate a number by determining its range. Ask them to
state the range of 2.6.
2.6 is in between 2 and 3.
48 TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS
Ask them to cube both 2 and 3 and they can thus conclude that the cube of 2.6 is
between 8 and 27.
SELF-CHECK 2.5
Estimate the following cube numbers by approximation or by
determining the range:
(a) 1.43 (b) 17.83 (c) 393 (d) 1863 (e) 1,2033
2.4 CUBE ROOTS OF NUMBERS
Cube roots are seen as the opposite of the cube numbers.
What number multiplied by itself twice is 1?
What number multiplied by itself twice is 8?
What number multiplied by itself twice is 27?
What number multiplied by itself twice is 64?
What number multiplied by itself twice is
125?
You may guide the students to conclude the concept of cube roots: A cube root of
a number is a number that can be multiplied by itself twice to give the original
number (see Figure 2.8).
The relationship between a cube root and its root
Figure
2.8:
TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS 49
You may also introduce the symbol for cube root 3 and ask students to rewrite
the cube roots in Figure 2.8. Then, ask students to read it out.
1
3
1
3
1 1 The cube root of 1 is 1
3
8 12 2
3
2 2 The cube root of 8 is 2
3
27 3
33 The cube root of 27 is 3
3 3
3
1 1 can be written as
3
1 3 1 3 1 1
3 3
1
1
3
2
2 2 can be written as 3
2 3 2 32 2
3 3
2
3
3 3 can be written as 3
3 3 3 33 3
3 3
3
n
3 3
n
Guide your students to get the general form: 3
n 3
n
3
n
3
Guide your students to use the key on their calculator.
Press 3 key and enter the number; then press the „=„ sign.
SELF-CHECK 2.6
Find the cube roots of the following perfect cubes without using a
calculator:
3 3 3 3 3
(a) 64 (b) (c) (d) (e)
125 216 343 512
By applying the knowledge of perfect cube numbers, some cube roots of fractions
and decimals can be determined without using a calculator.
Cube roots of fractions can be determined by considering the numerator and
denominator. For example,
3
27
consists of perfect cube numerator and denominator.
64
50 TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS
Therefore, the cube root can be determined by considering the perfect cube of the
numerator and denominator separately.
3
27 3 3 3 3
64 3
44 4
4
Some cube roots of decimals can be written as a product of a decimal multiplied
by itself twice.
30.008 can be written as 3 0.2 0.2
0.2
Therefore, 3 0.008 3 0.2 0.2 0.2
0.2
Sometimes, the product of two cube roots gives a perfect cube number.
3
-2 3 3 4
32 -64
3 27 27 3
5 3 3
40 8 2
SELF-CHECK 2.7
Find the cube roots of the following perfect cubes without using a
calculator:
343 25 3 5
(a) 3 0.064 (b) 3
-108 3 (c) 3 (d) 3 - -
2 125 54 4
2.4.1 Estimate the Cube Roots of Numbers
Ask your students whether they can find the cube roots if the numbers are not
perfect cubed? Ask them to suggest methods that they think can solve the cube
roots of non-perfect cube numbers.
You may introduce the approximation method and determine the range to
estimate the cube roots of numbers.
First, ask your students to prepare a cube table as shown in Table 2.6.
TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS 51
Table 2.6: Cube Table
Number,
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x
Number,
1 8 27 64 125 216 343 512 729 1,000
3
x
Guide them to estimate the cube roots of numbers by choosing the nearest
perfect cube.
3 3
4
59 64
Guide your students to determine the range for3 .
59
(a) Determine the perfect cubes before and after 59.
The perfect cube before 59 is 27 and the perfect cube after 59 is 64.
(b) Then, determine the range for 3 .
59
3 3 4
59
Therefore, 3 is between 3 and 4.
59
You may also guide students to find the answer for3 using a calculator.
59
3
59 =
Example
2.7:
Evaluate the following without using a calculator:
1 3
(a) 3 (b)
512 -1.728
Solution:
1 = 1 1
(a) 3 =
3
512 512 8
(b) = - -1.2
12 3
3
-1,728 10
-1.728 3
1,000
52 TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS
ACTIVITY 2.2
Ask your students to solve each of the following and show their
workings on the whiteboard.
1. Discuss why the sides of the cube are 3cm with the aid of the
diagram.
2. Find the sides of these cubes. Volumes are in cm3.
3. Discuss why with the help of the flow diagram, you can easily
find the answer.
4. Simplify the following expressions:
(a) 2
11 (b) 3
113 (c) 3
(d)
3
x3
1.113
2
(f) 4
114 (h)
8
k8
8 8
(g) 2
(e) 84 4
(i) 28
328 (j) n
6n (k) m
11 (l) w
k k
m
TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS 53
5. Discuss how this table helps to show 4 3
110
5.
Number,
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x
Number,
1 8 27 64 125 216 343 512 729 1,000
x3
6.
Discuss why 3 119 must be nearer to 5 than 4.
Let us say if the guess is 4.83 110.592,
then 4.8 3 119 5 .
Continue on to establish if 4.9 3 119 5 .
7. Find these cube roots to one decimal
place:
(a) 3. 3 37 3. (b) 4. 3 77 4.
(c) . 3 95 . (d) . 3 99.8 .
(e) . 3 218 . (f) . 3
991 .
2.5 PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM
Guide your students through the following to discover the relationship of sides
on a right-angled triangle.
Right-angled Triangle (Relationship of Sides)
How do we show the relationship of the sides of a right-angled triangle to the
students? The steps are as follows:
Step Draw a right-angled triangle with the base 3cm and height 4cm.
1:
Step Draw three squares by using the sides of the triangle as shown in
2: Figure 2.9.
54 TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS
Figure Right-angled triangle
2.9:
Step Calculate the area of the three
3: squares. 32 = 9, 42 = 16, 52 = 25
Step Relate the three areas of the right
4: triangle. 9 + 16 = 25 or
32 + 4 2 = 5 2
Step Summarise the above relation using words:
5: In a right-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to
the sum of the squares of the other two sides.
Step Now, tell your students that this is PythagorasÊ Theorem, which was
6: developed by the Greek philosopher Pythagoras. This theorem is
used in everyday situations.
You may also conclude the Pythagorean Theorem by using the name of
the side of a right-angled triangle.
The longest side of the triangle is called the hypotenuse, so the formal
definition of the Pythagorean Theorem is:
(Hypotenuse)2 = (Opposite) 2 + (Adjacent) 2
Step Give a few examples of the Pythagorean Theorem in our daily lives:
7:
(a) Calculate the length of a ladder;
(b) Calculate the height of a building; or
(c) Verify the squareness of an angle.
TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS 55
How to Use the Pythagorean Theorem?
If we know the lengths of two sides of a right-angled triangle, then the
Pythagorean Theorem allows us to find the length of the third side.
It can be done through this equation:
a2 + b2 = c2
Now, your students can use algebra to find any missing value, as in the
following examples:
Examples 2.8(a) and 2.8(b):
a2 b2 c a2 b2 c
2 2
52 12 c 92 b 2 15
2 2 2
25 144 c 2 81 b 2 225
c 2 169 b 144
2
c 169 b 144
c 13 b 12
Pythagorean Triples
Table 2.7 presents some of the Pythagorean triples. Ask your students to use the
Pythagorean Theorem to prove it.
Table 2.7: Sample of the Pythagorean Triples
x 3 5 7 8 9 11 12 20
y 4 12 24 15 40 60 35 21
z 5 13 25 17 41 61 37 29
56 TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS
The Converse of the Pythagorean Theorem
Do you still remember the definition of the Pythagorean Theorem?
In a right-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum
of the squares of the other two sides.
Can you write the converse of the Pythagorean Theorem?
If the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the
other two sides of a triangle, then it is a right-angled triangle.
To prove the converse of the Pythagorean Theorem, guide your students
through the following exercise.
Is ABC a right-angled triangle?
(a) Square the longest side.
(b) Square the other two sides and sum it.
(c) Is the answer in step 1 equal to the answer in step 2?
(d) What can you conclude?
ABC is a right-angled triangle.
(e) Which angle is the right angle?
TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS 57
Word Problems
Now, let us look at some examples of word problems.
Example
2.8:
A square poster of sides 10cm has a 2cm border around it.
Find the total area of the poster with the border.
Solution:
The total area 10 2 10 12 144cm2
2 12
Example
2.9: total length of the edges of a cube is 48m. Find its volume.
The
Solution:
The length of an edge 48 12 4m
Therefore, the volume of the cube 4 4 4 43 64m3
Example
2.10:
A cubic water tank, 6m in length, is half filled with water.
Find the volume of the water.
Solution:
The volume of the water 6 6 6 63 2 108m3
2
Example
2.11:volume of a cube is 729cm3 . Calculate the area of a face of the cube.
The
Solution:
The length of the sides of the cube
3
9cm
729
Therefore, the area of a face of the cube 9 9 92 81cm3
58 TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS
Example
2.12:
The sides of a rectangular photograph are 8cm and 7cm.
Find the length of its diagonal.
Solution:
By using the Pythagorean Theorem,
the diagonal = 82 7 2 113 10.63cm
Example
2.13:
An 18m long ladder is leaned against a wall. The distance of the foot of the
ladder to the base of the wall is 10m. How far up the wall will the ladder reach?
Solution:
By using the Pythagorean Theorem,
the height required 182 14.97m
= 102 224
Example
2.14:
In quadrilateral ABCD, B is a right angle, diagonal AC is perpendicular to
CD, AB = 18, BC = 21, and CD = 14. Find the perimeter of ABCD.
Solution:
From the problem statement, we can construct the following diagram:
By applying the Pythagorean Theorem:
AD AC CD
2 2 2
AC AB BC
2 2 2
Substituting AB BC for AC 2 :
2 2
AD AB BC CD
2 2 2 2
TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS 59
Plugging in the given information:
AD 18 21 14
2 2 2 2
AD 961
2
AD 31
So, the perimeter is 18 + 21 + 14 + 31 = 84
You can give more examples to assist students to develop their mathematical
thinking skills.
ACTIVITY 2.3
The following are some questions for in-class activity. You may divide
the students into groups or have them do individual work.
(a) A ship sails 80km due east and then 18km due north. How far is
the ship from its starting position when it completes its voyage?
(b) A circle passes through the three vertices of an isosceles triangle
that has sides of length 3 and a base of length 2. What is the area
of this circle?
(c) A ladder 7.25m long stands on level ground so that the top end
of the ladder just reaches the top of a wall 5m high. How far is
the foot of the ladder from the wall?
(d) A can of a drink is in the shape of a cylinder with height 15cm
and radius 4cm. What is the length of the longest straw that will
fit inside the can?
(e) A square schoolyard has sides 47m long. Find:
(i) The distance from one corner to the opposite corner correct
to the nearest metre.
(ii) How much further you would walk if you had to follow a
path along two sides instead of cutting across.
60 TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS
The square of a number is that number times itself.
The perfect squares are the squares of the whole numbers.
The square root of a number, n, is the number that gives n when multiplied
by itself.
To cube a number, just use it in a multiplication three times.
The perfect cubes are the cubes of the whole numbers.
The cube root of a positive number is positive and the cube root of a negative
number is negative.
The longest side of a right-angled triangle is called the hypotenuse.
In a right-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the
sum of the squares of the other two sides.
Approximation Perfect
squares
Area Positive
number
Converse Pythagoras' Theorem
Cube Pythagorean triples
Cube Right-angled
root triangle
Estimate Square
Flow diagram Square root
Hypotenuse Volume
Negative Whole numbers
number
Opposite
TOPIC 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS 61
Bright, S. (2005). Maths connect. London, England: Heinemann.
Cheong, Q. L., & Teh, W. L. (2008). Essential mathematics form 2. Petaling Jaya,
Malaysia: Pearson Malaysia.
Davies, C. (1846). The university arithmetic, embracing the science of numbers
and their numerous applications. New York, NY: A.S. Barnes.
Fleming, W. (1984). College algebra. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Kolman, B. (1993). College algebra. Rochester, NY: Saunders College.
Lee, L. M. (2007). Mathematics form 2. Shah Alam, Malaysia: Arah Pendidikan.
Muroi, K. (1988). Extraction of cube roots in Babylonian mathematics. Centaurus,
31(3), 181�188.
Swokowski, E. W. (1989). Fundamentals of college algebra. Boston, MA: PWS-
Kent.
The Rhind mathematical papyrus. (n.d.). Retrieved from
www.math.washington. edu/~greenber/Rhind.html
Topic
Topi Algebraic
3 Expression II
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to teach your students how to:
1. Identify unknowns in algebraic terms in two and more
unknowns;
2. Identify coefficients, and like and unlike terms in algebraic
expressions;
3. Find the product and quotient of two algebraic
terms;
4. Perform multiplication and division involving two or more
algebraic
terms;
5. Simplify algebraic expressions by grouping like terms;
and
6.
Write algebraic expressions for daily life problems.
INTRODUCTION
The history of algebra began in ancient Egypt and Babylon, where people learned
to solve linear (ax = b) and quadratic (ax2 + bx = c) equations, as well as
indeterminate equations such as x2 + y2 = z2 whereby several unknowns are
involved.
Diophantus and other ancient Greek mathematicians of Alexandria continued the
traditions of Egypt and Babylon, but DiophantusÊs book Arithmetica is on a much
higher level and gives many surprising solutions to difficult indeterminate
equations.
TOPIC 3 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION II 63
This ancient knowledge of solutions of equations in turn found a home early in
the Islamic world, where it was known as the science of restoration and
balancing„ (the Arabic word for restoration, al-jabru, is the root of the word
„algebra‰).
In the ninth century, the Arab mathematicianal-Khwarizmi wrote one of the first
Arabic algebras, a systematic exposé of the basic theory of equations, with both
examples and proofs. By the end of that century, the Egyptian mathematician
Abu Kamil had stated and proven the basic laws and identities of algebra and
solved such complicated problems as finding x, y and z such that x + y + z = 10,
x2 + y2 = z2, and xz = y2.
Figure Al-Khwarizmi Figure Page from al-Khwarizmi's „algebra‰
3.1: 3.2:
Pedagogical Content Knowledge
Recently, various research studies show that students have difficulties
recognising structures of algebraic expressions not only at the introductory
level but also later as they take calculus and senior level courses. All
mathematics different approaches creativity
teachers have to fulfil the need and in order to
for
help the students understand algebra as a mathematical language. We have to
guide them to use methods of algebraic manipulation to rearrange and simplify
mathematical expressions and change the subject of a formula. They also have to
use algebraic manipulation to demonstrate the equivalence (identity) or
difference between various mathematical expressions over a specified domain.
Viable pedagogical options are only visible through the lens of true
mathematical understanding. If mathematical difficulties are not removed from
lessons, discussions of pedagogical improvements are meaningless. Great
pedagogy lavished on incorrect mathematics makes bad education. Students
do not learn mathematics when they are taught incorrect mathematics.
64 TOPIC 3 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION II
3.1 ALGEBRAIC TERMS IN TWO OR MORE
UNKNOWNS
Guide your students to recall algebraic terms that they had learned in Form One.
You may use the following example:
Aminah makes the same number of cakes each day. If she makes x cakes every
day, how many cakes can she make in a week?
x here represents the unknown because we do not know the fixed number of
cakes made by Aminah each day.
The number of cakes that Aminah can make in a week is 7 x.
7x represents the unknown in algebraic term.
If the price of each cake is RM y, how much can Aminah earn per week?
The amount Aminah can earn per week = (RM y) 7x
= RM 7xy
7xy is an algebraic term in two unknowns (x and y). The number in front of the
unknown represents the coefficient of the unknown.
Aminah also makes a fixed number of cookies every day. If she makes p pieces of
cookies every day and each cookieÊs selling price is RM q, how much can she
earn per week?
The amount Aminah can earn per week = RM (7 xy + 7pq)
7xy + 7pq is an algebraic expression in more than one unknown.
asic Concept of Algebraic Terms in One or More Unknowns
(Like and Unlike Terms, Coefficients)
Guide your students to recall like terms and unlike terms which they had
learned in Form One. You may go through the following examples with them.
TOPIC 3 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION II 65
Example
3.1:
Which of the following are like terms:
2a, 3c, -5a, 9b, 5b, 8c
Solution:
2a and -5a are like terms because they contain the same unknown a.
9b and 5b are like terms because they contain the same unknown b.
3c and 8c are like terms because they contain the same unknown c.
Example
3.2:
Choose two pairs of unlike terms:
2a, 3c, -5a, 9b, 5b, 8c
Solution:
2a and 3c are unlike terms because they contain different unknowns ( a and c).
-5a and 9b are unlike terms because they contain different unknowns ( a and b).
Introduce to your students that like terms may contain more than one unknown
using the following example.
Example
3.3:
Choose two pairs of like terms and a pair of unlike terms:
3
2rs, pq, 3xyz, -4yxz and 25pq.
5abc, 4
Solution:
3xyz and -4yxz are like terms because they contain the same unknown xyz (xyz = yxz).
3
pq and 25pq are like terms because they contain the same unknown pq.
4
2rs 3
pq are unlike terms because they contain different unknowns (rs and pq).
and 4
Addition and Subtraction of Like
Terms
Remind your students that only like terms can be combined for expressions
involving addition and subtraction.
Example
3.4:
4ab + 5ab = 9ab
4ab and 5ab can be added because the expression consists of like terms with
unknown ab.
66 TOPIC 3 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION II
Example
3.5:
5ab + 8ab + 10cd is an expression consisting of two like terms 5ab and 8ab and
an unlike term 10cd. So, we can simplify the statement 5ab + 8ab + 10cd by
adding like terms, 5ab and 8ab.
5ab 8ab 10cd 13ab 10cd
Example
3.6:
2ab � 3ab + 5ab can be combined because the expression consists of three like
terms with two unknowns ab.
2ab 3ab + 5ab = 4ab
Example
3.7:
1
pqr + 4pq � 10pqr + 6pq is an expression consisting of two like terms with
2
three unknowns. So, we can simplify the expression by combining the like terms.
1 19
pqr + 4pq � 10pqr + 6pq = pqr
2
10pq
2
Example
3.8:
Ask your students to simplify each of the following and then go through the
answers with them:
(a) 8ab 7bc 3ab
(b) 6xy � 3yz � 4xy � 4yz + 5
(c) x 2 9xy 5xy 10
(d) m 2 n 9mn 4mn 6
(e) 3x 2 y 4xy 2 5x 2 y
(f) 6abc 3ab 2abc 4ab
Solution:
(a) 8ab + 7bc � 3ab = 8ab � 3ab + 7bc = 5ab + 7bc (collect like terms)
(b) 6xy � 3yz � 4xy � 4yz + 5 = 6xy � 4xy � 3yz � 4yz + 5 = 2xy � 7yz + 5
(c) x 2 9xy 5 yx 10 x 2 4xy 10
TOPIC 3 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION II 67
(d) m 2 n 9mn 4mn 6 m 2 n 5mn 6
(e) 3x 2 y 4xy 2 5x 2 y 3x 2 y 5x 2 y 4xy 2 8x 2 y 4xy 2
(f) 6abc 3ab 2abc 4ab 6abc 2abc 3ab 4ab 8abc 7ab
Example
3.9:
Ask students to simplify the following expressions:
(a) 8ab 6ba
(b) 5uv 8vu 9uv
(c) 7 gh 12gi 8gh 4gi
Solution:
(a) 8ab + 6ba = 8ab + 6ab = 14ab
(b) 5uv 8vu 9uv 5uv 8uv 9uv 13uv 9uv 4uv
(c) 7 gh 12gi 8gh 4gi 15gh 8gi
SELF-CHECK 3.1
Simplify the following
verbally:
3xyz 5xyz
14mn 9mn
7xy 8xy 5 yz
(d) 12mn 8mn 10
(e) 18uv 12st 13vu
68 TOPIC 3 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION II
Multiplication of Two or More Algebraic Terms
Guide your students to recall the multiplication of two or more algebraic terms
involving one unknown. Tell them that the multiplication of two or more
algebraic terms involving two or more unknowns can be done using the same
method. Guide your students through the following examples.
Example
3.10:
Ask your students to write the following in a simpler form:
(a) 3 wx (b) xy 5
(c) 35 cd (d) 1 pqr
Solution:
(a) 3 wx 3wx
(b) xy 5 5xy
(c) 35 cd 35cd
(d) 1 pqr 1 pqr pqr
Note: In part (d) above, we let 1pqr be pqr. When you see an unknown like pqr
without a coefficient, the number 1 is understood to be the coefficient.
We know that 2 5 5 (Commutative Law for Multiplication). Likewise,
2
xyz 5 5 xyz 5xyz .
Note: When multiplying numbers with unknowns, we always write the
numbers in front of the letters.
Example
2.11:
ab 9 9ab
vw 27 27vw
xyz 100 100xyz
If two unknowns are multiplied together, then the multiplication sign is omitted.
TOPIC 3 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION II 69
Example
2.12:
(a) ab (b) x y xy (c) q p r qpr pqr
ab
(d) r s t (e) k h kh (f) n m nm mn
rst hk
Example
3.13:
Simplify the following expressions:
(a) 25 bc (c) 4 7pq
ab 10
(d) 5xy 9 (e) 6mn 3 (f) -3uv 6w
pq
Solution:
(a) 2 5 ab 10ab
(b) bc 10 10 bc (Commutative Law)
10bc
(c) 4 7pq = 4 7 pq = 28 pq = 28pq (multiply 4 and 7)
(d) 5xy 9 5 xy 9 45 xy (multiply 5 and 9)
45xy
(e) 6mn 3 (multiply 6 and 3)
pq
6 mn 3 pq 18 mn pq 18mnpq
(f) -3uv 6w (multiply -3 and 6)
= -3 uv 6 w = -18 uv w = -18uvw
Note: To simplify an expression involving multiplication, we first multiply the
numbers and then multiply the unknowns of the expression.
70 TOPIC 3 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION II
Example
3.14:
Ask your students to simplify the following expressions:
(a) 3ab 7bc (b) -6p 9qr
(c) 8w (-5yz) (d) -10rs (-4st)
(e) 2m (-5mn) (f) -3pq (-8q)
(g) 3ab 2ab (-6b) (h) -2pq 5q (-4r)
Solution:
(a) 3ab 7bc 21ab 2c (b) -6p 9qr = -54pqr
(c) 8w (-5yz) = -40wyz (d) -10rs (-4st ) 40rs 2t
(e) 2m (-5 mn ) -10m 2n (f) -3 pq (-8q ) 24 pq 2
(g) 3a 2ab (-6b ) -36a 2b (h) -2 pq 5q (-4 r ) 40 pq
2 2
r
SELF-CHECK 3.2
Simplify the following questions:
1. (a) u vw 2. (a) -2c 3de
(b) cd de (b) 7hg (-4fg)
(c) g fg (c) -mn (-5mn)
(d) kh ij (d) 3v (-2w) vw
(e) ac ab ad (e) 10gh g (-6fg)
(f) pqr p pq (f) -4q 8pq (-2pq)
TOPIC 3 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION II 71
Division of Two or More Algebraic Terms
If x pieces of RM10 note were divided evenly between two boys, each boy would
receive RM5x. This can be written as:
(RM10 x) 2 = RM5x
Similarly,
36r 6 6r
45r 5 9r
54r 9 6r
84r 7 12r
You may write the algebraic division as:
10rs 2
10rs
2
5rs
So, when an algebraic term is divided by a number, the divisor is divided into
the coefficient of the unknown.
Now, ask your students to simplify the following:
Example
3.15:
(a) 15ab 3 (b) 42mn 6
(c) 54 pq (d) 72rs (-
6
4)
Solution:
15ab 42mn
(a) 15ab 3 5ab (b) 42mn 6 7mn
3 6
54
(c) pq 9 pq (d) 72rs (-4) -18rs
54 pq 6 72rs
6
-4
72 TOPIC 3 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION II
Example
3.16:
24 pq
Simplify .
9
Solution:
24 pq
9 Divide the numerator and denominator by 3
8
pq
3
8 pq 8
Note: The coefficient of pq in the expression is , and we can write it as
3 3
2
2 . However, it is customary in algebra to leave the term in the improper
3
fraction form.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Ask your students to simplify each of the
following:
1. (a) 16xy 7xy 2. (a) 15xy � 7yx
�
(b) 12wv 5vw (b) 2ab 9ab 7ba
(c) 13xy 5xy 8 yz (c) 14 pq 3qp 8 pq
(d) 14vw 9vw 4wz (d) 19mn + + 7mn
4ab
3. (a) 6abc 3abc 4. (a) 54xy 9
(b) ab (- 35def
(b)
-7d
3cd)
(c) 5mn -2np mq (c) 56abc 72
(d) 9fg 2hj 36wx
(d)
27
-4ef
1
(e) - qr 12
pqr (-5qr ) 3
TOPIC 3 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION II 73
3.2 OPERATIONS ON ALGEBRAIC
EXPRESSIONS
Revise the Distributive Law with your students before you proceed with the
following activities.
Multiply or Divide Algebraic Expressions by a Number
Consider the expression a(b + c).
This expression represents the area of a rectangle of length b + c and width a. So,
this expression can be represented as:
This can be split up into two parts as follows:
Thus, the sum of the areas of the rectangles = ab + ac.
This suggests that: a(b c ) ab ac . This is called the Distributive Law.
Ask your students to practise answering all the questions in the following
examples by using the Distributive Law. Discuss the solutions with them.
74 TOPIC 3 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION II
Example
3.17:
Expand:
(a) 3(xy + 7z) (b) 5(xy + 6yz)
(c) 6(yz � 9x) (d) 4(abc 8d )
Solution:
(a) 3(xy + 7z) = 3xy + 21z
(b) 5(xy + 6yz) = 5xy + 30yz
(c) 6(yz � 9x) = 6yz � 54x
(d) 4 abc 8d 4abc 32d
Example 3.18:
Expand and simplify:
(a) 5(3 xy ) 7(xy 3) (b) 4(xy 3z ) 2(xy 4z
)
(c) 7 2 3xy 5 xy 4 (d) -4(xy + 6yz) � 2(3xy �
7)
Solution:
(a) 5(3 xy ) 7(xy 3) (Use Distributive Law)
= 15 5xy 7xy 21 (Add like terms)
= 2xy 36
(b) 4(xy 3z ) 2(xy 4z ) (Use Distributive Law)
= 4xy 12z 2xy 8z (Add like terms)
= 6xy 4z
(c) 7 2 3xy 5 xy 4 (Use Distributive Law)
= 14 21xy 5xy 20 (Add like terms)
= 26xy 6
(d) -4(xy + 6yz) � 2(3xy � 7) (Use Distributive Law)
= -4xy � 24yz � 6xy + 14 (Add like terms)
= 14 10xy 24 yz
TOPIC 3 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION II 75
Algebraic fractions are fractions where the numerator and the denominator
consist of algebraic expressions. Guide your students to simplify the following
fractions.
Example
3.19:
Simplify each of the following fractions:
9 pq 6r 5xy
3x
(a) (b)
3 5
Solution:
9 pq
(a)
6r 3
9 pq 6r Divide each term in the numerator by 3
3 3
= 3pq � 2r
3x 5xy
(b)
5
3x 5xy
= 5 5
3
= x xy
5
Mixed Operations
The following examples and activities provide the proper steps to solving
problems with mixed operations.
Algebraic fractions are added or subtracted in the same manner as numerical
fractions.
76 TOPIC 3 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION II
Example
3.20:
a 3b 2a 3b
3 5
5 a 3b 3 2a 3b
35 53
5a 15b 6a 9b
15
11a 24b
15
Example
3.21:
2w 7x
2w 6x
3x 9x
3 2w 7 x 2w 6 x
3 9x
3x
2w 6 x
6w 9x
21x
9x
6w 21x 2w 6x
9x
6w 21x 2w 6x
9x
4w 15x
9x
15x
4w 9 x
9x
5
3
4w
9x
TOPIC 3 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION II 77
Example
3.22:
x y 3x y 7(2x 4)
2 5 6
15(x y ) 6(3x y ) 5 7(2x
4) 2 15 5 6 65
15x 15 y 18x 6 y 70x 140
30 30 30
15x 15 y 18x 6 y (70x 140)
30
15x 15 y 18x 6 y 70x 140
30
-37x 9 y 140
30
Example
3.23:
10 pq 5r
5
5(2 pq r )
5
2 pq r
Example
3.24:
3x 15xy
6xz 3x
3x 6xz
3x 15xy 3x
3x
1 5 y 2z
78 TOPIC 3 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION II
Example
3.25:
x ( y 3) 2( y 3)
Simplif .
y y 3
Solution:
You can split the sum and reduce each fraction separately:
x ( y 3) 2( y 3) x ( y 3) 2( y 3)
y3 y3 y 3 x2
or
The numerator has a common factor y + 3. Therefore, factorise the numerator
and simplify:
x ( y 3) 2( y 3) ( y 3)(x 2)
y 3 y3 x2
Example
3.26:
Simplify 9 � 3[xy � (3xy + 2)] + 4.
Solution:
9 � 3[xy � (3xy + 2)] + 4
= 9 � 3[xy � 3xy � 2] + 4
= 9 � 3[-2xy � 2] + 4
= 9 � 3[-2xy] � 3[-2] + 4
= 9 + 6xy + 6 + 4
= 6xy + 19
Example
3.27:
Simplify 5 + 2 { [3 + (2ab � 1) + ab] � 2}
Solution:
Work carefully from the inside out:
5 + 2 { [3 + (2ab � 1) + ab] � 2}
= 5 + 2 { [3 + 2ab � 1 + ab] � 2}
= 5 + 2 { [2ab + ab + 3 � 1] � 2}
= 5 + 2 { [3ab + 2] � 2}
= 5 + 2 {3ab + 2 � 2}
TOPIC 3 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION II 79
= 5 + 2 {3ab }
= 5 + 6ab
= 6ab + 5
ACTIVITY 3.2
Ask your students to simplify each of the following and then go
through the answers with them.
1. Simplify:
(a) xy + 2(xy + z) (b) -5(x + 2yz) + 2(yz �
3x )
1
(c) yz � 3(yz � (d) xy 3 4
z) 3
xy
(e) xyz yxz 8zyx (f) xyz 6x 7 4 xyz
(g)
2x yz 7 xy x
2 2
10 y 2 2z 3
(h)
2.
yz
Simplify: x2
-10 pq (3 pq 8ab 16abc
(a) (b)
64bc
)
4b
-5 pq
2x 5 yz 2 yz 2xy 8
(c) (d) 2(4xy 3 yz )
x yz
3 2
2
3.3 WRITE ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
Ask your students to do the following exercises. Explain to them that the
problems can be solved by using algebraic expressions.
80 TOPIC 3 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION II
3.3.1 Write Daily Life Problems in
Algebraic Expressions
In the following, you will find examples of daily life problems written in
algebraic expressions.
Example
3.28:
Kasma ordered 5 packets of rice and 10 packets of milk from ABC Provision
Store. The owner was not in and Helmi took the order. He did not know the
prices of the items, so he represented the price of milk and the price of rice with
RM m and RM r, respectively. Write the algebraic expression for the amount paid
by Kasma.
Solution:
5r + 10m
Example
3.29:
The length of the side of a square paddock is x m. If one side of the paddock is
lengthened by 8m and the adjacent side is shortened by 3m to change it to a
rectangular paddock, write the algebraic expression to represent the:
(a) Perimeter of the rectangular paddock
(b) Area of the rectangular paddock
Solution:
l x 8 m
w x 3 m
TOPIC 3 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION II 81
(a) Perimeter (b) Area
= 2l + 2w = lw
= 2(x + 8) + 2(x � 3) = (x + 8) (x � 3)
= 2x + 16 + 2x � 6 = x 2 � 3x + 8x � 24
= 4x + 10 = x 2 + 5x � 24
Example
3.30:
A square picture is fixed in the middle of a square picture frame, as shown in the
diagram. If the width of the border is x cm, express:
(a) The length, l cm, of the frame in terms of x.
(b) The area, A cm2, of the frame in terms of x.
Solution:
l x 17
(a)
x
17 2x
Al 2
(b) (17 2x )2
289 68x 4x 2
82 TOPIC 3 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION II
ACTIVITY 3.3
The following are some questions for in-class activity. Encourage your
students to form class discussion.
(a) A rectangular pictureÊs length and width dimensions are both
equal to a whole number of centimetres, and its rectangular
frame is 2 centimetres wide. If the area of the picture and the
area of the frame are equal, find:
(i) l in terms of w
(ii) The dimensions of the picture
This question has more than one answer. Explain.
2. Answer the following based on this diagram:
(i) Express the width of the shaded rectangle in terms of x and
y.
(ii) Express the area of the shaded rectangle in terms of x and y.
TOPIC 3 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION II 83
(iii) If the area of the shaded rectangle is equal to 16 square metres,
16
show that x y.
y
Find an expression for the area, A, of the square ABCD in terms
of y.
If y = 16, find the area of the square ABCD.
Discuss with your colleague other activities related to daily life that
can help your students to apply their mathematical knowledge.
An expression is a combination of mathematical terms using operations
such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, brackets, powers
and roots.
The unknown quantity or quantities are represented by letters that are
known as unknowns.
The number in front of the unknown is called coefficient.
Terms with the same unknown or unknowns are called like terms.
Terms that do not have the same unknowns are called unlike terms.
Algebraic expressions containing like terms may be simplified by adding
or subtracting the like terms.
Any two like or unlike terms can be multiplied.
When a number divides an algebraic term, the divisor is divided into the
coefficient of the unknown.
84 TOPIC 3 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION II
Addition I Like
terms
Algebraic Mixed
term operations
Coefficient Multiplication
Commutative Law Numerator
Denominator Subtraction
Distributive Terms
Law
Divisor Unknown
Expression Unlike terms
Fraction
Allyn, J. W. (2005). Basic technical mathematics. New York, NY: Addison-Wesley.
Cheong, Q. L., & Teh, W. L. (2008). Essential mathematics form 2. Petaling
Jaya, Malaysia: Pearson.
History of algebra. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.algebra.com/algebra/about/
history
Kaput, J. (1999). Teaching and learning a new algebra . In E. Fennema & T.
Romberg (Eds.), Mathematics classrooms that promote understanding .
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Lee, L. M. (2007). Mathematics form 2. Shah Alam, Malaysia: Arah Pendidikan.
Lowe, I., Kissane, B., Willis, S., & Johnston, J. E. (1994). Access to algebra:
Book 3.
Carlton, Australia: Curriculum.
Topic
Topi Index
4
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to teach your students how to:
1. Express repeated multiplication as an index notation, an and vice
versa;
2.
Express numbers in index
3.
notation; Use all the laws of
4.
indices;
Perform multiplication, division, raising to a power or a combination
of these operations on several numbers expressed in index
5. notation; and
Perform combined operations of multiplication, division and raising
to a power involving positive, negative and fractional indices.
INTRODUCTION
Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad ibn al Husayn al-Karaji (or al-Karkhi) (c. 953 in Karaj
or Karkh � c. 1029) continued the work of al-Khwarizmi on algebra, focusing
on the inclusion of techniques of arithmetic in algebra. He developed a
method of
1
naming the powers x n and their reciprocals
. Once this was established, he
xn
worked on the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of polynomials.
Abu Bakr al-Karaji was a 10th century Persian Muslim mathematician and
engineer. His three major works were al-BadiÊ fiÊl-hisab (Wonderful on
Calculation), al-Fakhri fiÊl-jabr waÊl-muqabala (Glorious on Algebra), and al-
Kafi fiÊl-hisab (Sufficient on Calculation).
86 TOPIC 4 INDEX
Al-SamawÊal furthered the study by introducing negative coefficients. To aid in
the multiplication of polynomials which requires the law of exponents, he
developed a table, as shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Al-SamawÊalÊs Use of the Law of Indices/Exponents
He used this to explain the law of exponents, xnxm = xn+m. The distance of the
order of the product of the two factors is equal to the distance of the order of
the other factor from the unit. If the factors are in different directions, we count
from the order of the first factor towards the unit; but if they are in the same
direction, we count away from the unit. Hence, to multiply x2 by x3, count 3
orders to the left of x2 and you will get x5.
Pedagogical Content Knowledge
When a number is to be multiplied by itself, a power or an index can be used to
write this compactly. The plural of index is indices. Please remind your
students how this is done and state a number of rules or laws which can be
used to simplify expressions involving indices.
You have to assist students with selected examples to develop their
mathematical thinking skills. The activities do not test the whole of their skills,
but focus on concepts that tend to be particularly challenging to students or
that are otherwise critical to mastering the topic. You have to encourage your
students to include the activities as a regular part of their study. Please also
invite your colleagues to make use of the activities in their preparation and
teaching. At times, a fresh look at an algebraic process or problem that
includes a verbal explanation can help students achieve a better
understanding of an important concept.
4.1 CONCEPTS OF INDEX NUMBERS
In this subtopic, we will look at the basic concepts of an index or exponent.
We will also introduce the laws of indices and provide appropriate examples of
using these laws in solving indices computations that include combined or
mixed operations problems.
TOPIC 4 INDEX 87
Index
Form
You can begin a class by explaining the following:
We know that:
8 8 = 64
The product 8 8 can be written as 82.
64 8 8 82
You can further explain to your students that 8 8 is known as the expanded
index
form
form (or factor form) of 64 and 82 is known as the of 64. Generally,
when a number is multiplied by itself any number of times, the expression is
simplified by using the index notation.
For example, 53 555
53 125
Note:
Refer to the following example:
(a) 2 is called the base.
(b) 3 is called the index or power (or exponent) because it indicates the power
to which the base, 2, is raised.
(c) 8 is the basic numeral (or number).
(d) 23 is read as 2 to the power 3 or simply 2 cubed.
That is:
You can ask your students to represent numbers in base 3, 4, 5, etc.
88 TOPIC 4 INDEX
Example
4.1:
Write 343 in index form using base 7.
Solution:
343 7 7 7 73
Example
4.2:
Write 16 in index form using base 2.
Solution:
16 2 8 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 24
The Laws of
Indices
Ask your students to recall the following laws of indices:
1. m
a a
n
m n
a
m
2. a mn
a
n
a
3. a m n
a
mn
4. ab n ab
n n
n
a n
5. a for b 0
b b
n
1
6. n
a n
a
m
7. n m
an a
8. If a
m n
a , then m n
9. If a
m m
b , then a b
TOPIC 4 INDEX 89
asic Concepts of Repeated Multiplication and Index Notation
These examples and activities introduced to Form 2 students show that there
are several ways of representing numbers and the relationship between
numbers. How would you encourage your students to develop their ability to
make comparisons of quantitative information?
Ask your students to practise answering all the questions in the following
examples. After some time, discuss the solutions with them.
Example
4.3:
Write 43 as a number.
Solution:
43 4 4 4 64
Note the following:
(a) 64 = 43.
(b) 3 is the power (or index or exponent).
(c) 4 is the base number.
(d) 64 is the basic numeral or number.
(e) 43 is the index (or power form) of 64.
form
(f) 4 4 4 is the expanded form of 64.
(g) For 64 = 4 4 4 = 43, the base number 4 appears three times as a factor of
the basic numeral (or number) 64.
(h) 43 is read as 4 to the power 3 or simply 4 cubed.
Example
4.4:
Write each of the following expanded forms in index form:
(a) 2 2 2 2 (b) (-3) (-3) (-3)
(c) 6 6 6 6 6 (d) 8 8 8 8 8
8
90 TOPIC 4 INDEX
Solution:
(a)
2 2 2 2 24 (b) (-3) (-3) (-3) (-3)3
(c)
66666 (d) 8 8 8 8 8 8 86
65
Example
4.5:
Write each of the following in expanded form:
(a)
106 (b) (0.2)5
1 3
(c) (-9) 4
(d)
2
Solution:
(a) 106 10 10 10 10 1010
(b) (0.2)5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
(c) (-9)4 = (-9) (-9) (-9) (-9)
1 1 1 1
(d) 3
2 2 2
2
Example
4.6:
Find the values for the following:
(a) 32 (b) 54
(c)
(1.2)2 (d) (-4)3
Solution:
(a)
32 3 3 (b) 54 5 5 5 5 625
9
(c) (1.2)2 1.2 1.2 (d) (-4)3 (-4) (-4) (-4) -64
1.44
TOPIC 4 INDEX 91
Example
4.7:
Write 32 in index form using base 2.
Solution:
32 2 16
224
2222
24
Example
4.8:
Write the following numbers as a product of prime factors:
(a) 40 (b) 56
(c) 270 (d) 6,930
Solution:
(a) 40 (b) 56
2 20 2 28
2 2 10 2 2 14
2225 2227
23 5 23 7
(c) 270 (d) 6,930
2 135 2 3, 465
2 3 1,155
2 3 45
2 3 3 385
2 3 315 2 3 3 5 77
23357
2 3 3 3 5
11
2 33 5 2 32 5 7
11
92 TOPIC 4 INDEX
Computations Involving Multiplication and Division of
Numbers in Index Notation (Simplify Algebraic
Terms)
In the following sections, let us consider the six laws of indices.
Index Law for
Multiplication
The first one is index law for multiplication.
Thus, consider the product 23 24.
We know that:
23 2 2 2
24 2 2 2 2
2 3 24 2 2 2 2 2
22
27
There are seven 2s multiplied together
34
2
Point out to your students that in general:
am an am n
Explain that this formula tells us that when multiplying powers with the same
base, we add the indices.
Elaborate further that this is the first index law and is known as the Index Law
for Multiplication.
Example
4.9:
Ask your students to simplify each of the following and then go through the
exercises with them:
(a) 3 4 2 5
23 (b) a2 (c) 2p q 3p q
25 a7
TOPIC 4 INDEX 93
Solution:
(a) 23
25
35
a m
a n a mn
2
28
(b) a2
a7
a m
a n a mn
a
27
a9
(c) 3 4 2
2p q 3p q
a
5
m
a n a mn
2 3 p 3+2q
4+5
6 p 5q 9
Note:
Please emphasise to your students that the numerical coefficients should be
multiplied first, before applying the index law.
In this section, we will also teach students to use the calculator to check their
answers. But we must emphasise to them that the calculator is meant for
checking only. It is very important for them to be able to solve all the given
problems manually and show all the steps towards getting the final answers.
Index Law for Division
Explain this law by using the following example:
Consider the 26
.
division 2
3
We know that:
26 2 2 2 2 2 2
23 2 2 2
63
6 22222 2
2
2
23 222
222
23
There
are three 2s
multiplied
together
94 TOPIC 4 INDEX
Explain to your students that in general:
am a m n
an
Explain further that this formula tells us that when dividing powers with the
same base, the index in the denominator is subtracted from the index in the
numerator.
Tell them that this is the second index law and is known as Index Law for
Division.
Example
4.10:
Ask your students to do the following exercises:
5
(a) 6
52 a10 b4b5
(b) (c)
a5 b3
4 3
(d) 2p q 9p x 5y x 3y 6
(e)
2 4
q 7 5 7
x y
12 p 5q 4 x 2y
4
Solution:
(a)
56
am
5 2
62
m n
4
5
(b)
a10
105
a
m
m n
a
5
a n a
5 a
a
TOPIC 4 INDEX 95
(c) b4b
5
3 mn m n
b 45
b
b3 a a a
b9
b3 am
m n
93
b 6
(d) 4
2p q 9p q
3 2 4
12 p 5q 4
342
9 p 42q a m
a n a mn
12 p 5q 4
18 p 6q 7
12 p 5q 4
18 65 7 4 am m n
p
q
12 n a
a
3
pq 3
2
(e)
x 5y
7 6 x 3y x 5y 7 x 5y 7
(Change to and invert the second fraction)
x 2y 4 x7 5 y x4 2 y x6 3 y
x 55 y 7 7
23 46
x y a m n
a a
m n
x 10 y 14
x 5 y 10
105 1410
am m n
x y 5 4
96 TOPIC 4 INDEX
Computations Involving Mixed Operations of
Numbers in Index Notation
Let us begin this subtopic by attempting to solve a few equations:
Example
4.11:
Simplify each of the following:
4 2 3 7
25 29
(a) 3 (3 ) 3 (b)
(23 )4
(2 p 3 )4 (q 5 )2
(c) 53 (5 4 )2 (d)
57 8q 7
Solution:
(a) (b) 25 29
34 (3 2 )3
37 (23 )4
34 36 37
259
12
3467 2
33 21412
27
22 4
(c) 3 4 2 7
(d) (2 p 3 )4 (q 5 )2
5 (5 ) 5
8q 7
5 5
3 8
57 16 p 12 q 10
8q 7
5387
54
16 12 107
p q 2 p 12q 3
625 8
TOPIC 4 INDEX 97
ACTIVITY 4.1
4.2 PERFORM COMPUTATIONS INVOLVING
RAISING
Ask your students toNUMBERS AND
simplify each of the ALGEBRAIC
following and show their
TERMS IN INDEX NOTATION TO A
workings on the whiteboard:
(a)
POWER
2e 3f (-5e ) f
6 2 3
(e)
3 5
2x y 3x y
5
4
7 4 3
x y
We will begin this subtopic by looking at multiplication 4xand
6
y division in
algebraic terms. p q3p
2 8
(b) 3x 4 6 y 7 2x 4 (f) 5 3
q
y3
Multiplication and Division of Algebraic 9Terms
p 7q 5
(c) 42 (4 3 )4
46
Index Law for Powers
Begin teaching3 your5
students by asking them to consider the power of a power
3 2
(2 ) .
(a 2 )4
We know that:
23 2 2 2
(23 )2 (2 2 2)2
22222
2
There are six 2s multiplied together
26
232
98 TOPIC 4 INDEX
Point out to your students that in general:
m n mn
(a ) a
Explain to them that this formula tells us that when a power of a number is
raised to another power, we multiply the indices.
Make known to the students that this is the third index law, which is known as
Index Law for
Powers.
Example
4.12:
Give the following exercises to your students:
(a) (52 )3
(b) a 6 a 4
(x 2 )7
(c)
x8
(d) (k 5 )3 (k 4 )2
Solution:
(a) (b) a6a4
(52 )3
523 a 64
56 a2
(c)
( x 2 )7 x (d) 5 3 4 2
14
(k ) (k )
8
x x8 k 15 k 8
x
148 k 158
x6 k 23
Note: Emphasise to your students that the brackets must always be removed first.
TOPIC 4 INDEX 99
Index Law for Powers of
Products
Consider the power of product (2 3)2 .
We know ab
(d) that:
(2 3)2 (2 3) (2 3)
211 311
22 32
Inform your students that in general:
(ab )n a n b n
Explain to them that this formula tells us that when a product is raised to a
power, every factor of the product is raised to the power.
Point out that this is the fourth index law and is known as the Index Law for
Powers of Products.
Example
4.13:
Simplify each of the following:
2 3 4
(a) (a b )
3 4 3
(b) (3a b )
(2x 4 y )2 (xy 2 )3
(c)
(6x 2 y 3 )2
Solution:
(a) (a 2b 3 )4
(a 2 )4 ( b 3
(a m
)n amn
)4
a8b12
(b) (3a 3b 4 )3
33 (a 3 )3 (b 4
(ab ) n
anbn
)3
27a 9b 12
100 TOPIC 4 INDEX
(c) (2x 4 y )2 ( xy 2 )3 2 2 ( x 4 ) 2 y 2 x 3 ( y 2 )3
(6x 2 y 3 62 (x 2 )2 ( y 3
)2 )2
4x 8 y 2 x 3 y 6 am
36x 4 y 6 m n
1 x 411 y6 8 n a
9x y
a
1 114 86
x y
9
1
x7y2
9
Index Law for Powers of
Quotients
You can start teaching your students the power of quotients by showing the
following:
5 3
Consider the power of quotient .
6
We know that:
5
3 5 5 5
6 6 6
6
55
566
6
53
63
Point out to your students that in general:
n
a an for b 0
b bn
Explain to them that this formula tells us that when a quotient is raised to a
power, both the numerator and denominator are raised to the same power.
Additionally, explain to them that this is the fifth index law and is known as
Index Law for Powers of
Quotients.
TOPIC 4 INDEX 101
Example
4.14:
Ask your students to complete these exercises:
2 2 3
(a) a
3
(b) 3x (c) 2 p2 p
b
2y 3q q
Solution:
(a) 3a a n a n
n
b b
a3
3
b
(b) (b) a a n
3 x 2
n
n
2y b b
(3x )2
(2 y )2
2
32 x
2 y 2
ab n
a nb
n
2
9x 2
4y2
(c) 22 p 2 p
3
3q
q
4p4 p3 n a a n
9
3q 2 q n
b b
4p4 q
3
change into
2 3
9q p
4 43 32 am
m n
p q n a
9
b
4
pq
9
102 TOPIC 4 INDEX
Multiplication Involving Negative and
Fractional Indices (Laws of Indices)
Let us begin this subtopic by looking at negative indices.
Negative Indices
We know that:
8 1
23 8 4
4 2 1
22 4 2
2 1 2
21 2 1
1 2
20 1 1
1
1
21 2 2
2 1 1 1
2
1 2 2 2
22
22 1 1 1
2 3
1 2 2 2
23
23 1
1 3 1 14
24 2 2 2
24
Inform your students that in general:
(ab )n a n b n
Explain to them that this formula tells us that the sign of the index changes
when we write the number as a fraction.
Point out to your students that this is the sixth index and is known as Index
Law for Negative law
Exponents.
TOPIC 4 INDEX 103
Example
4.15:
Ask your students to express each of the following in the positive index form:
(a) 7
53 (b) k
Solution:
(a) 1 1
53 (b) k 7
53 k7
Example
4.16:your students to express each of the following in the negative index form:
Ask
1
(a) (b) 1
5
8 p12
Solution:
(a) 1 5 (b) 1
8 p
12
85 p 12
Example
4.17:
Simplify the following expression:
-3x 1
y
2 2
Solution:
More than one method can be used to solve this problem, as follow:
Say, I can either take care of the squaring outside, then simplify inside or I
can simplify inside and then take the square through. Either way, IÊll get the
same answer. To prove this, IÊll show both ways.
Simplifying First Squaring First
2
-3x
2 -3 y 2 -3x 1
y 2 (-3)2 x 1
2 2
y 2
1
y 2
x 2
(-3)2 y 2
2
9x 2 y 4
(x )2 9y4
4
9y x2
2
x
104 TOPIC 4 INDEX
Example
4.18:
Simplify the following expression: (-5x �2y)(-2x �3y 2 )
Solution:
Show your students that there are two methods to solve the problem. We can
either multiply first and then do the negative exponents or handle the
exponents and then multiply fractions. We will show both ways.
Multiplying First Doing the Exponents First
-5x 2
-2x y
y 3 2
-5x 2
y -2x 3
y2
(-5 -2) x x yy
2 3 2 -5 y -2 y 2
2 3
5 x x
10x y3
(-5 -2)( yy 2 )
10 y 3 (x 2x 3 )
x5 3
10 y
x5
Example
4.19:
Ask your students to simplify each of the following:
(a) 9
3 5
3a 2 b (3a b
2
(b) x9 5
x 3
) y
x 6 y 4
Solution:
(a) 3 5 2 (b)
x 9 y 5 x 3
9a b (3a b
3 2
)
x 6 y 4
9a 3 b
5 9 (3)6 5(4)
x y
9a 4b 0 1
6 x y
a 3(4)b 5(6) 1
a 7 b 11
y
TOPIC 4 INDEX 105
Fractional Indices
Ask your students to express each of the following by using the Laws of Indices:
Example
4.20:
Express each of the following in the form of :
na
1
1
(a) 6 (b) (b) 27 5
3
Solution:
1 1
(a)
63 3 6 (b) 27 5 5 27
Example
4.21:
Express each of the following in the fractional index form:
4
(a) 3
8 (b)
15
Solution:
1 1
(a) 3
8
8 3
(b) 4
15 4
15
Example
4.22: the value for each of the following:
Find
1 1
(a) (b)
49 125 3
2
Solution:
1 1
(a)
49 49 7
2 (b) 1253 3 3 53 5
125
Example
4.23: 2 5
1 2
(4x ) x3 3
(a) (53 53 )3 (b) 3
16x 2
Solution:
1 2 2 3 5 2 5 5 5
(4x 3 ) x 3 64x x 3 2 2
(a) (5 3 5 3 )3 (51 )3 53 125 (b) 4x 3
4x 3
2 2
16x 16x
106 TOPIC 4 INDEX
Example
4.24:
Simplify each of the following:
3
15a 3b 2c 1
25a 2b 4
Solution:
Method
1:
Flip inside, simplify, flip the fraction and cube:
3
315a 3b 2c 1 3a 3a 2b 4
2 4 2 1
25a b 5b c
3
3a 5b 2
5 c
5c 3
5 2
3a b
125c 3
27a15b 6
Method
2:
Flip inside, simplify, negative cube, flip and simplify:
3
315a 3b 2c 1 3a 3a 2b 4
2 4 2 1
25a b 5b c
3
3a 5b 2
5c
33 a 15b 6
53 c 3
53 c 3
3 15 6
3 a b
125c 3
27a15b 6
TOPIC 4 INDEX 107
Method
3:
Flip the fraction, flip the negative exponents, simplify and cube:
3
315a 3b 2c 1 25a 2b 4
2 4 3 2 1
25a b 15a b c3
5b 2c 1
3 2 4
3a a b
5 c 1 3
5 2
3a b
125c 3
27a15b 6
Which of the above methods do you prefer when teaching your students?
Explain.
Example
4.25:
Simplify each of the following:
3
2
3
(a) 9p 2 2
2p 3 p -3
3 9
(b) 2 3
a b a b3
2
3 1 3
(c) 3
5x 2 25x 2 5x 2
3 2
(d)
49 2 y 2
2
7 2 y 2
108 TOPIC 4 INDEX
Solution:
(a) 3
2 3
2 3 3
2
2 3 1
9 p 2 2 3
2p3 p 3 2
p 2
23 p 3
1
3p
33 p 3 2 3
p2 p 3
2333 p 8 216 p 8
2
3 3 3
9
6 3
27 1 15 24 a 152
(b) a b a 2
b
a b a 2
27
a 2b
b b 24
3 3
3
5x 1
3
25x 2 5x 2 53 x 6
1
(c) 2
53 x 2 53 x 6 125x 6
2
3 3
5
2 x2
3
(d) 3 2 2 2 2
49 2 y 2
2
7 y
2 72
y
2 2
7 22
y 22
6 4 4 4 1
1 1 1 1
y 7 y 7 4 y4 7 2 49
6 7
7 1 4
y
Example
4.26:
Calculate the values for the following terms:
2 3
343 3
(a)
49 2
73
5 3
(b) 25 625
2
4
55
TOPIC 4 INDEX 109
3
(c) 1212 112
114
3
169 2 133
(d)
135
Solution:
2 3 3
2 3 2
343 3 49 2 7 3 7 2 233 2
(a) 7
7 49
73 7 3
5 3 5
25
4
2
625 2
5 2 5
4
3 5 5 53 3
(b)
5 4 125
5 5 5
5 5 5
3 3
1212 112 1122 112 115
(c) 11
4 4 4
11 11 11
3
3
2 3 2 2 3
169 13 13 33(5) 5
13
(d) 5
371, 293
5
13 13
13 13
110 TOPIC 4 INDEX
ACTIVITY 4.2
The following are some questions for in-class activity. You can divide
the students into groups or they can work on this individually.
1. The surface of a 10 10 10 cube is painted red. It is then cut into
1,000 small cubes of equal size.
(a) How many of these small cubes will have:
(i) One face painted red?
(ii) Two faces painted red?
(iii) Three faces painted red?
(iv) Four faces painted red?
(b) How many of these cubes will have an even number of
faces painted red?
(c) How many of these cubes will have an odd number of
faces painted red?
2
2. What is the ones digit of 2 2 ?
3. If the square root of the cube of a number is 27, what is the
number?
4. Using only the digits 2 and 6, the largest number that can be
written 26 64.
is
(a) What is the smallest number that can be written using the
digits 0, 1 and 2?
(b) What is the largest number that can be written using the
digits 0, 1 and 2?
TOPIC 4 INDEX 111
Index Law for Multiplication: am a m n that is, when multiplying
an
,
powers with the same base, add the indices.
am
Index Law for Division:
n a m n that is, when dividing powers with the
a
,
same base, the index in the denominator is subtracted from the index in
the numerator.
Index Law for Powers: (a ) a
m n mn
that is, when a power of a number is
,
raised to another power, multiply the indices.
Index Law for Powers of Products: (ab )n a n b n , that is, when a product is
raised to a power, every factor of the product is raised to the power.
a
an
Index Law for Powers of Quotients:
n
, for b 0, that is, when a
bn
b
quotient is raised to a power, both the numerator and denominator are
raised to the power.
1
Index Law for Negative Exponents: a
m
, that is, the sign of the index
m
a
changes when we write the number as a fraction.
112 TOPIC 4 INDEX
Base Index law for negative
exponents
Basic number Index law for
powers
Basic numeral Index law for powers of
products
Expanded Index law for powers of
form quotients
Exponent Index notation
Factor Indices
form
Fractional indices Laws of
indices
Index Like
terms
Index form Negative indices
Index law for Power
division
Index law for
multiplication
Allyn, J. W. (2005). Introduction to technical mathematics . New York, NY:
Addison-Wesley.
Chow, C. M. (2008). Mathematics form 3. Bangi, Malaysia: Penerbitan
Pelangi. Fleming, W. (1984). College algebra. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
Haeussler, E. F., & Paul, R. S. (1999). Introductory mathematical analysis for
business, economics, and the life and social sciences. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Kolman, B. (1993). College algebra. Rochester, NY: Saunders College.
Roshdi Rashed. (1970-80). Dictionary of scientific biography. New York, NY:
Charles Scribner's Sons.
TOPIC 4 INDEX 113
Swokowski, E. W. (1989). Fundamentals of college algebra. Boston, MA: PWS-
Kent.
Tan, S. T. (1983). College mathematics for the managerial and social sciences .
Boston, MA: Prindle, Weber & Schmidt.
Topic
Topi Linear
5 Equations
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to teach your students how to:
1. Determine if a given equation is either a linear equation or a linear
equation in one unknown;
2. Write linear equations in one unknown for given statements and vice
versa;
3. Solve equations of the following forms:
(a) x+a=b
(b) x �a = b
(c) ax = b
x
(d) b
a
where a and b are integers, and x is an unknown;
4. Solve equations of the form ax + b = c, where a, b, c are integers and x
is an unknown;
5. Solve simultaneous linear equations in two unknowns; and
6. Solve problems involving linear equations in one unknown and two
unknowns for word problems.
INTRODUCTION
Many problems can be solved using systems of linear equations. In real life, these
problems can be incredibly complex. Equations are very useful for reducing
complex problems to simple terms. They are groups of numbers and unknowns
joined by the equal sign. We can perform functions on equations to solve many
TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS 115
different problems. For example, how much food and water do we need to take
on a camping trip by x people for n days? What we have to remember with
equations is to always keep one side of the equal sign equal to the other side.
Pedagogical Content Knowledge
In this topic, we will discuss the concept of linear equations in one and two
unknowns and look at their role in solving daily problems. You will be guided
step by step to teach every subtopic provided here. With the approaches
suggested in this topic, we hope that you will be able to help your students to
apply the concept.
5.1 CONCEPT OF EQUALITY OF
TWO QUANTITIES
In order to teach this topic effectively, you need to know the following basic
concepts well.
Use of Symbols or Terms
Equations enable us to describe complex problems in simple terms. They are
built with numbers, unknowns and an equal sign.
It is clear that the number sentence 2 + 8 = 10 is an equation.
If the value of the unknown x is 2, then x can take the place of 2 and we can write
this equation as x + 8 = 10.
This is an equation containing the unknown x. The value of the unknown x is 2.
Example
5.1:
Ask your students to describe each of the following equations in words:
(a) x 3 15
(b) x 5 25
(c) 6x 48
(d) x
9
2
116 TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS
Solution:
(a) Three added to x is equal to fifteen.
(b) Five subtracted from x is equal to twenty-five.
(c) Six multiplied by x is equal to forty-eight.
(d) x divided by 2 is equal to nine.
Example
5.2:
Ask your students to write an equation to represent each of the following
statements:
(a) When I add 5 to a number, the answer is 12.
(b) When I subtract 9 from a number, the answer is 20.
(c) When I multiply a number by 7, the answer is 56.
(d) When I divide a number by 3, the answer is 27.
Solution:
(a) Let x be the number. x 5 12
(b) Let x be the number. x 9 20
(c) Let x be the number. 7 x 56
x
(d) Let x be the number.
27
3
Ask your students to take note that:
(a) An equation is a statement consisting of number(s) and unknown(s) that
are linked together with an equal sign.
(b) It uses symbols to replace numbers.
TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS 117
inear Equations
You can begin a class by explaining:
Linear equations are equations with variable or variables of the first degree.
Examples of variables include x and 3y. The variable(s) cannot have exponents,
square roots, cube roots or or such. Linear equations are the simplest equations
x
y
that we will deal with.
Our students were exposed to solving linear equations in primary school. Let us
look at the following example:
Fill in the box: + 2 = 10
Once students have grasped the concept well, they would know that they have to
put an „8„ in the box. Solving linear equations works in the same way. Now, we
substitute the box using the unknown x. The equation becomes x + 2 = 10.
Substitute x with 8 and the equation becomes a true equation.
Ask students to look at the following example. This introduces students to
linear equations in one unknown.
Example
5.3:
Determine if each of the following is a linear equation:
(a) x50 (b) 2 3 21
y
(c) 3xy 18 (d) -2.5m 2 5
Solution:
(a) x 5 0 is a linear equation. The unknown x is raised to the power of 1.
(b) 2 y 3 21 is a linear equation. The unknown y is raised to the power of 1.
(c) 3xy 18 is not a linear equation. There are two unknowns, that is, x and y.
(d) -2.5m 2 5 is not a linear equation. The unknown m is raised to the power
of 2.
118 TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS
SELF-CHECK 5.1
Why is xy 1 not a linear equation even though both x and y are
raised to the power of 1?
Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and
Division of Linear Equations
You may begin your class by carrying out the following activity: visualisation of
linear equations.
Equations and a Pair of
Scales
Ask your students to recall that:
An equation is a statement that contains an equal sign.
Consider the simple equation: x = 5
Visualise this equation as a balanced pair of scales with x and 5 measured in
kilograms.
If we add 3kg to the scale on the left-hand side, the scales will balance as long as
we add 3kg to the scale on the right-hand side, that is, x + 3 = 8.
Add 3kg to both scales
TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS 119
Also, if we subtract the same weight, say 3kg, from each side of the balance, the
scales will remain balanced, that is, x � 3 = 2.
Subtract 3kg from both scales
If we double the weight in the scale on the left-hand side, the scales will balance
as long as we double the weight in the scale on the right-hand side, that is,
2x = 10.
Double the weight in each scale
Also, if we halve the weight in each scale of the balance, the scales will remain
balanced.
Halve the weight in each scale
120 TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS
ACTIVITY 5.1
Guided Practice
Ask your students to give some examples of linear equations in one
unknown verbally. Through this practice, students will be trained in
choosing variables.
Expository Method
Students will be exposed to the method of finding linear equations and
sketching the related graphs.
Let us look at the following question:
A manufacturerÊs total cost consists of a fixed overhead of RM200 plus
production cost of RM50 per unit. Express the total cost as an equation
of the number of units produced. Sketch the graph.
5.2 LINEAR ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS
In this subtopic, we will study linear algebraic equations and the approaches to
teaching these equations.
Linear Equations
Remind your students that a linear algebraic term is a term with unknowns to the
1
power or exponent of 1. For example: 2x, -5y, 6a, 0.3b and p .
5
Also, help your students to recall linear algebraic expressions which they had
learned in Topic 3.
Linear algebraic expressions with an equal sign are linear algebraic equations.
For example, 2a + 1 is a linear algebraic expression while 2 a + 1 = 0 is a linear
algebraic equation.
Get students to complete the following activities.
TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS 121
Example
5.4:
Which of the following is a linear term?
1
5x 2 , -3d , 0.25k 3 , r , y
2
Solution:
-3d , 1
and y
r 2
Example
5.5: of the following is a linear equation?
Which
3b2 � 5 = 10, -5xy = 7, 0.25h � 1= 6
Solution:
0.25h � 1= 6
Example
5.6:
Find the unknown terms for the linear equations only:
a + 3 = 7, 2b = 18, 0.5c2 � 10 = 0, 2de = 10, f + 2h = 6
Solution:
a, b, f, h.
Example
5.7:
Find the unknown terms for the linear equations only:
1
5 20, 5 2 7 10, 20 4 3, 3 30
Solution:
,,
Linear Equations in One Unknown
This subtopic will discuss linear equations in one unknown.
Oral Mental
Activity
Ask your students to recall their prior knowledge of linear equations. This
knowledge would help them in the forthcoming lesson.
122 TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS
Example
5.8:
Which of the following is a linear equation?
(a) 4 x 5(1 2 x ) 23
(b) -6y(y + 2) = 2(2y � 1)
(c) -a � 2(2a + 3) = 4(a � 2)
2b 1 b 1
(d) 3 b 6
2b 1 b 1
(e) 3 4 6
2c 1
(f) 3 c5
3 3
Solution:
(a), (c), (e) and (f).
Example
5.9:
Ask your students why (b) and (d) in Example 5.8 are not linear equations?
Solution:
In (b), by expanding the function on the left, we obtain unknown y raised to the
power of 2.
In (d), the cross product of the two fractions on the left will give the higher
degree of 2 for b, which makes it a quadratic function.
ACTIVITY 5.2
Ask your students to identify which of the following is a linear
equation:
(a) 3x x 10 (b) 7a (c) 2p2 3
12 10
2
(d) 10x (e) 4y 5 (f) 8m 5n 0
2020
(g) 5q 2 (h) y2 2y
3q 5
TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS 123
5.3 SOLVING LINEAR EQUATIONS IN ONE
UNKNOWN
This subtopic covers solving the linear equations in one unknown involving
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, brackets and fractions.
ind the Unknown in a Linear Equation
Explain to your students that in the next activity, we will attempt to solve:
(a) Equations Involving One Operation
Solving an equation means finding the value of an unknown that makes
the statement true.
In the preceding section, we observe that:
An equation behaves like a pair of balanced scales. The scales remain
balanced as long as we do the same thing to both scales.
This suggests that to solve an equation, we need to do the same thing to
both sides of the equation:
(i) The same number can besubtracted from both sides of an equation.
(ii) The same number can beadded to both sides of an equation.
(iii) Both sides of an equation can divided by the same number.
be
multiplied by the same number.
(iv) Both sides of an equation can
be
We will now consider equations involving addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.
Operations such as +, �, and are used to build an equation. To solve an
equation, we use inverse (that is, opposite) operations such that the
unknown is the only term remaining on one side of the equation.
(b) Equations Involving
Addition
The inverse operation of + is �. So, to solve an equation involving addition,
we undo the addition by subtracting the same number from both sides.
You may use Example 5.10 to demonstrate the method of finding the
solution of a linear equation.
124 TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS
Example
5.10:
Solve the equation x + 6 = 14.
Solution:
x 6 14 {Subtract 6 from both sides}
x 6 6 14
6
x0 8
x 8
Note: 6 is added to x. So, we undo the addition by subtracting 6 from
both sides.
Check: LHS x 6 8 6 14 RHS
So, x 8 is the correct answer.
(LHS: left-hand side; RHS: right-hand side)
(c) Equations Involving
Subtraction
The inverse operation of � is +. So, to solve an equation involving
subtraction, we undo the subtraction by adding the same number to both
sides.
Example
5.11:
Solve the equation x � 9 = 17.
Solution
:
x 9 17 {Add 9 to both sides}
x 9 9 17 9
x 0 26
x 26
Note: 9 is subtracted from x. So, we undo the subtraction by adding 9 to
both sides.
Check: LHS x 26 17 RHS
9 9
So, x 26 is the correct answer.
TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS 125
(d) Equations Involving
Multiplication
The inverse operation of is . So, to solve an equation involving
multiplication, we divide both sides of the equation by the same number.
Example
5.12:
Solve the equation 9x = 72.
Solution:
9x 72
Divide both sides by 9
9x 72
9 9
x8
Note: x is multiplied by 9. So, we undo the multiplication by dividing
both sides by 9.
LHS
Check: 9 8 72 RHS
9x
So, x 8 is the correct answer.
(e) Equations Involving Division
The inverse operation of is . So, to solve an equation involving
division, we multiply both sides of the equation by the same number.
Example
5.13:
Solve the x
8.
equation 5
Solution:
x
5
8 Multiply both sides by 5
x
5
8
5
5
x 40
Note: x is divided by 5. So, we undo the division by multiplying both
sides by 5.
LHS
Check: x 40 8 RHS
5 5
So, x 40 is the correct answer.
126 TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS
Remind your students that:
(i) An equation is a statement that contains an equal sign.
(ii) To solve an equation, we do the same thing to both sides of the
equation.
(iii) The same number can be
subtracted from both sides of an equation.
(iv) The same number can beadded to both sides of an equation.
(v) Both sides of an equation can be
divide by the same number.
d
(vi) Both sides of an equation can be
multiplied by the same number.
(f) Equations Involving Two or More
Operations
To solve an equation involving two or more operations, start by carrying
out an inverse operation on the number that isfurthest from x.
away
Example
5.14:
Solve 5x 3 28.
Solution:
The number 3 is furthest away from x. The inverse of + 3 is � 3. So, subtract
3 from both sides.
5x 3 28
Subtract 3 from both sides
5x 3 3 28
3
5x 25 Divide both sides by 5
5x 25
5 5
x5
TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS 127
Example
5.15:
If four times a number, when diminished by 3, equals 21, what is the
number?
Solution:
Let x be the number.
Four times x is 4x, and diminishing this by 3 gives 3 - 4x, which we are
told equals 21.
3 4x 21
-4x 21 3
18 -9
x -4 2
(g) Equations with the Unknown on Both
Sides your students that when an unknown is on both sides of an
Remind
equation, they have to remove the unknown term from the right-hand side
of the equation by using inverse operations. Then, continue to use inverse
operations to solve the equation for the unknown.
Example
5.16:
Solve 8x + 5 = 3x + 20 for x.
Solution:
8x 5 3x 20 Subtract 3x from both sides
8x 5 3x 3x 20 Simplify
3x
Subtract 5 from both sides
5x 5 20
5x 5 5 20 5
Simplify
5x 15
Divide both sides by 5
5x 15
x 3
5 5
128 TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS
Example
5.17:
If 7 less than three times a number is 9 more than the number, what is the
number?
Solution:
Let x be the number.
Seven less than three times x is 3x � 7, and 9 more than x is x + 9.
3x-7 x 9
Subtract x from both sides
3x-7-x x 9-x
2x 7 9
Add 7 to both sides
2x 7 7 9 7
2x 16
Divide both sides by 2
2x 16 x8 So, the number is 8.
2 2
Check: 3 8 7 9 8
(h) Equations Containing Brackets
To solve the equation containing brackets, your students may proceed as
follows:
(i) Remove the brackets by using the Distributive Law.
(ii) Collect the unknown terms on the left-hand side of the equation
and the numerical terms on the right-hand side of the equation by
doing the same thing to both sides of the equation.
Or
(iii) Use inverse operation on both sides of the equation to find the
unknown.
TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS 129
Example
5.18:
Solve 3(p + 1) = 18.
Solution:
3( p 1) 18 Use Distributive Law
3 p 3 18 Subtract 3 from both sides
3 p 3 3 18
3
Divide both sides by 3
3 p 15
3p 15
3 3
p5
Example
5.19:
Solve 4(d 5) 2(d 1)
Solution:
4(d 5) 2(d 1)
Use Distributive Law
4d 20 2d 2
Subtract 20 from both sides
4d 20 20 2d 2
20
4d 2d 22 Subtract from both sides
4d 2d 2d 22 2d
2d
2d -22
2d -22
2 2 d -11. Divide both sides by 2
(i) Equations Containing Fractions
Remind your students that to solve equations containing fractions, they
have to:
(i) Find the lowest common multiple of the denominators, which is
known as lowest common denominator (LCD).
(ii) Remove the fractions by multiplying both sides of the equation by
the LCD.
(iii) Solve the equation for the unknown by performing the same
operations to both sides of the equation.
130 TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS
Example
5.20:
Solve 2x 4 .
5
Solution:
Lowest common multiple of 5 and 1 is 5. So, we multiply both sides by 5 to
obtain:
2x
5 54
5
2x 20 Divide both sides by 2
2x 20
2 2
x 10
Example
5.21:
Solve x 3 3
7 5
Solution:
x3 3
7
Lowest common multiple of 7 and 5 is 35. So, we multiply both sides by 35
to obtain:
x 3 3
35 35 Simplify
7 5
5(x 3) 21 Remove brackets
5x 15 21 Subtract 15 from both sides
5x 15 15 21
15
Divide both sides by 5
5x 6
5x 6
5 5
1
x1
5
TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS 131
Problem Solving of Routine and Non-routine
Problems Involving Linear Equations
Linear equations can be used to solve word problems. First, students have to
assume that the number they are trying to find is represented by an unknown.
Then, the problem given in words is translated into an equation, which is
solved using the methods they have learned for solving equations. Finally,
they write the answer in words.
Example
5.22:
A number is added to 65 and the result is 162. Find the number.
Solution:
Let the number be x.
x 65 162 Subtract 65 from both sides
x 65 65 162
65
x 97
So, the number is
97.
Check: 97 65 162 . So, 97 is the correct answer.
Remind your students that to solve a word problem, they need to:
(a) Read the problem;
(b) Assume that the unknown is x or another suitable letter;
(c) Write an equation using the information provided in the problem; and
(d) Solve the equation by using inverse operations.
Ask students to write their answers in words.
Example
5.23:
Find the width of a rectangular field whose length is 70m and perimeter is 220m.
132 TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS
Solution:
Let P = perimeter = 220m, l = 70m, w = ?
Now, P 2(l w )
220 2(70 w ) Remove brackets
220 140 2w Subtract 140 from both sides
220 140 140 2w
140
80 2w
Swap LHS and RHS
2w 80
Divide both sides by 2
2w 80
2 2
w 40
So, the width of the field is 40m.
Example
5.24:
The sum of three consecutive numbers is 90. What are the numbers?
Solution:
Let the smallest number be n. The word consecutive means one after another.
So, the next two consecutive numbers after n will be n + 1 and n + 2.
n (n 1) (n 2) 90
n n 1 n 2 90
3n 3 90 Subtract 3 from both sides
3n 3 3 90
3
3n 87
3n 87 Divide both sides by 3
3 3
n 29
So, the three consecutive numbers are 29, 30 and 31.
TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS 133
Example
5.25:
Use the information given in the following diagram to form an equation and
solve x.
Solution:
5x x 30o 180o
Sum of supplementary adjacent angles
6x 30 180
o o
Subtract 30 o
from both sides
6x 30 30 180
o o o
30o
6x 150o Divide both sides by 6
6x 150o
6 6
x 25o
ACTIVITY 5.3
1. The sum of three consecutive numbers is 30. Find the largest
number.
2. Find the value of the largest angle in the following
diagram:
134 TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS
5.4 SOLVING LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO
UNKNOWNS
This subtopic will discuss solving linear as well as simultaneous linear
equations in two unknowns.
Linear Equations in Two Unknowns
Show students all the possible methods to solve linear equations:
(a) The addition or elimination method; and
(b) The substitution method.
System of Linear Equation: Solving by the Addition or Elimination
Method
The addition method is also called method of elimination. This method is similar
to the method students have learned for solving simple equations. Ask your
students to solve the following systems using addition.
Example
5.26:
Solve the following simultaneous equation:
2x � y = 11
and 3x + y =
14.
Solution:
First, we name the given equations:
2x � y = 11 ����.(i)
3x + y = 14 ����(ii)
Now, if you add both equations, y will be cancelled
out. 2x � y = 11 ����.(i)
3x + y = 14 ����(ii)
(i) + (ii) 5x = 25
x = 5
To find the value of y, you may substitute x = 5 into equation (i) or (ii).
2(5) � y = 11
10 � y = 11
y = -1
TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS 135
Thus, the solution is (x, y) = (5, -1).
or
3(5) + y = 14
15 + y = 14
y = -1
Example
5.27:
Solve the following simultaneous equation:
x + 3y = 14 and
-x + 4y = 21.
Solution:
Note that the x-term has the same coefficient. It would be cancelled out if only
they have opposite signs.
x 3y
14 i
-x 4 y 21.ii
i ii 7y 35
35
y 7
y5
Substitute y = 5 into equation (i)
x + 3(5) = 14
x + 15 = 14
x = 14 �15 = -1
Thus, the solution is (x, y) = (-1, 5).
A very common temptation is to write the solution in the form (first number
found, second number found). Sometimes, though, as in this case, students
find the y-value first and then the x-value, and of course in points the x-value
comes
first. So please remind students to be careful when writing the coordinates for
their solutions.
136 TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS
Example
5.28:
Solve the following simultaneous equation:
3x �y = 11
and 4x + 5y =
-17.
Solution:
Both variables x and y do not have the same coefficient. You can multiply the
equation(s) with a constant so that both equations have the same coefficient
for one of the variables. In this question, you can multiply the first equation by
5 and this will set up the y variable to be cancelled.
3x � y
11 i
4x 5y -17..ii
i 5 15x – 5 55 ..iii
y
iii ii 19x 38
38
x 19
x 2
Substitute x = 2 into equation (i)
3(2) � = 11
y
6�y = 11
y = -5
The solution is (x, y) = (2, �5).
Example
5.29:
Solve the following simultaneous equation:
3x � 4y = 10 and
-2x + 3y = -5.
Solution:
3x � 4y = 10 ����.(i)
-2x + 3y = -5 ����(ii)
Both variables x and y do not have the same coefficient. In this case, neither
variable is the obvious choice for cancellation. You need to find the common
factor for one of the variables. The common factor for variables x and y are 6x
and 12y, respectively. In this example, we will choose to eliminate variable x.
TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS 137
Students will multiply equation (i) by 2 and equation (ii) by 3.
(i) 2 6x � 8y = 20 ����. (iii)
(ii) 3 -6x + 9y = -15 ����.
(iv)
(iii) + (iv) y=5
Substitute y = 5 into equation (i)
3x � = 10
4(5)
3x � 20 = 10
3x = 30
x = 10
Remember to put the x-coordinate first in the solution.
The solution is (x, y) = (10, 5).
Usually, when students solve by addition, they will need to create the
cancellation. The most common mistake is to forget to multiply all the way
through the equation, on both sides of the „equal‰ sign. Please remind them to
be careful of this.
Example
5.30:
Solve the following simultaneous equation:
14x � 5y -4 and
1
-7x x 6.
2
Solution:
14x � 5y = -4 ����. (i)
1
-7x y 6 ����.
(ii) 2
Multiply equation (ii) by 2 to get rid of the fraction coefficient.
(ii) 2 -14x +y = 12 ����.
(iii) 14x � 5y = -4 ����.(i)
(iii) + (i) -4y = 8
y = -2
138 TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS
Substitute y = -2 into equation (i).
14x � 5(-2) = -4
-14x = -4 � 10
x = 1
The solution is (x, y) = (1, -2).
System of Linear Equation: Solving by
Substitution
Another method solve the system of linear equation is called substitution
method. In this method, we need to solve one of the equations of the system for
one of the variables.
Example
5.31:
Solve the following simultaneous equation:
2x � y = 11
and 3x + y =
14.
Solution:
Choose the equations to solve. In the first equation, solving y is easier than
solving x.
2x y 11
- y 11 2x
y 2x 11 i
3x y 14 .ii
Substitute equation (i) into equation (ii).
3x (2x 11 ) 14
3x 2x 14 11
5x 25
x5
To find the value of y, you may substitute x = 5 into equation (i).
y = 2(5) � 11
y = -1
The solution is (x, y) = (5, -1).
TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS 139
Example
5.32:
Solve the following simultaneous equation:
x + 3y = 14 and
-x + 4y = 21.
Solution:
x 3y 14
x 14 3y i
-x 4y 21.ii
Substitute equation (i) into equation (ii)
- 14 3 y 4 y 21
-14 3 y 4 y 21
7 y 21 14
7 y 35
35
y 7
y5
Substitute y = 5 into equation (i)
x = 14 � 3(5) = -1
The solution is (x, y) = (-1, 5).
Solving Simultaneous Linear Equation Problems in Two
Unknowns
When students have finished working through Subtopic 5.4.1, ask them to study
the following examples. After 15 minutes, review the questions in class,
addressing problem areas and reinforcing key concepts.
Example
5.33:
The admission fees at a small fair are RM1.50 for children and RM4.00 for adults.
On a certain day, 2,200 people entered the fair and RM5,050 was collected. How
many children and how many adults attended?
140 TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS
Solution:
Let a be adult and c be children.
a c 2, 200
a 2, 200 c i
4a 1.5c 5, 050 .ii
Substitute equation (i) into equation (ii)
4 2, 200 c 1.5c 5, 050
8, 800 4c 1.5c 5, 050
8, 800 2.5c 5, 050
-2.5c -3, 750
c 1, 500
Substitute c = 1,500 into equation (i)
a = 2,200 � (1,500) = 700
There were 1,500 children and 700 adults.
Example
5.34:
A landscaping company placed two orders with a nursery. The first order was
for 13 bushes and 4 trees, and totalled RM487. The second order was for 6
bushes and 2 trees, and totalled RM232. The bill does not list the per-item price.
What are the costs of one bush and one tree, respectively?
Solution:
Students can try to add the bushes and trees to get 19 bushes and 6 trees, but this
will not get them anywhere, because they do not have subtotals for the bushes
and trees. So they have to let b be the number of bushes and t be the number of
trees to set up a system of equations:
13b + 4t = 487...................(i)
6b + 2t = 232....................(ii)
(ii) 2 12b + 4t = 464....................(iii)
13b + 4t = 487..................................(i)
(i) � (iii) b = 23
TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS 141
Substitute b = 23 into equation (ii)
6(23) + 2t = 232
2t = 232 �
138
2t = 94
t = 47
Bushes cost RM23 each and trees cost RM47 each.
Example
5.35:
Hindon sells pineapple tarts and chocolate cookies. She makes a profit of RM4
and RM5.50 for each box of pineapple tarts and chocolate cookies, respectively.
By selling x boxes of pineapple tarts and y boxes of chocolate cookies, she will
make a profit of RM490.
(a) Write an equation for the situation.
(b) Find the number of boxes of chocolate cookies if 40 boxes of pineapples
tarts are sold.
Solution:
(a) 4x y 490
(b)
4 40 5.5 y 490
5.5y 490 � 160
y 330 5.5
y 60
Therefore, 60 boxes of chocolates cookies are sold.
142 TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS
ACTIVITY 5.4
1. Solve the simultaneous equations:
(a) m � 2n = 8 and 2m � 5n =
18
(b) 3a + b = 7 and 3a � 2b =
13 (c)3p � 2q =7 and 5p � 2q =
1
(d)
11 2 h � 2k = 2 and 3h � 8k =
10
1
(e) x � y = 3 and 2x � y
3
=7
(f) x � 2y = 5 and 3x � 2y
=3
2. A manufacturer can sell a certain product for RM110 per unit.
The
total cost consists of a fixed overhead of RM7,500 plus
production costs of RM60 per unit.
How many units must the manufacturer sell to break even?
What is the manufacturerÊs profit or loss if 100 units are sold?
(c) How many units must be sold for the manufacturer to
obtain a profit of RM1,250?
An equation is a statement consisting of number(s) and unknown(s) that
are linked together with an equal sign.
Linear equations are equations with only a variable like x, where x is raised
to the power of 1.
Solving an equation means finding the value of an unknown that makes a
statement true.
TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS 143
To solve an equation involving addition, we undo the addition by
subtracting the same number from both sides.
To solve an equation involving subtraction, we undo the subtraction by
adding the same number to both sides.
To solve an equation involving multiplication, we divide both sides of the
equation by the same number.
To solve an equation involving division, we multiply both sides of the
equation by the same number.
Addition Halve
Addition Linear algebraic
method term
Algebraic Linear
term equation
Balancing Linear function
Bracket Lowest common
denominator
Consecutive numbers Mixed
operations
Distributive Multiplication
law
Division Simultaneous linear
equation
Double Subtraction
Elimination method Symbol
Equal sign Terms
Equality Unknown
Equation Unknown term
Expression Variable
Fraction
144 TOPIC 5 LINEAR EQUATIONS
Cheong, Q. L., & Teh, W. L. (2008).Essential mathematics form 2. Petaling Jaya,
Malaysia: Pearson.
Douglas, K. B. (2001). Teaching secondary mathematics (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Fleming, W. (1984).College algebra. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Kolman, B. (1993). College algebra. Rochester, NY: Saunders College.
Lee, L. M. (2007). Mathematics form 2. Shah Alam, Malaysia: Arah Pendidikan.
Lim, S. H. (2008). Mathematics topical exercise form 3. Shah Alam, Malaysia:
Oxford Fajar.
William, D. R. (1954). Mathematics for the secondary school: Its content and
methods of teaching and learning (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Holt.
Topic
Topi Geometric
6 Constructions
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to teach your students how to:
1. Construct geometric figures by using a straight edge and a pair of
compasses;
2. Construct the locus of a moving point that satisfies a given condition;
and
3. Determine the intersection of two loci by drawing the loci and
locating the points of intersection that satisfy the conditions of the
two loci.
INTRODUCTION
In antiquity, geometric constructions of figures and lengths were restricted to the
use of only a straight edge and compass (or in Plato's case, a compass only; a
technique now called Mascheroni construction). Although the term „ruler‰ is
sometimes used instead of „straight edge‰, the Greek prescription prohibited
markings that could be used to make measurements. Furthermore, the
„compass‰ could not even be used to mark off distances by setting it and then
„walking‰ it along, so the compass had to be considered to automatically
collapse when not in the process of drawing a circle.
Many road signs are geometric in shape. In fact, they are often shaped like
squares, rectangles and triangles. You can use geometric properties to classify
the shapes of road signs and list the similarities and differences.
146 TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS
Pedagogical Content Knowledge
Making accurate drawings is not a skill confined to artists. Draftsmen, architects,
engineers and designers need to be able to construct geometric figures (refer to
Figures 6.1 and 6.2).
Figure Bisecting a line Figure Creating an equilateral
6.1: using geometric 6.2: triangle using geometric
construction construction
In this topic, we will look at how some common geometric constructions can be
carried out using only a pair of compasses and a ruler.
6.1 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS OF
MATHEMATICAL FIGURES
This topic covers the properties of geometric constructions with an emphasis
on drawing figures at different angles, and constructing angle bisectors as well
as perpendicular and parallel lines which will help build a firm foundation for
your students to understand geometry. You are strongly encouraged to use
multimedia software like the GeometerÊs Sketchpad to enhance their
understanding.
TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS 147
You may begin by explaining the basic idea of drawing lines and angles using
the set square and compass.
Drawing Parallel and Perpendicular Lines, and Circles Using the
Construction Set
Ask your students to take a look around them to see if they can find some
examples where lines and angles are used in their daily lives.
The Set
Square
There are two types of set squares (refer to Figure 6.3) and they are named
according to the angles present on each.
Figure Set squares
6.3:
Set squares are useful for drawingparallel and perpendicular lines.
lines
Parallel
Lines
Lines that lie on the same plane and do not meet one another are said to be
parallel
lines.
In Figure 6.4, the line AB is parallel to the line CD. This is indicated by the
similar arrows.
Figure Parallel lines
6.4:
148 TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS
We write the line AB is parallel to the line CD‰ as CD. The
AB
symbol means „is parallel to‰.
Drawing Parallel Lines
A ruler and a set square can be used to draw parallel as described in the
following (refer to Figure 6.5a): lines
Step Position an edge of the set square against a ruler and draw a line along
1: one of the other edges.
Step Slide the set square into a new position while keeping the ruler fixed
2: exactly at the same position.
Step Draw a line along the same edge that was used in Step 1.
3:
Figure Drawing parallel lines
6.5a:
AB CD and PQ RS
TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS 149
Example
6.1:
Use a ruler and a set square to draw a line that is parallel to a given line, AB, and
passes through a given point, P.
Solution:
Step Referring to Figure 6.5b, position an edge of the set square along the
1: given line, AB.
Step Place a ruler against one of the other edges.
2:
Step Slide the set square along the ruler until the edge used in Step 1 passes
3: through the given point P.
Step Draw the line CD through P.
4:
Figure 6.5b: Drawing parallel
lines
The line CD passes through the given point, P, and is parallel to the given line,
AB.
Perpendicular Lines
Lines that are at right angles to each other are said to be perpendicular lines.
Note that a vertical lin is perpendicular to the horizontal, whereas
perpendicular e drawn in any position. Bricklayers use a plumb-bob to
can be
lines
set out vertical lines and a spirit level to set out horizontal lines.
150 TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS
In Figure 6.6, line PQ is a right angle to line AB. The right angle is indicated by a
small square. We say that PQ is perpendicular to AB, and this is written as
PQ AB.
Perpendicular lines
Figure
6.6:
Drawing Perpendicular Lines
A set square can be used to draw a perpendicular at a point on a given line as
described in the following (refer to Figure
6.7a):
Step Set an edge of the set square on the given line so that the other edge is
1: just in contact with the point.
Step Draw a line that passes through the given point with the help of the
2: set square.
Drawing perpendicular lines
Figure
6.7a:
Example
6.2:
Use a set square to draw a perpendicular to a given line, AB, through a point, P,
not on the line.
Solution:
Step Referring to Figure 6.7b, set an edge of the set square on the given
1: line so that the other edge is just in contact with the point.
Step Draw a line that passes through the given point with the help of the
2: set square.
TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS 151
Figure Drawing perpendicular lines
6.7b:
Ask your students to go through the following definitions and identify the terms
related to a circle.
Drawing Circles Using a Compass
In this section, students will learn about the definition of a circle, lines in a circle
and parts of a circle.
Circl
e
A circle is a set of points on a plane that are of the same distance from a fixed
point (called the centre). These sets of points form the perimeter of the circle.
The radius is the distance from the centre of the circle to any point on its
perimeter.
The circumference of a circle is the perimeter of the circle.
These parts of a circle are indicated in Figure
6.8a. Note: The plural of radius is radii.
A circle
Figure
6.8a:
152 TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS
Lines in a
Circle
The name of a line in a circle depends on its position in the circle (refer to Figure
6.8b).
A secant is a line that passes through any two points on a circle.
A chord is a line that joins two points on thecircumference of a circle.
The diameter is a chord that passes through the centre of a circle.
A tangent is a line that touches the circle at only one point.
Lines in a circle
Figure
6.8b:
Parts of a
Circle
Figures 6.8c to 6.8f illustrate the various parts of a circle � arc, sector, segment
and semicircle.
An arc is a part of the A sector is the part of a
circumference circle between two radii
Figure Figure 6.8d:
6.8c:
TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS 153
Figure A segment is the part of a Figure A semicircle is a half of a circle
6.8e:
circle that is between a chord and the 6.8f:
circumference
Compass
A compass (refer to Figure 6.9a) is an instrument used to draw circles or the parts
of circles called arcs. It consists of two movable arms hinged together where one
arm has a pointed end and the other arm holds a pencil.
Note that a compass is also called a pair of compasses.
Figure A compass
6.9a:
To draw a circle (or arc) with a compass (refer to Figure 6.9b):
(a) Make sure that the hinge at the top of the compass is tightened so that it
does not slip;
(b) Tighten the hold on the pencil so that it also does not slip;
(c) Align the pencil lead with the compassÊs needle; and
(d) Press down the needle and turn the knob at the top of the compass to draw
a circle (or arc).
154 TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS
Figure Draw a circle with a compass
6.9b:
Ask your students to look at Example 3 and practise answering the questions
in Activity 6.1.
Example
6.3:
Use a compass to draw a circle of radius 4cm.
Solution:
Step Use a ruler to set the distance from the point of the compass to the
1: pencilÊs lead at 4cm.
Step Place the point of the compass at the centre of the circle.
2:
Step Draw the circle by turning the compass through 360À.
3:
TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS 155
ACTIVITY 6.1
1. Use a compass to draw circles of
radius:
5cm.
12cm.
2. Use a compass to draw a circle of radius 4.5cm.
Draw the diameter of the circle and use a ruler to measure the
length of the diameter.
Write an equation to represent the relation between the radius,
r, and the diameter, d.
3. Use a compass to draw a circle of radius
5.5cm.
Draw a diameter and label it PQ.
Draw a triangle PQR where R is on the circumference.
Use a protractor to measure the size of angle PRQ.
Drawing Figures at Different Angles and Constructing Angle
Bisectors
In this subtopic, your students will learn how to construct the following angles:
angles of 60À, 120À, 30À and 90À. Please emphasise to your students that there
are a number of steps that need to be followed when constructing these angles.
156 TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS
Constructing a 60À
Angle
Students should know that the angles in an
equilateral triangle are all 60À in size. This
suggests that to construct a 60À angle, we
need to construct an equilateral triangle as
described in the following:
Step 1: Draw a straight line and mark the
point P.
Step 2: Place the point of the compass at P
and draw a large arc to cut the line at
Q.
Step 3: Place the point of the compass at Q
and draw an arc with the same
radius to cut at R. Figure 6.10: Constructing a
60À angle
Step 4: Join P to R. RPQ = 60À.
Constructing a 30À
Angle
1
Students know that: of 60 o 30 o
2
To construct an angle of 30À, first construct a
60À angle and then bisect it. Apply the
following steps:
Step 1: Figure 6.11: Constructing a
Draw the arm PQ.
Step 2: 30À angle
Place the point of the compass at P
and draw an arc that passes through
Q.
Step 3:
Place the point of the compass at Q
and draw an arc that cuts the arc
drawn in Step 2 at R.
Step 4:
With the point of the compass still
at
Step 5: Q, draw an arc near S as shown.
With the point of the compass at R,
draw an arc to cut the arc drawn in
Step 6: Step 4 at S.
Join S to P. The angle QPS is 30À.
TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS 157
Constructing a 120À
Angle
Students know that:
60 120 180
o o o
Figure 6.12a: Constructing a 120À angle
This means that 120À is the supplement of
60À. Therefore, to construct a 120À angle,
construct a 60À angle and then extend one
of its arms as shown in Figure 6.12a.
Another way of constructing a 120À angle
(refer to Figure 6.12b).
Step 1: Draw a straight line and mark
the point P.
Step 2: Place the point of compass at
P. Draw a big arc and mark the
point Q.
Step 3: By using the same radius,
place the point of compass at
Q and cut the first arc. Then,
Figure 6.12b: Constructing a 120À
use this point of intersection to angle
cut the second arc at R. Next,
join P to
R. RPQ = 120À.
158 TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS
Constructing a 90À
Angle
Students can construct a 90À angle either by bisecting a straight angle or using the
following steps (refer to Figure 6.13).
Step 1: Draw the arm PA.
Step 2: Place the point of the compass at P
and draw an arc that cuts the arm
at Q.
Step 3: Place the point of the compass at Q
and draw an arc of radius PQ that
cuts the arc drawn in Step 2 at R.
Step 4: With the point of the compass at R,
draw an arc of radius PQ to cut the
arc drawn in Step 2 at S.
Step 5: With the point of the compass still
at R, draw another arc of radius PQ
near T as shown.
Step 6: With the point of the compass at S, Figure 6.13: Constructing a 90À
draw an arc of radius PQ to cut the angle
arc drawn in step 5 at T.
Step 7: Join T to P. The angle APT is 90À.
Perpendicular Bisector
Ask your students to construct the perpendicular bisector of the line AB. Then,
label the midpoint of AB as M.
There are many lines that cut AB exactly in
half. Students have to construct the one that
is perpendicular to AB (refer to Figure 6.14).
Step Draw arcs of equal radius,
1: centred
on the points A and B, as shown
in the diagram.
The radius of these arcs should
roughly to
be of 3 AB.
2 the length
3 4
Step
2: Then, draw a line through the
intersection points of the two
arcs. Figure 6.14: Perpendicular
bisector
The point where the bisector
intersects AB can then be labelled
M.
TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS 159
Example
5.4:
(a) Use only a ruler and a compass to construct a triangle ABC with AB = 5cm,
BAC = 60À and AC = 4.5cm.
(b) Measure the size of ABC and the size of ACB . Then, calculate the
angle sum of triangle ABC.
(c) Measure BC to the nearest millimetre. Then, find the perimeter of triangle
ABC in millimetres.
Solution:
(a) Step 1: Draw a line, AB, 5cm long.
Step Use the compass to construct a 60º angle at A.
2:
Step Use the ruler to find C such that AC is 4.5cm long.
3:
Step Join B to C.
4:
ABC is the required triangle.
(b) Using a protractor, you will find that:
ABC 55o
ACB 65o
The angle sum of ABC 60o 55o 65o 180o.
triangle
(c) Using the ruler, you will find that:
BC 48mm
Perimeter AB BC CA
5cm 48mm 4.5cm
50mm 48mm 45mm 143mm
160 TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS
ACTIVITY 6.2
1. Construct the following angles using a ruler and a compass:
(a) 30À (b) 45À (c) 135À (d) 225À
(e) 120À (f) 150À (g) 210À (h) 245À
2. Use a ruler and a compass to construct:
(a) A triangle PQR with PQ = 8cm, PR = 7.5cm and QPR = 60À.
(b) A square ABCD of sides 6cm.
3. (a) Use a ruler and a compass to construct a triangle PQR with
PQ = 7cm, QPR = 30À and PQR = 60À.
(b) Calculate the size of PRQ and check your answer with a
protractor.
(c) Measure PR and QR to the nearest millimetre. Then, find the
perimeter of triangle PQR in millimetres.
4. (a) Use a ruler and a compass to construct a triangle ABC with
AB = 8cm, BC = 6cm and ABC = 90À.
(b) Measure the size of BAC and then calculate the size of
ACB.
(c) Measure AC to the nearest millimetre. Then, find the
perimeter of triangle ABC in millimetres.
5. (a) Use a ruler and a compass to construct a trapezium PQRS
with PQ = 8cm, PS = 7cm, QR = 7cm, QPS = 60À and
PQR = 60À.
(b) Measure RS to the nearest millimetre. Then, find the
perimeter of the trapezium PQRS.
TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS 161
6. Use a ruler and a compass to construct a trapezium DEFG with
DE = 6.5cm, DEF = 90À, EF = 5.5cm, EFG = 90À
and
EDG = 60À.
Calculate the size of DGF and check your answer with a
protractor.
Calculate the sum of the interior angles of the trapezium.
(d) Measure DG and FG to the nearest millimetre. Hence, find the
perimeter of trapezium DEFG in millimetres.
Construction of Figures and Problem Solving
This subtopic covers the contruction of figures and problem
solving. Constructions
Fashion designers, builders, architects and engineers use accurate constructions
(or diagrams) to communicate their ideas to others. In this subtopic, students will
learn some of the basic constructions used in geometry.
Constructing
Triangles
Students need to look at how to construct triangles and various lines. They will
need a ruler, a protractor and a pair of compasses to be able to draw these
constructions. The following examples illustrate some of the techniques that they
will need to use.
Constructing a Triangle Given Three
Sides
If the measurements of three sides, the measurements of two sides and the angle
between them or the measurements of two angles and the side between them are
given, then a triangle can be constructed by using a ruler, a protractor and a
compass.
162 TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS
Example
6.5:
Using a ruler and a compass, construct a triangle ABC with AB = 3cm, BC = 4cm
and AC = 5cm.
Solution:
Step Draw a line, AB, 3cm long.
1:
Step Draw an arc of radius 4cm with B as the centre.
2:
Step Draw an arc of radius 5cm with A as the centre to cut the arc drawn
3: in Step 2 at C.
Step Join C, the point of intersection of the two arcs, to the points A and B.
4:
Step Erase the arcs to obtain the required triangle ABC.
5:
Constructing a Triangle Given Two Angles and the Side between
them
Example
6.6:
Using a ruler and a protractor, construct a triangle DEF with DE = 7cm,
DEF = 25À and EDF 60o.
Solution:
Step Draw a line, DE, 7cm long.
1:
Step Use a protractor to draw an angle, DEF , 25o.
2: of
Step Draw EDF of 60o.
3:
Step If necessary, extend the lines until they intersect each other at F to
4: form a triangle.
Step Erase any extra lengths to obtain the required triangle DEF.
5:
TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS 163
Constructing a Triangle Given Two Sides and an
Angle
Example
6.7:
Using a ruler, a protractor (refer to Figure 6.15) and a compass, construct a
triangle ABC with AB = 6cm, 80o and BC = 7cm.
BAC
Figure Protractor
6.15:
Source: http://www.homeschoolmath.net/teaching/g/measure_angles.php
Solution:
Step Draw a line, AB, 6cm long.
1:
Step Draw BAL of 80o.
2:
Step Draw an arc of radius 7cm with B as the centre to cut the arm AL of
3: BAL at C.
164 TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS
Step Join B and C.
4:
Step Erase the arc and the extra length CL to obtain the required triangle
5: ABC.
Constructing a Triangle Given Two Sides and the Angle between
Them
Example
6.8:
Using a ruler and a protractor, construct a triangle ABC with AB = 9cm,
AC = 7cm and BAC 70o.
Solution:
Step Draw a line, AB, 9cm long.
1:
Step Mark an angle of 70À by placing the centre of the protractor at point
2: A.
Step Join the 70À mark and the point A. Extend the arm AC until it is 7cm
3: long.
Step Join the points B and C to obtain the required triangle ABC.
4:
The following are some questions for in-class activity. Please encourage your
students to form group discussion.
TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS 165
ACTIVITY 6.3
1. Use a protractor and a ruler to construct each of the following
triangles:
ABC with AB = 8cm, ABC 40o and BAC 54o.
PQR with PQ = 6cm, PQR 48o and QPR 47o.
2. Use a ruler and a compass to construct each of the following
triangles:
ABC with AB = 10cm, BC = 8cm and AC = 6cm.
PQR with PQ = 5.6cm, QR = 4.8cm and PR = 4.8cm.
3. Use a protractor, a ruler and a compass to construct each of the
following triangles:
(a) ABC with AB = 6cm, BAC 85o and BC = 7cm.
(b) PQR with PQ = 8cm, QPR 78o and QR =
7cm.
6.2 LOCI IN TWO DIMENSIONS
A locus in two dimensions is the path taken by a set of points on a plane, such as
the line a wheel will make rolling down a slope. The plural of locus is loci.
Definition of Loci in Two Dimensions
Let us learn about set and loci in this subtopic.
Set of All
Points
(a) A set is a collection of things with some common properties.
(b) If you collect all the points that share a property, you may end up with a
line, surface, etc.
166 TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS
For example, a circle is:
The set of all points on a plane that are a fixed distance from a central
point.
As you can see, a few points will start to look like a circle, but if you collect all
the points, you will actually have a circle.
Loci
The means „place‰ in Latin. locus is a set of which satisfy
word locus A points
a certain condition. Think of a locus as a „bunch‰ of points that do the same
thing. When we talk about finding the locus of an object, we want to find the
places where it might be.
Locus is the path of a moving point or a point or set of points that satisfies
given conditions. The locus of a moving point can be found by joining all the
points that satisfy given conditions and then determining the patterns formed.
There are five basic locus theorems (rules).
Theorem
1
The locus of points equidistant from two points, P and Q, is the perpendicular
bisector of the line segment determined by the two points.
TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS 167
Loci of Sets of Points
Ask your students to study the following theorems and see if they can spot any
patterns. Remind them to figure out the rules for drawing a locus.
Loci and
Points
A locus is a set of points that share a property.
So, a circle is the locus of points on a plane that are a fixed distance from the centre.
‰
Note: „Locus‰ usually means that the points make a continuous curve or surface.
Theorem 2 Theorem 3
The locus of points at a fixed distance d The locus of points at a fixed distance
from point P is a circle with the given point d from line l is a pair of parallel lines d
P as its centre and d as its radius. distance from l and on either side of l.
Theorem 4 Theorem 5
The locus of points equidistant from two The locus of points equidistant from
parallel lines l1 and l2 is a line parallel to two intersecting lines l1 and l2 is a pair
both l1 and l2 and midway between them. of bisectors that bisect the angles
formed by l1 and l2.
168 TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS
Construction of Loci
Ask your students to practise answering all the questions in the following
examples. After that, discuss the solutions with them.
Example
6.9:
Draw the locus of points that are 1cm from this circle.
Solution:
The locus is made up of two parts. One part consists of the points that are
1cm from the circle and inside it; the other includes those points that are 1cm
from the circle and are outside it.
Example
6.10:
Draw the locus of the points that are equidistant from A and B.
A B
Solution:
All the points must be the same distance from A as from B. The locus is the
perpendicular bisector of the line AB.
TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS 169
ACTIVITY 6.4
1. (a) Draw a line of length 5cm.
(b) Draw the locus of points that are 1cm from the line.
2. (a) Draw a circle of radius 2cm.
(b) Draw the locus of points that are 2cm from the circle.
(c) On your diagram, shade the locus of points that are less
than 2cm from the circle.
3. (a) Draw the rectangle shown in the diagram.
(b) Draw the locus of points that are 1cm from the rectangle.
4. Construct the locus of points that are equidistant from the two
lines shown in the diagram.
5. (a) Construct the triangle shown in the diagram.
(b) Draw the locus of points that are 1cm from the triangle.
170 TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS
6.3 INTERSECTION OF TWO LOCI
This subtopic is about finding points of intersection between loci.
ind the Intersection Points When Conditions are Given
Ask students to recall what they have learnt over the past few lessons.
Refresh their memory by showing them how to find the locus of points at a
fixed distance. Inform them that they will be learn how to find intersection
points of two loci.
When two loci intersect, the intersection points satisfy the conditions of both
loci. To locate the intersection points of two loci:
(a) Make a rough sketch;
(b) Construct the loci using a compass with a suitable scale; and
(c) Mark the intersection points.
Ask your students to refer to the following example to help them visualise the
process of finding the intersection points.
Example
6.11:
In the diagram, P and Q are fixed points.
Construct the loci for:
(a) Point X that moves in equidistance from points P and Q.
(b) Point Y that moves 3cm from Q.
(c) Mark on the intersecting points of locus X and locus Y.
TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS 171
Solution:
Drawing Two Loci and Finding the Intersection Points
Similarly, we can represent the intersection points of two loci for the following
example, that is, by dividing triangle ABC into two equal parts (locus of X) and
drawing a circle with radius 2cm from its centre point C (locus Y).
Example
6.12:
The diagram shows an equilateral triangle ABC of sides 3cm. Points X and Y are
moving in the triangle.
172 TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS
Construct the loci for:
(a) Point X that moves in equidistance from AB and AC.
(b) Point Y that moves such that it is 2cm from point C.
(c) Mark on the intersecting points of locus X and locus Y.
Solution:
SELF-CHECK 6.1
Ask your students to state the five basic locus theorems verbally.
oci
Ask your students to practise answering the questions given in the following
examples. Once your students have mastered the concept well, you can gradually
introduce some examples related to geometric constructions in our daily lives.
Example
6.13:
What is the equation of the locus of points which is equidistant from the points
(4, 2) and (-2, 2)?
TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS 173
Solution:
The locus of points will be a straight line halfway between the two points. In
this problem, the distance between the points is 6 units. Hence, a line is drawn
so that it is 3 units from each point. The equation of the line will be x = 1.
Example
6.14:
There are two buoys in a lake. A scuba diver swims so that he is always
equidistant from both buoys. Describe his path.
Solution:
The path of the scuba diver will be a straight line which is perpendicular to a line
connecting the two buoys and half way between the two buoys.
174 TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS
ACTIVITY 6.5
This activity will help your students to develop a better understanding
of geometric constructions.
Two houses are 180 feet apart. The underground electrical cable used to
service the houses is to be placed such that the distance from any point
on the cable to each home is always the same. Describe where the
cable should be placed.
True or False: The locus of points equidistant from the points
1
(-1, -3) and (-1, 4) is a line with the equation
y .
2
(c) You are playing a game of paintball. Two of your friends are
hiding behind trees that are 10 feet apart. Where could you
possibly stand so that your firing range to each friend is exactly
the same distance?
Use class discussion to gauge the progress of the class and to identify common
misconceptions. Walk around and observe individual students while they go
through the activities to identify individual progress and challenges.
A compass is an instrument used to draw circles or the parts of circles
called arcs.
The locus of all points at a distance d from a fixed point O is represented
by a circle with centre O and radius d.
The locus of all points at a distance d from a fixed line is represented by two
parallel lines either side of it at a distance d away.
The locus of all points at a distance d from a fixed line segment is
represented by two parallel lines either side of it at a distance d away, plus
two semicircles of radius d centred on the end points of the line segment.
TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS 175
The locus of all points equidistant from two points A and B is the
perpendicular bisector of the line AB.
The locus of all points equidistant from two intersecting lines is made up
of the two lines that bisect the angles formed where the original lines
intersect.
Arc Perpendicular bisector
Bisector of an Perpendicular
angle lines
Centre of a circle Plane
Chord Protractor
Circle Radii
Circumference Radius
Compass Right angle
Diameter Ruler
Equilateral Secant
triangle
Geometric constructions Sector
Horizontal Segment
line
Intersection Semicircle
point
Loci Set square
Locus Straight edge
Parallel Tangent
lines
Perimeter Vertical line
176 TOPIC 6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS
Cheong, Q. L., & Teh, W. L. (2008). Essential mathematics form 2. Petaling Jaya,
Malaysia: Pearson.
Geometric construction. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://mathworld.wolfram.com/
GeometricConstruction.html
Lee, L. M. (2007). Mathematics form 2. Shah Alam, Malaysia: Arah Pendidikan.
Martin, G. E. (1998). Geometric constructions. Berlin, Germany: Springer.
Sherard, W. H. (1981). Why is geometry a basic skill? Mathematics Teacher,
74(1), 19-21.
Topic
Topi Coordinates
7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the topic, you should be able to teach your students how to:
1. Identify the x-axis, y-axis and the origin on a Cartesian plane;
2. Determine given coordinates;
3. Find the distance between two points using PythagorasÊ Theorem;
and
4. Identify the midpoint of the joining two points.
INTRODUCTION
Before 1637, Mathematics was divided into geometry and algebra. Equations in
geometry and pictures in algebra were not used. Around 1637, a French scientist
and philosopher named René Descartes (pronounced „Ray-Nay Day-Cart‰,
1596- 1650) came up with a way to put these two subjects together.
Numbers can be used to accurately describe the position of any point or
coordinate. You may recall that a system for naming and locating points involves
the Cartesian plane (refer Figure 7.1). This method was invented in the 17th
century by Descartes.
178 TOPIC 7 COORDINATES
Figure Cartesian plane
7.1:
Pedagogical Content Knowledge
To explain DescartesÊ method, first ask students to think about using a street
map. If they are trying to find a street that they have never been on before, they
have to look for the street name in the index of the street map. Suppose the index
says that the street is located at D 10. This means that they have to go across the
top of the map and find „D ‰, and then go down the side and find „10‰.
Students have to trace down and across to find the box labelled „D10‰ and
then they have to look inside the box for the street they need. Somebody
figured out this way to give them directions on the map, by telling them „how
far over„ and
„how far down‰ they need to look. Descartes did something similar.
The following subtopic will guide you in teaching this topic.
7.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE CARTESIAN
PLANE
The „D10‰ designation for car parks at a shopping complex is unambiguous
because it is easy for customers to understand the meaning of D and 10. If
the designation is written as „10-D ‰, the customers will still know which box
of the car park they should go to, because the „D ‰ would still have been
across the top and the „10‰ would still have been along the side. However,
on the Cartesian plane, both axes are labelled with numbers.
You can begin a class by explaining the basic idea of the Cartesian plane by using
the following definitions and terms.
TOPIC 7 COORDINATES 179
Definitions and Terms
The whole flat expanse, top to bottom, side to side, is called plane. When we put
the axes on the plane, it is called Cartesian („carr-TEE-zhun‰) plane. The name
„Cartesian‰ was derived after its creator, Descartes.
Coordinates are sets of numbers that describe the position of a location on a
surface. The following are the main terminology of the Cartesian coordinate
system:
(a) Coordinates of a point: Represent a pair of number (x, y) on a plane;
(b) x-axis and y-axis: To locate points on a plane, two perpendicular lines are
used � A horizontal line called x-axis and a vertical line called y-axis;
(c) Origin: The intersection point of the x-axis and y-axis;
(d) Coordinate plane: The x-axis, y-axis and all the points on the plane;
(e) Ordered pairs: Every point on a coordinate plane is named by a pair of
numbers whose order is important. These pairs of numbers are written in
parentheses and separated by a comma;
(f) x-coordinate: The number to the left of the comma in an ordered pair is the
x-coordinate of the point and indicates the amount of movement along the x-
axis from the origin. The movement is to the right if the number is positive
and to the left if the number is negative; and
(g) y-coordinate: The number to the right of the comma in an ordered pair is
the y-coordinate of the point and indicates the amount of movement
perpendicular to the x-axis. The movement is above the x-axis if the
number is positive and below the x-axis if the number is negative.
Axis and Scale
In order to teach this topic effectively, you need to know some learning aspects
about the relationship between axis and scale.
Your students had learned about the basic (counting) number line back in
primary school:
180 TOPIC 7 COORDINATES
In Form 1, they were introduced to zero and negatives, which complete the
number line:
DescartesÊ breakthrough was in taking a second number line, standing it up
on its end and crossing the first number line at zero.
The system is based on two straight lines („axes‰), perpendicular to each
other, each of them marked with the distances from the point where they meet
at the origin. The right direction of the origin on the x-axis and above the origin
of the y-axis is positive, while it is negative on the opposite side.
The number lines, when drawn like this, are called „axes‰. The horizontal
number line is called x-axis; the vertical one is y-axis (refer to Figures 7.2 and
7.3).
Figure Figure
7.2: 7.3:
1 unit on the x-axis represents 2 units; 2 units on the x-axis represent 5 units;
2 units on the y-axis represent 5 units 2 units on the y-axis represent 3 units
TOPIC 7 COORDINATES 181
The arrows at the ends of the axes indicate the direction in which the numbers
are getting larger. Therefore, only the axes should have arrows and the arrows
should be on one end only.
lotting of Points and Coordinates
Ask your students to take a look at the following:
If someone gave you the direction „(5, 2)‰ (read as „the point five two‰ or just
„five two‰), where would it be located? To understand the meaning of „(5, 2)‰,
you have to know the following rule: The x-coordinate (the number for the
x-axis) alway comes first. The first number (the first coordinate) always on the
s is
horizontal axis.
This is sometimes indicated by referring to points as „(x, y)‰ or „x-y points‰,
reinforcing that the first coordinate is counted off along the x-axis and the second
coordinate is counted off along the y-axis. Some people keep track of this by
noting that the letters are used in alphabetical order. Figure 7.4 illustrates the
quadrants on the Cartesian plane.
The quadrants on the Cartesian plane
Figure
7.4:
182 TOPIC 7 COORDINATES
Example Plot the point (5, 2).
7.1:
Step Start at the origin, the spot Step Move 5 units to the right of
1: where the axes cross. 2: the y-axis.
Step Move 2 units above the Step Then, draw the dot.
3: x-axis. 4:
Finding the location of (5, 2) and drawing the dot is called „plotting the point
(5, 2)‰.
When plotting, remember that the first number comes from the horizontal axis
and the second number comes from the vertical axis. You always go „so far over
‰ and then „so far up or down‰. The following are a couple more examples.
TOPIC 7 COORDINATES 183
Example Plot the point (4, -5).
7.2:
Step Start at the origin. Step Move 4 units to the right of
1: 2: the y-axis.
Step Move 5 units below the -axis. Step Then, draw the dot.
3: 4:
Note that a negative y-coordinate means that you will be counting down the
xis, not up.
184 TOPIC 7 COORDINATES
Example Plot the point (-3, -1)
7.3:
Step Start at the origin. Step Move 3 units to the left of the
1: 2: y-axis.
Step Move 1 unit below the -axis.
3: Step Then, draw the dot.
4:
TOPIC 7 COORDINATES 185
SELF-CHECK 7.1
Give the point in Figure 7.5 that matches each ordered pair
verbally.
(a) (0, -4) (e) (6, 5)
(b) (-3, -2) (f) (4, -4)
(c) (4, 6) (g) (2, 1)
(d) (-4, 0) (h) (-4, 3)
Figure
7.5
ACTIVITY 7.1
1. Write the coordinates of each 2. Rectangle ABCD has
of the following points: coordinates as follows:
A(-5,2), B(8,2), and C(8, -4). Find
the coordinates of D.
186 TOPIC 7 COORDINATES
7.2 CARTESIAN PLANE: DISTANCE BETWEEN
TWO POINTS AND MIDPOINTS
In this subtopic, we will revisit the Pythagorean Theorem and use it to aid us in
teaching the Cartesian coordinate system.
Distance between Two Points on the Cartesian Plane
To understand the distance between two points, first your students must
understand the Pythagorean Theorem.
To find the distance between AC, though, simply subtracting is not
sufficient. Triangle ABC is a right-angled triangle with the hypotenuse
AC. Therefore, by applying the Pythagorean Theorem:
AC 2 AB BC 2
2
AC
AB 2 BC
AC 2
32 42 5
If A is represented by the ordered pair x 1 , y
and C is represented by the
1
ordered pair x 2 , y 2 , then AB = x 2 , x1 and BC = y 2 , y 1 . Then,
x 2 x 1 y2 1
2
AC 2 y
This is stated as a theorem (refer to Subtopic 7.2.2).
Use of the Pythagorean Theorem to Find the Distance
between Two Points
The following explains of the use of the Pythagorean Theorem.
Theorem 1:
If the coordinates of two points are x 1 , y and x , y , then the distance,
2 2
1
d, between the two points is given by the following formula (Distance
Formula):
x 2 x 1 y2 1
2
d 2 y
TOPIC 7 COORDINATES 187
Do not let the subscripts scare your students. The subscripts only indicate that
there are a first point and a second point. Whichever one they call „first‰ or
„second‰ is up to them.
Ask your students to practise answering all the questions in the following
examples. Then, discuss the solutions with them.
Example
7.6:
Use the Distance Formula to find the distance between the points (3, 4) and
(5, -2).
Solution:
Let x 1 , y 1 3, 4 and x 2 , y 2 5, 2
x 2 x 1 y2 1
2
d 2 y
5 3 2 2
8 2 6 2 10
2
4
Example
7.7:
A triangle has vertices A(12, 5), B(5, 3) and C(12, 1). Show that the triangle is
isosceles.
Solution:
Using the Distance Formula:
AB 5 12 2 3 BC 12 5 2 1
5 2 3
2 2
7 2 2 53 7 2 2 2 53
Since AB = BC, therefore triangle ABC is isosceles.
The most common mistake made by students when using the distance
formula is accidentally mismatching the x-values and y-values. Please remind
your students that they cannot subtract an x from a y or vice versa. Make sure
they have paired the numbers properly.
188 TOPIC 7 COORDINATES
Example
7.8:
Refer to the figure in Question 2 of Activity 7.1 to find the distance of:
(a) AB
(b) BC
Solution:
(a) AB 8 -5
13
(b) BC 2 -4
6
Coordinates of the Midpoint of Two Points
This subtopic discusses about coordinates of the midpoint of two points.
Midpoint
Formula
Point out to your students that numerically, the midpoint of a segment can be
considered as the average of its endpoints. This concept helps in
remembering a formula for finding the midpoint of a segment given the
coordinates of its endpoints. Recall that the average of two numbers is found
by dividing their sum by two.
Theorem 2:
If the coordinates of A and B are x 1 , y 1 and x 2 , y 2 , respectively, then the
midpoint, M, of AB is given by the following formula (Midpoint Formula):
x1 x 2 y 1 y 2
M 2 , 2
TOPIC 7 COORDINATES 189
Example
7.9:
In Figure 7.6, R is the midpoint of Q(-9, -1) and T(-3, 7). Find its coordinates
and use the Distance Formula to verify that it is in fact the midpoint of QT.
Finding the coordinates of the midpoint of a line segment
Figure
7.6:
Solution:
Using the Midpoint Formula:
x 1 x 2 y 1 y 2
R 2 , 2
-9 -3 -1 7
, -122 6 2
, -6, 3
2 2
By applying the Distance Formula,
QR 6 9 2 3 TR 6 3 2 3 7
3 4 5
1
2 2
2 2
3 2 4 2 5
Since QR = RT and Q, R, and T are on the same straight line, therefore R is
the midpoint of QT.
190 TOPIC 7 COORDINATES
Example
7.10:
Given that A is (12, 1) and B is (-18, 17), find the midpoint of AB.
Solution:
Let x 1 , y 1 12, -1 and x 2 , y 2 -18,17
x x2 y1y2
Mid point of AB 1 ,
2 2
12 18 -1 17
2 , 2
-6 16
,
2 2
-3, 8
Once your students have mastered the concept well, you can gradually introduce
some exercises on distance and midpoints.
ACTIVITY 7.2
Ask your students to solve the following and show their workings on
the whiteboard:
Find the distance between the points (-2, -3) and (-4, 4).
Find the midpoint of the following pairs of points: (i) (4, 7)
and (8, 10)
(ii) (-2, 5) and (3, 17)
(iii) (1, -4) and (7, 2)
TOPIC 7 COORDINATES 191
7.3 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING THE
DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS
AND MIDPOINTS
Choose an appropriate activity to respond to a mathematical question or
represent a situation generated by your students. Help them to explore the
relationship between the Pythagorean Theorem and the area of a square.
ind the Other Point When the Distance and One Point are Given
Your students can use the graphical method and the Pythagorean Theorem to
find the coordinates of point Q as in the following examples.
Example 7.11:
In Figure 7.7, PQ is a straight line. The coordinates of P are (-3, 10) and PQ = 11
units. Find the coordinates of point Q.
Figure PQ is a straight line
7.7:
Solution:
Q = (-3 + 11, 10) = (8, 10) since P and Q are collinear and parallel to the x-axis.
Example
7.12:
In Figure 7.8, PQR is an isosceles triangle.
If PQ =13units, find the coordinates of point P.
192 TOPIC 7 COORDINATES
PQR is an isosceles triangle
Solution:
Figure
7.8:
OP PQ 2 OQ 2
13 2 5 2 144 12 units.
Thus, P (-12, 0).
Find the Other Point When the Midpoint and One
Point are Given
If given the midpoint and one point, will you be able to find the coordinates of
the other point? The following are some examples for your students to
practise.
Example
7.13:
Find the coordinates of point Q if S(-4, 5) is the midpoint of PQ and the
coordinates of P are (-8, 8).
Solution:
Let Q x 2 , y 2 and p x 1 , y 1 -8, 8
x x2 y1y2
Mid point of PQ 1 ,
2 2
-8 x 2 8 y 2
-4, 5 2 ,2
8y2
-8 x and 5
-4
2
2 2
Q x 2 , y 2 0, 2
TOPIC 7 COORDINATES 193
Example
7.14:
Find the value of p so that (-2, 2.5) is the midpoint of (p, 2) and (-1, 3).
Solution:
By applying the Midpoint Formula:
p -1 2 3
-2, 2.5
,
2 2
p1 5
, -2, 2.5
2 2
p1
-2
2
p 1 -4
p -3
So the answer is p = -3.
roblem Solving Involving Two Points on the Cartesian Plane
The following are some examples for in-class activity. You can divide the
students into groups or they can work individually.
Example
7.15:
In Figure 7.9, ABCD is a straight line and PQR is a right triangle. Find the:
(a) Coordinate of D if C is the midpoint of BD.
(b) Coordinate of R.
(c) Midpoint of BP.
(d) Distance of ST.
194 TOPIC 7 COORDINATES
Figure ABCD and PQR
7.9:
Solution:
(a) We know that the coordinates of B and C are (-2, 0) and (0, -1), respectively.
x -
If the coordinates of D are (x, y), then 0 and y 0 -1.
2
2 2
Hence, x = 2, y = -2. D = (2, -2).
(b) R(2, -0.5)
-2 2 0 1
(c) The
BP midpoint of , 0, 0.5.
2 2
(d) The distance of ST = 2 � (-2) = 4 units.
Example
7.16:
In Figure 7.10, PQRS is a rectangle and M is the midpoint of PQ. Find the
coordinates of point R.
Figure PQRS and M
7.10:
TOPIC 7 COORDINATES 195
Solution:
Ask your students to use the graphical method or the midpoint.
Answer: (8, 3)
How would you carry out the activities to strengthen your studentsÊ
knowledge of this topic? You can ask them to use the algebraic method and
graphical method to solve the following questions.
ACTIVITY 7.3
1. Figure 7.11 shows a Cartesian plane. A is the midpoint of OB and
BC is perpendicular to the x-axis. If the area of OAC is 20 unit2,
find the coordinates of C.
Figure 7.11: Cartesian
plane
2. Figure 7.12 shows a Cartesian plane. Given that RSTU is a
parallelogram, find the coordinates of point S.
Figure 7.12: Cartesian
plane
196 TOPIC 7 COORDINATES
3. The distance between the points A(1, 2k) and B(1 � k, 1) is 11 9k
.
Find the possible values of k.
4. The coordinates of the endpoints of a line segment PQ are P(3,7) and
Q(11,-6). Find the coordinates of the point R such that PR = QR.
5. Find the perimeter and area of ABC, where vertices are A(-4,-2),
B(8,-2) and C(2,8).
6. Given that M(p, 7) is the midpoint of the line segment joining the
points A(-3,1) and B(11,q), find the values of p and q.
The coordinate plane is a basic concept of coordinate geometry. It
describes a two-dimensional plane in terms of two perpendicular axes: x
and y.
The x-axis indicates the horizontal direction while the y-axis indicates the
vertical direction of the plane.
On the coordinate plane, points are indicated by their positions along the x-
and y-axes.
On the coordinate plane, you can use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the
distance between any two points.
If the coordinates of two points are x 1 , y 1 and x 2 , y 2 , then the distance,
d, between the two points is given by the following formula (Distance
Formula):
x 2 x 1 y2 1
2
d 2 y
To find a point that is halfway between two given points, get the average of
the x-values and the average of the y-values.
If the coordinates of A and B are x 1 , y 1 and x 2 , y 2 , respectively, the
midpoint, M, of AB is given by the following formula (Midpoint Formula):
x1 x 2 y 1 y 2
M 2 , 2
TOPIC 7 COORDINATES 197
Algebraic Number
method line
Average Ordered
pairs
Axis Parallelogram
Cartesian plane Perimeter
Coordinate Perpendicular
geometry
Coordinate Points
plane
Coordinates Pythagorean Theorem
Distance Quadrant
Distance Scale
formula
Graphical Vertical
method axis
Horizontal axis x-axis
Hypotenuse
x-coordinate
Midpoint
y-axis
Midpoint formula y-coordinate
Blair, R. M. (2006).Intermediate algebra. New York, NY: Addison Wesley.
Cheong, Q. L, & Teh, W. L. (2008). Essential mathematics form 2. Petaling Jaya,
Malaysia: Pearson.
Lee, L. M. (2007). Mathematics form 2. Shah Alam, Malaysia: Arah Pendidikan.
Serge, L. (2008).Basic mathematics. New York, NY: Springer.
Topic
Topi Transformation
8
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to teach your students how to:
1. Identify a transformation as a one-to-one correspondence between
points on a plane;
2.
Determine the image of an object under a given transformation;
3.
Determine the image of a point under a given transformation; and
4. Apply the concepts in coordinate geometry to determine the image of
an object.
INTRODUCTION
Symmetries create patterns that help us organise our world conceptually.
Symmetric patterns occur in nature, and are invented by artists, craftspeople,
musicians, choreographers and mathematicians.
A pattern is symmetric if there is at least one line of symmetry (rotation
,
translation, reflection, glide reflection) that leaves the pattern unchanged.
Refer to Figure 8.1 for an example of symmetry in an equilateral hexagon
pattern.
TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION 199
Figure Equilateral hexagon
8.1:
Pedagogical Content Knowledge
Teachers are the key to changing the learning environment in the classroom.
Therefore, you have to plan classroom experiences and create a supportive
environment for learning to take place. Through classroom practices, you have
to
promote studentsÊ mathematical reasoning, challenge them with problems
through which they learn to value mathematics and provide them with a strong
foundation for further study.
This topic will help you to teach students to investigate basic geometric
relationships, congruence and similarity, and identify geometric transformations.
They should know that a figure, picture or pattern is said to be symmetric if there
is at least one line of symmetry that leaves the figure unchanged. For example,
the letters in AMOYOMA form a symmetric pattern. If your students draw a
vertical line through the centre of „Y‰ and then reflect the entire phrase across
the line, the left side becomes the right side, and vice versa. The picture does not
change.
8.1 TERMS AND CONCEPTS (OBJECT AND
IMAGE)
In order to teach this topic effectively, you need to consider the importance of
oral and mental work in all parts of the mathematics lesson. You can explain
the basic concepts of transformation by using the basic types of symmetry.
(a) Rotation by 90 degrees about a fixed point is an example of plane symmetry.
(b) Another basic type of symmetry is reflection. The reflection of a figure on
the plane about which a line moves its reflected image can be seen if
you view it using a mirror placed on the line. Another way to make a
reflection
200 TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION
is to fold a piece of paper and trace the figure onto the other side of the
fold.
(c) A third type of symmetry is translation. Translating an object means
moving it without rotating or reflecting it. You can describe a translation
by stating how far it moves an object, and in what direction.
(d) The fourth (and last) type of symmetry is glide reflection. A glide
reflection combines a reflection with a translation along the direction of
the mirror line.
You can further explain to your students about object and image by using this
example:
Example
8.1:
Identify the symmetric relationship in two-dimensional objects.
The Basic Properties of Equilaterals
You may begin a class by explaining the basic properties of equilaterals using a
set of regular polygons.
Regular Polygons
Example
8.2:
(a) A regular polygon with three sides is called equilateral triangle. Each
angle is 60 degrees (refer to Figure 8.2(a)).
(b) A regular polygon with four sides is called square. Each angle is 90 degrees
(refer to Figure 8.2(b)).
(c) A regular polygon with five sides is called pentagon. Each angle is 108
degrees (refer to Figure 8.2(c)).
(d) A regular polygon with six sides is called hexagon. Each angle is 120 degrees
(refer to Figure 8.2(d)).
TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION 201
Figure Regular polygons
8.2:
Equilateral Triangles
You may read the following instructions and ask your students to imagine the
final image first before sketching it.
Instruction to Students Image
Imagine an equilateral triangle.
Imagine another identical equilateral triangle. Place it
alongside the original so that the edges match exactly.
What is the name of the shape you have made?
Is there more than one possibility?
Explain.
Take another identical equilateral triangle and add this
to the figure.
What is the name of the shape you have made?
Describe its properties as accurately as you can.
Is there more than one possibility?
Explain.
Take four identical equilateral triangles.
How many different shapes can you make by joining
the edges?
Describe as accurately as possible one of the shapes
you have made from the four equilateral triangles.
202 TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION
SELF-CHECK 8.1
Replace the equilateral triangles by squares or by right-angled
triangles.
Ask your students the following questions:
What happens if you do the same transformation twice?
How many combinations of two transformations are there?
What happens if you combine more than two transformations?
Concepts of Isometry and Congruence
To introduce isometry/similarity and congruence to students, you may
carry out the following activity.
Opening Activity:
Ask your students:
(a) „What are congruent shapes?‰ These are shapes that have the same size
and shape.
(b) „What are similar shapes?‰ These are shapes that have the same shape
not the same
size. but
Let students review and practise how to differentiate congruent and similar
shapes by using the tangram pieces. Ask students to indicate and record the
pieces that are congruent (triangles that are the same size and shape) and
then the pieces that are similar (triangles that are of various sizes). Let
students work together in groups to create congruent and similar shapes by
combining the tangram pieces.
Next, explain further to your students the definition of isometric/similarity
and congruence.
Definition 1:
Informally, two geometric objects on the plane are similar if they have the
same shape. More formally, having the same shape means that one figure
can be mapped onto the other.
TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION 203
Help students to identify and apply conditions that are sufficient to guarantee
the similarity of triangles:
(a) Identify two triangles as similar if the ratios of the lengths of
corresponding sides are equal (side-side-side [SSS] criterion/postulate),
if the ratios of the lengths of two pairs of corresponding sides and the
measures of the corresponding angles between them are equal
(side-angle-side [SAS]
criterion), or if two pairs of corresponding angles are congruent (angle-
angle [AA] criterion).
(b) Apply the SSS, SAS and AA criteria to verify whether or not two triangles
are similar.
(c) Apply the SSS, SAS and AA criteria to construct a triangle similar to a
given triangle using a straight edge and a compass or geometric
software.
(d) Identify the constant of proportionality and determine the measures of
corresponding sides and angles for similar triangles.
(e) Demonstrate that the rate of change (slope) associated with any two points
on a line is a constant by using similar triangles.
(f) Recognise that a line drawn inside a triangle parallel to one side forms a
smaller triangle similar to the original one; explain why this is true and
apply this knowledge.
Definition 2:
Informally, two figures on the plane are congruent if they have the same
size and shape. More formally, having the same size and shape means
that one figure can be mapped into the other.
When formally defining the concepts of isometry and similarity
transformation‰, the students need to apply their knowledge of
geometric transformations. In the process, they will discover the minimum
conditions required for triangles to be isometric or similar (students can
discover this
through experimentation or observation), as well as the properties of isometric
or similar plane figures. Here, the students can once again apply their
knowledge of
ratios and proportions. Equivalent plane will be defined as figures
the same figures
and their main properties will be studied. with
area
204 TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION
The following examples will help students to develop their ability in analysing
geometric problems.
Example
8.3:
Is ABC EFD an isometry?
Solution:
From the figure, we can observe that the corresponding image vertices of the pre-
image vertices A, B and C are E, F and D, respectively.
In triangles ABC and EDF,
AC = ED = 5
BC = FD =
13
ACB EDF
Thus, by the SAS postulate, the two triangles are congruent, and the
transformation is an isometry.
Example
8.4:
Consider the given figures. If it is possible to prove that the triangles are
congruent, write the congruence and identify whether the SAS postulate or the
SSS postulate is used. If not, write not possible.
TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION 205
Solution:
Write congruence statements for ABC and DEF.
CA = FD and CB = FE
We have sufficient information to prove the congruence of the two triangles.
Write the congruence.
ABC DEF
Name the postulate that can be used to prove the triangles congruent.
The three sides of one triangle are congruent to the three sides of the other
triangle.
So, use the SSS postulate.
Explain to your students why congruence is a special case of similarity;
determine and apply conditions that guarantee the congruence of triangles:
(a) Determine whether two plane figures are congruent by showing whether
they coincide when superimposed by means of a sequence of rigid motions
(translation, reflection or rotation).
(b) Identify two triangles as congruent if two pairs of corresponding angles
and their included sides are all equal (angle-side-angle [ASA] criterion).
After your students have completed the above activity, discuss the concepts
they have just learned. Assess their understanding and clarify their doubts
before moving on to the next subtopic.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
Ask students to briefly provide the definitions of isometry and
congruence.
206 TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION
Coordinates and Transformation
Let us continue with the study of transformation so that students can become
proficient at visualising and recognising transformed figures on the coordinate
plane.
A translation slides an object a fixed distance in a given direction. The
original object and its translation have the same shape and size, and they face
the same direction.
(a) A translation is a movement up, down, left or right without changing size,
flipping or turning. We can specify the translation that has occurred by
stating how many units the object has moved vertically (up or down) and
horizontally (left or right).
(b) When finding the total translations, movements (the number of units) to the
right and up are considered positive, while movements to the left and down
are treated as negative.
Let us examine some translations related to coordinate geometry.
Example
8.5:
Examine how each vertex moves the same distance and in the same direction.
TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION 207
Example
8.6:
In this example, the slide moves the figure 7 units to the left and 3 units down.
Description: 7 units to the left and 3 units
down.
Mapping:
( , y) (-7, -3)
(This is read: The x and y coordinates will become x � 7 and
y � 3. Notice that movements to the left and down are
negative, while movements to the right and up are positive �
just as it is on coordinate axes.)
T 7 ,3
Symbol: (The -7 tells you to subtract 7 from all of your -coordinates,
while the -3 tells you to subtract 3 from all of your y-
coordinates.)
Example
8.7:
Use the graph paper to graph the quadrilateral: S(-5, -2), T(-4, 1), O(-1, -2) and
P(-3, -5). Write an explanation of what happens to any object if you add 4 to the
first coordinate of every point and �2 to every second coordinate.
What will be the new coordinates for S1, T1, O1 and P1?
208 TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION
Solution:
Pre-Image/Object Image
x y x y
S -5 -2 S1 -1 -4
T -4 1 T1 0 -1
O -1 -2 O1 3 -4
P -3 -5 P1 1 -7
If we add 4 to every first coordinate, the pre-image will move 4 units to the
right. If we add -2 to every second coordinate, the pre-image will move down 2
units.
Ask your students to plot the graph (object and image).
Example
8.8:
The coordinates of a translated triangle are F (-8, -16), T (-7, -13) and H (-1, -14).
If the coordinates of F are (-3, -12), what are the coordinates of T and H?
Solution:
From points F and F, we know that -3 = -8 + 5 and -12 = -16 + 4.
Let T = x 1 , y 1 and H = x 2 , y 2 . We obtain:
x 1 -7 5 and y -13 4 -9 , thus T = (-2, -9).
1
-2
and y 2 -14 4 -10 , thus H = (4, -10).
x 2 -1 5
4
ACTIVITY 8.1
1. What would the coordinates of point A be if triangle ABC located
at A(1,1), B(4,1) and C(2,3) was translated left 3 units?
2. What is the image translation of triangle KDH with coordinates
K(9, 8), D(3, 1) and H(0, 11) that are translated (2,-1)?
3. The coordinates of a translated triangle are T (-5, -3), D (2, 9) and
M(0, -10). If the coordinates of T are (-1,-1), what are the
coordinates of D and M?
TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION 209
8.2 BASIC CONCEPTS OF TRANSFORMATION
Let the students know what it is they will be learning today. Say something like
this: Today, class, we will learn what translations, reflections and rotations
are to a mathematician.
You may then use a diagram or picture to assess how well the students
understand the different transformations they have learned and how well they
can use the associated mathematical terms.
You may also suggest that they practise their skills by using the Interactive
Transmographer.
(Refer to http://www.shodor.org/interactivate/activities/Transmographer).
Reflection
The four Euclidean isometries � reflection, translation, rotation and glide
reflection � can be expressed as compositions of reflections. In the following,
students will find some texts, pictures and animations illustrating the
relationship between reflection and other isometries.
Example
8.9:
Do the following diagrams illustrate line reflections?
(a)
(b)
210 TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION
(c)
(d)
Explain to your students that to reflect an object means to produce its mirror
image. Every reflection has a mirror line. A reflection of an R is a backwards
R.
Example
8.10:
Rotation (From 0º to 360º)
To rotate an object means to turn it around. Every rotation has a centre and an
angle.
Example
8.11:
TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION 211
Example
8.12:
Translation
To translate an object means to move it without rotating or reflecting it. Every
translation has a direction and a distance.
Example
8.13:
Do the following diagrams illustrate translations?
Example
8.14:
Example
8.15:
212 TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION
Glide Reflection
A glide reflection combines a reflection with a along the direction of a
translation
mirror line. Glide reflection is the only type of symmetry that involves more than
one step.
Example
8.16:
Example
8.17:
Have your students practise answering the questions in the following activity
and ask them to give reasons for their answers.
TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION 213
ACTIVITY 8.2
1. This drawing has been rotated 180o. Answer Yes or
No.
2. This triangle has been rotated in a clockwise direction. True or
False?
3. Seahorse 2 is a 90-degree counterclockwise rotation of Seahorse
1.
True or False?
4. Why does the word AMBULANCE appear in the following
form
on the front of rescue vehicles?
214 TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION
8.3 THE PROPERTIES OF TRANSFORMATION
Once your students have mastered the concepts well, you can gradually introduce
some examples of transformation.
In this subtopic, you will learn how to help your students to recognise and visualise
transformations, and lines of symmetry of two-dimensional
shapes.
Translation
This subtopic covers translation.
Definition 3:
A translation is a transformation that slides each point of a figure the same
distance and direction. This is the result when a figure is reflected over a
pair of parallel lines.
Translation has a multitude of applications in our everyday life. In the field of
mathematics, translation can help us to understand the transformation of algebraic
functions. Translation plays an important part in graphic and manufacturing.
We are surrounded by samples of translation in the design
design of fabric, wallpaper and
floor tiling. Examples of translation can also be found in sheet music.
Figure 8.3 illustrates how the pre-image (triangle ABC) is reflected over a pair of
parallel lines (m and n). The result of the two reflections is the image of the
translation (triangle A B C ).Notice that the distance between A and A is twice
the distance between the parallel lines, and the line AA is perpendicular to lines m
and n.
Example
8.18:
Properties of translation (refer to Figure 8.3):
(a) A translation preserves congruence.
(b) A translation preserves orientation.
TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION 215
Figure 8.3: Properties of translation
Notice that the pre-image (triangle ABC) and the image (triangle A B C ) are
congruent (all corresponding sides and angles are congruent). Also, if you look
at
the vertices of triangle ABC in alphabetical order, they are arranged in a
clockwise orientation. The vertices of triangle A B C are also arranged in a
clockwise orientation.
Rotation
Point out to your students that they have to identify the properties of rotation.
Encourage them to form class discussion.
Definition 4:
A rotation is a transformation in which every point of a figure moves along
a circular path around a fixed point that is called centre of rotation.
A figure can be rotated about a point called centre o rotation. To specify the
rotation, we need to give the angle through which the fobjects are to be turned
and the direction of the rotation (clockwise or anticlockwise).
216 TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION
Lines that are drawn from a point and its image to the centre of rotation form an
angle that is always the same measure. This angle is called angle of rotation. To
ensure a better understanding of this concept of rotation, ask your students to
experiment with rotating figures on the coordinate plane.
They can observe rotational symmetry on the face of a clock, a windmill and the
tyres of cars. Designs created by rotation can be found in quilts, fabrics, rugs
and various logos. In the field of geometry, regular polygons have rotational
symmetry.
The same result can be achieved by reflecting a figure over two intersecting lines
(refer to Figure 8.4). Polygon ABCDE is first reflected over line m before it is
reflected over line n. The image of the rotation is A B C D E. The angle of
rotation can be found by measuring the angle formed by the segments that connect
points A and A to point J (the centre of rotation).
Example
8.19:
Properties of rotation (refer to Figure 8.4):
(a) A rotation is a transformation that preserves congruence.
(b) A rotation preserves orientation.
Properties of rotation
Figure
8.4:
TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION 217
Notice that polygon ABCDE is congruent to polygon ABCDE (the
corresponding parts of each polygon are congruent). Also, the vertices of both
polygons ABCDE and A B C D E are in a counter clockwise orientation.
Class Activity: Rotational Art
The students will create art by rotating an object(s) several times around a fixed
point of rotation. The art will be defined by colouring it in. The students will
exchange pictures and try to determine the centre, angle and direction of the
rotations.
Reflection
Explain the following definition and examples to your students.
Definition 5:
A reflection is a transformation in which each point of a figure has an
image that is the same distance from the line of reflection as the original
figure.
Reflections are often called mirror images and the lines in which the objects
are reflected are called mirror lines. Mirror images always have reverse
orientation. The points of the image and the corresponding points of the object
lie on the same line, which is perpendicular to the mirror line. Each point of the
image is the same distance from the mirror line as each point of the object on
the other side of the mirror.
The concept of reflection surrounds us in our everyday life. We can find
reflection symmetry in architecture, nature, sports, graphic design and everyday
objects. We can see our own reflection by using a mirror or looking into a pool of
water. Kaleidoscopes and periscopes use reflections to produce beautiful
symmetric designs.
In Figure 8.5, every point in triangle ABC is mapped onto its image in triangle
perpendicular
bisector
ABC. The reflection line m is the of the segments that
connect each point from the original triangle with each point in the image ( m is
the perpendicular bisector of segments AA, BB and CC ).
218 TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION
Example
8.20:
Properties of reflection (refer to Figure 8.5):
(a) A reflection is a transformation that preserves congruence.
(b) A reflection changes orientation.
(c) The line of reflection is the perpendicular bisector of every segment that
connects a point and its image.
Figure Properties of reflection
8.5:
Notice that the triangles are congruent (all corresponding sides are congruent
and all corresponding angles are congruent). If we look at the vertices of triangle
ABC in alphabetical order, they are arranged in a counter clockwise orientation.
The vertices of triangle ABC are arranged in a clockwise orientation.
Students can observe these basic properties of reflection when they complete
the reflection investigation using the GeometerÊs Sketchpad. They can also
verify their results using simple paper folding activities. Ask students to think of
other ways to demonstrate the properties of reflection.
Class Activity: Miming
Reflection
Each student will be paired with a partner. The partners will face each other and
be told to reflect or mimic what their partner is doing. You need to start slow
and then move on to doing it faster. When finished, you may discuss the
properties of reflection, specifically pointing out that whatever the students did
with their left hands, their partners reflected it with their right hands, and vice
versa.
TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION 219
The following are some questions for in-class activity. Encourage your students to
form class discussion.
ACTIVITY 8.3
1. Which of the following lettered figures are translations of the
shape of the first arrow given?
2. Can the following diagram be used to illustrate a translation of
ABC three units to the right and two units up?
220 TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION
3.Which of the following translations best describes the diagram below?
(a) 3 units right and 2 units down.
(b) 3 units left and 2 units up.
4.Which statement best describes the translation shown in the diagram
below?
(a) A horizontal translation.
(b) A vertical translation.
(c) A translation of 2 units right and 1 unit down.
5.A person is sitting 4m away from a mirrored wall. How far away from
the person will his or her reflection appear to be?
6.Polygon ABCD is a 180À counter-clockwise rotation of polygon
ABCD. True or False?
TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION 221
7. Fish 2 is a 45À counter-clockwise rotation of Fish 1. True or False?
8. (a) What word will be seen when MOM is reflected over line m?
(b) What word will be seen when MOM is reflected over line l?
9. Which of the following shows a reflection, translation and rotation?
222 TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION
Discuss with your colleague other activities related to daily life which can help
your students to apply their mathematical knowledge and communicate their
mathematical thinking coherently and clearly.
A transformation that preserves distance is an isometry. A direct isometry
also preserves orientation or order.
An indirect or opposite isometry changes the order (such as from
clockwise to counter clockwise lettering).
A line reflection creates a figure that is congruent to the original figure and
is an isometry. Since naming the figure in a reflection requires changing
the order, it is an indirect or opposite isometry.
A translation creates a figure that is congruent to the original figure and
preserves distance and orientation � it is a direct isometry.
A rotation creates a figure that is congruent to the original figure and
preserves distance and orientation � it is a direct isometry.
TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION 223
Angle Midpoint
Angle-angle Midpoint formula
criterion
Centre Opposite
isometry
Clockwise Orientation
orientation
Congruence Perpendicular bisector
Congruent Plane symmetry
Coordinate geometry Postulate
Counter clockwise Pre-image
orientation
Direct isometry Preserves distance
Equilateral Reflection
GeometerÊs Sketchpad Rotation
Geometric transformations Side-angle-side criterion
Glide reflection Side-side-side criterion
Graphic design Similarity
Image Symmetric
Isometric Symmetry
Isometry Tangram pieces
Mirror line Transformation
Object Distance formula Translation
Graphical Transmographer
method
Horizontal axis Two-dimensional shapes
Hypotenuse
224 TOPIC 8 TRANSFORMATION
Cheong, Q. L, & Teh, W. L. (2008).Essential mathematics form 2. Petaling Jaya,
Malaysia: Pearson.
Hearn, D., & Baker, P. M. (1997).Computer graphics (2nd ed.). New Delhi,
India: Prentice Hall.
Lee, L. M. (2007). Mathematics form 2. Shah Alam, Malaysia: Arah Pendidikan.
Walter, M. (2006). Geometry and its applications. New York, NY: Academic
Press.
Topic
Topi Circles
9
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to teach your students how to:
1. Identify a circle as a set point equidistant from a fixed point;
2. Draw parts of a circle;
3. Solve problems including circumference and arcs of a circle; and
4. Solve problems involving area of sectors and area of circles.
INTRODUCTION
In the Islamic culture, the circle is a unit of measure. A circle is the basis for the
organisation of space. It is a starting point in architecture, poetry, music and even
calligraphy. From a circle, we can construct many regular polygons (refer to
Figures 9.1 and 9.2).
Figure Arabesque Figure Ishihara Pseudoisochromatic
9.1: tile 9.2: plate
226 TOPIC 9 CIRCLES
Egyptian rope-stretchers and temple surveyors developed a reproducible
pegs cords
method by using and to trace circles and straight lines on sand. They
established geometric procedures for generating precise and accurate
constructions. Many methods have been used throughout history to measure the
arc of a circle, although only two remain in common use, the degree and the
radian. The degree probably originated with the ancient Babylonians at least
3,000 years ago. The radian, as a unit of circular measure, is credited to Roger
Cotes in 1714.
Pedagogical Content Knowledge
The purpose of this topic is to help you to develop activities that will enable your
students to better appreciate and understand some aspects of circles that are
consistent with the principles and standards for Form 2 syllabus. This topic
includes the application of circles to art, literature, music, architecture, nature,
and some other relevant areas. You may integrate technology into the teaching of
this topic.
One of the problems in studying circles is related to studentsÊ intuitive skills
where some students are unable to see geometrical properties. Some of
them have problems identifying where to start when solving circle
problems. The
geometrical eye � the ability to see geometrical properties detach themselves
from a figure � would be essential to solve circle problems.
9.1 DEFINITION OF CIRCLE
You may begin a class by asking students to look at their surroundings and
see whether they can name objects in circular shapes. You may then recall
the definition of circle with them using the following definition:
A circle is a set of all points on a plane that are a fixed distance from a centre.
A circle is easy to make: Draw a curve that is radius
from a central point.
And so: All points are the same distance from the
centre.
Also, the circle is a plane shape (two-dimensional).
Figure 9.3: A
circle
TOPIC 9 CIRCLES 227
Definitions of Terms Related to Circles
Let us now look at the definitions of a few terms related to the circle:
Definition 1:
A circle is a set of all points on a plane that are at the same distance from
a fixed point called the centre. The tangent of a circle is a line that touches
the circle at one and only one point no matter how far produced.
Proposition
1:
If a line is tangent to a circle, it is perpendicular to the radius at the point of
tangency.
Parts of a
Circle
A circle is a special figure and as such has parts with special names. There are
also special angles, lines and line segments that are exclusive to circles. In this
topic, we shall examine all of them.
Radius and Diameter
The radius is the distance from the
centre to the edge of any part of the
circumference.
The plural of radius is radii.
The diameter starts on one side of
the circle, goes through the centre
and ends on the other side.
So the diameter is twice the
radius: Diameter = 2 Radius
Figure 9.4: Parts of a circle
228 TOPIC 9 CIRCLES
Area
The area of a circle is times radius
squared, which is written as:
A = r2
or, in terms of the diameter:
A D2
4
An easy way to remember is to think
of the area of the square that the
circle would fit inside.
Inside and Outside
A circle has an inside and an outside
(of course!). But it also has an on,
because you could be right on the
circle.
Example: A is outside the circle, B is
inside the circle and C is on the circle.
Slices
There are two main slices of a
circle. The pizza slice is called
sector.
It is enclosed by two radii and an arc.
The slice made by a chord is called
segment.
It is enclosed by a chord and an arc.
TOPIC 9 CIRCLES 229
Circle, Chord, Sector, Segment and
Circumference
The quadrant and semicircle are two
special types of sector:
A quarter of a circle is called quadrant.
Half a circle is called semicircle.
Circumference
The distance around a circle is called
circumference.
The circumference of a circle is equal
to:
2 radius, or diameter.
Chord of a Circle Semicircle
A chord of a circle is a line drawn A semicircle is an arc that is defined by
between two points on a circle. diametric points along the circle. This
arc is as large as half the circle.
230 TOPIC 9 CIRCLES
Using the traditional definition of a circle, we can find the general form of the
equation of a circle on the coordinate plane given its radius, r, and centre (h, k).
We know that each point (x, y), on the circle which we want to identify is a
distance r
from (h, k). Using the distance formula, this gives: ( h)2 + ( y k)2 = r which is
more commonly written as
h)2 + ( y k )2 = r 2.
(
Example
9.1:
The following equation represents the circle with centre (3, -6) and radius 5 units.
3 y -6 52
2
x
2
SELF-CHECK 9.1
Ask your students to answer the following questions verbally:
Explain why the area of a circle equals its radius times one-half of its
circumference.
Describe methods for approximating .
Deriving the Formula for the Circumference of a Circle
In the following sections, you will show your students the methods of finding
the circumference of a circle by using the diameter and radius.
Calculating the circumference of a circle involves a constant called pi with the
symbol . The value of is approximately 3.14159265358979323846... but usually
22
rounding to 3.142 or should be sufficient.
7
TOPIC 9 CIRCLES 231
The circumference is the distance around the edge of a circle. It is exactly pi times
the diameter, so:
Circumference = Diameter
Also,
Circumference = 2 Radius
Circumference
Diameter
The circumference of a circle is the distance around the outside of the circle.
Thus, it can be called theperimeter of the circle.
Example
9.2:
Find the circumference of the circle with a diameter of 8cm.
Solution:
Step Write down the formula C = d
1:
Step Plug in the value d = 8
2:
Thus, the circumference of the circle is 8 = 25.143cm
Example
9.3:
Find the circumference of the circle with a radius of 5cm.
Solution:
Step Write down the formula C = 2r
1:
Step Plug in the value r = 5
2:
Thus, the circumference of the circle is 10 = 31.42cm
232 TOPIC 9 CIRCLES
Finding the Unknown Values of Radii and
Diameters
Ask your students to practise answering all the questions in the following
examples. Then, discuss the solutions with them.
Example
9.4:
If the circumference of a circle is 66cm, find its diameter.
Solution:
Diameter
Circumference 66
22
7
7
66
22
37
21cm
Example
9.5:
If the circumference of a circle is 88cm, find its radius.
22
USE
7
Solution:
Radius 88
Circumference
2
222
7
7
88
44
14cm
TOPIC 9 CIRCLES 233
ACTIVITY 9.1
Ask your students to simplify each of the following and show their
workings on the whiteboard.
22
1. Using , calculate the circumference of a circle with a
7
diameter of:
(a) 14cm (b) 21cm (c) 35cm (d) 42cm
22
2. Using , calculate the circumference of a circle with a radius
7
of:
(a) 3.5cm (b) 7cm (c) 28cm (d) 56cm
9.2 ARC OF A SECTOR
Point out to your students that they have to identify all the terms that are related
to a sector.
Arc of a
Circle
An arc of a circle is a curved line drawn between two points along the
circumference (refer to Figure 9.6).
Arc of a circle
Figure
9.6:
234 TOPIC 9 CIRCLES
An arc of a circle is a continuous portion of the circle. It consists of two end
points and all the points on the circle between these end points. The symbol
used to denote an arc is written over the end points that form the arc. There
are two types of arcs:
(a) Minor Arc
An arc that is less than a semicircle (refer to Figure 9.7). A minor arc is
named by using only the two end points of the arc.
(b) Major
Arc
An arc that is more than a semicircle (refer to Figure 9.8). It is named by
three points. The first and third are the end points and the middle point is
any point on the arc between the end points.
Figure A minor arc of a circle Figure A major arc of a circle
9.7: 9.8:
Deriving the Formula of the Length of an Arc
Students are often confused by the fact that the arcs of a circle can be measured
in more than one way. The best way to avoid that confusion is to remember that
arcs possess two properties. They have length as a portion of the circumference,
but they also have a measurable curvature, based on the corresponding central
angle.
By the same reasoning, the arc length (of a sector or segment) is (refer to Figure
9.9):
Arc Length =θr
L
r if
is in degrees
180
TOPIC 9 CIRCLES 235
Figure Arc length of a sector
9.9:
An arc can be measured either in degrees or in unit length. In Figure 9.10, l is a
connected portion of the circumference of the circle.
Length of arc Centre angle
Circumference 360o
l
2r 360o
Figure Determining arc length
9.10:
The portion is determined by the size of its corresponding central angle. A
proportion will be created that compares a portion of the circle to the whole
circle first in degree measure and then in unit length.
Finding the Length of an Arc
Students already know that a sector of a circle is a pie-shaped region bounded by
an arc and an angle. Here, you need to show them how to find the arc length a.
The area A of the sector will be discussed in Subtopic 9.3. In both calculations,
they need to know the radius r of the circle and the central angle θ of the sector.
236 TOPIC 9 CIRCLES
Example
9.6:
Calculate the length of an arc that subtends an angle at 60 À at the centre of a circle
with a radius of 15cm.
Solution:
The first step is to find out what fraction of the circle is represented by the central
angle 60À.
60o 1
360o 6
Thus, the sector represents
1
of the circle or 0.1667 of the circle.
6
To find the arc length a, we now need to find the circumference (the distance
around the full circle) and then find of it (or multiply it by 0.1667).
1
6
C = 2πr = 2 3.142 15 = 94.26cm
1
a 94.26cm
15.71cm 6
Thus, the length of the arc a is 15.71cm.
This method will work for any sector in any circle. Your students will only need
to find the fraction of the circle that the sector angle represents, and then find
the fraction of the circumference. Here is a quicker formula to use:
a 2r
360o
TOPIC 9 CIRCLES 237
Example 1
9.7:
The length of an arc is 44cm. If the radius of the circle is 17 cm find the angle
at
2
22
the centre of the sector (use ).
7
Solution:
Angle at centre 44
360 o 22
2 17
1
Angle at centre 7
360o
2
44
22
2 17
1
7
2
144o
Example
9.8:
The length of the minor arc AB is 16 and angle OAB 90o.
1
is
2
Calculate the:
(a) Radius of the circle.
(b) Length of the major arc OAB.
22
(Use )
7
238 TOPIC 9 CIRCLES
Solution:
Angle at centre Length of arc
360o =
Circumference
1
o 16
90 2
(a) 360 o = 22
2 r
7
33 7
r = 2 11
=10.5cm
Therefore, the radius of the circle is 10.5cm.
(b) 22
Circumference = 2 r 2 10.5 66cm
7
Length of the major arc = Circumference � Length of the minor arc
1
66 16 49.5cm
2
Problem Solving Involving the Length of Arc
In this subtopic, we will guide students how to solve mathematical problems
involving the length of arc.
Example
9.9:
Given that the length of the arc AB = 8cm and the radius of the circle is 16cm,
find AOB.
Solution:
x
Arc length 8 1
360 o
Circumference 2 (16) 4
1
x 360o
4
x 90o
So, AOB 90o
TOPIC 9 CIRCLES 239
Example
9.10:
The following diagram shows a sector of a circle. Given that POQ 45o and
the radius of the circle is 14cm, find the length of the arc PQ.
Solution:
45o
Arc length PQ
360o Circumference 22
2 (14)
7
1
PQ 88
8
11cm
ACTIVITY 9.2
1. Find the arcs of the following circles:
Radius = 14cm; angle subtended = 60À
Diameter = 35cm; angle subtended = 45À
2. The two diagrams below show sectors of a circle. Find the:
Length of the major arc PQ
Length of the minor arc MN
240 TOPIC 9 CIRCLES
9.3 AREA OF SECTOR (CIRCULAR SECTOR)
A circular sector or circle sector, also known as a pie piece, is the portion of a
circle enclosed by two radii and an arc. Its area can be calculated as follows:
Let be the central angle, in radians and r the radius. The total area of a circle is
r 2 . The area of the sector can be obtained by multiplying the circleÊs area by the
ratio of the angle and 2 (because the area of the sector is proportional to the
angle and 2 is the angle for the whole circle):
Area of sector
Area of circle 2
Area of sector
r 2 2
Area of sector r2
2
Also, if refers to the central angle in degrees, a similar formula can be derived:
A = r 2
.
Deriving the Formula of an Area of a Sector
You can ask your students to work out the area of a sector by comparing its
angle to the angle of a full circle.
Note: We use radians for the angles.
This is the reasoning:
(a) A circle has an angle of 2and an area of r2
(b) So a sector with an angle of must have an area of: r2
2
(c) It can be simplified to: r2
2
TOPIC 9 CIRCLES 241
Area of sector r2
2
2
2 180
r
(if is in degrees)
r2
360
Please emphasise to your students that they can write the above formula in
general form:
Portion of a circle Measure of central angle Area of
= =
Whole circle
sector 360o Area of
circle
Explain further to your students that to find the area of a segment, the area of the
triangle is subtracted from the sector.
Area of Segment
The area of a segment is the area of a sector minus the triangular piece (shown in
grey in Figure 9.11).
There is a lengthy derivation, but the result is a slight modification of the sector
formula:
1
Area of Segment = sin r 2
2
Area of segment
Figure
9.11:
242 TOPIC 9 CIRCLES
Finding the Area of a Sector and the Angle
Ask your students to practise the questions in the following examples. Then,
discuss the solutions with them.
Example
9.11:
In Figure 9.12, find the area of sector OACB.
Solution:
Measure of central angle Area of sector
360o Area of
circle
90o
360o Area of sector
(12)2
1 Area of sector
4 144
4 Area sector of OACB 144
144
1
72 22 792 113 cm 2
Area sector of OACB
4 3 7 7 7
Area of sector OACB
Figure
9.12:
TOPIC 9 CIRCLES 243
Example
9.12:
In Figure 9.13, find the area of sector RQTS.
Solution:
Angle at centre Length of arc
360 o
Circumference
120o
24
360o 2r
1 12
3 r
r 36cm
The radius of the circle is 36cm, so the area of the circle 36 1, 296 cm 2 .
2
is
Therefore,
Measure of central angle Area of sector
360o Area of circle
120o Area of sector
360o 1296
1 Area of sector
3 1296
3 Area sector RQTS 1, 296
Area sector of
432
RQTS
244 TOPIC 9 CIRCLES
Figure Area of sector RQTS
9.13:
Example
9.13:
Find the value of in the following diagram.
Solution:
Angle at centre Length of arc
360 o
Circumference
o 44
360o 2r
44
o 360o 22 120o
2
21
7
Problem Solving Involving the Area of Sector and the
Combined Parts of Circles
Ask you students to explore how mathematics can help them in their daily
lives. Discuss the following examples with them.
Example
9.14:
Calculating how much carpet you will need is a fairly simple task if your house
has only square or rectangular rooms. However, what if you have a circular
alcove at the end of one room? Understanding some basic geometry may help
you in your budget.
TOPIC 9 CIRCLES 245
Solution:
If your living room has a semi-circular alcove as shown in the floor plan above,
you will need to use an additional equation to figure out its area. To find the
radius of your alcove, you need to divide the diameter by two. If the diameter
is the same as the width of the living room: 12 feet, half of that is its radius: 6
feet.
Thus:
A = 3.14159 (6 feet 6 feet)
A = 113 square feet (rounded to the closest square foot)
If your alcove is a complete circle, it would have an area of 113 square feet. Since
the alcove is half of the circle, its area is 56.5 square feet. Adding 56.5 square feet
to the rest of your floor plan's area of 229 square feet gives you the total area of
285.5 square feet. Now, you only need to buy exactly the amount of carpet you
need.
Example
9.15:
The sprinkler head for an irrigation system i s a circular area. The maximum
distance, r, the spray of water reaches is 10m. What is the area covered by the
sprinkler?
Solution:
22 2
A r 2 102 314 m2
7 7
Example
9.16:
A traffic circle has a diameter of 9m. The City Street Department wants to replace
the kerb around the circle. How many feet of kerbing must be constructed?
Solution:
22 9
C 2r 2 28.286m
7 2
246 TOPIC 9 CIRCLES
Example
9.17:
Use the fact that the figure has symmetry. Determine the area of the shaded
region.
Solution:
Area of the shaded Area of rectangle Area of two semicircles
region
16 24 8 182.86mm 2
2
Example
9.18:
The diagram shows a square with a semicircle, and two quadrants of a circle.
Find the area of the shaded region in cm 2.
Solution:
Area of the shaded region = Area of rectangle � Area of semicircle � Area of two
quadrants.
1 22 1 22 1 22
64 42 52 32 12.14cm2
2 7 4 7 4 7
The following are some questions for in-class activity. You may divide the
students into groups or they can work on it individually.
TOPIC 9 CIRCLES 247
ACTIVITY 9.3
1. Find the area of sector OAB if the:
Radius of the circle is 16.8cm; angle subtended = 30À
Radius of the circle is 8.4cm; angle subtended = 135À
Radius of the circle is 7cm; angle subtended = 240À
2. Find the perimeter of a circle with radius
27cm.
3. A flower garden is to be formed with bricks in the shape of a 2m
diameter circle. How many 20cm-wide bricks are needed to form
the circle?
4. Find the perimeter of a circle with a diameter of
100mm.
5. Use the following diagram (representing a washer) to solve this
problem:
What is the circumference of the outside of the washer?
Subtract the circular area to find the surface area of the washer.
6. A playground has a circle with a diameter of 5m. Find the
circumference.
248 TOPIC 9 CIRCLES
7. The distance around a circular field is 1.2km. What is the area of
the field in terms of ?
8. What is the area of a 24cm
pizza?
9. The minute hand of a clock is 5.6cm long. How much of an area does
the minute hand sweep through in 35 minutes?
10. Arina has a square piece of paper with sides 13cm. She cuts out a
circle of diameter 9cm from the piece of paper. Calculate the area of
the paper that is left.
All points along the circle are the same distance from the centre of the circle.
The radius, usually represented by the letter r, is the distance from the centre
of the circle to any point on the circle.
The diameter, usually represented by the letter d, is the distance from one
point on the circle to a point on the opposite side of the circle that passes
through the centre point of the circle.
The circumference of a circle, usually represented by the letter c, is both the
boundary of the circle and the measurement of the distance around the circle
(also called perimeter).
Circumference = Diameter or 2 Radius
The ratio of circumference to diameter (c/d) of any circle is 3.1416, or π (also
known as pi).
Portion of a circle (arc length) Measure of central angle Area of sector
Whole circle (circumference) 360o of circle
Area
TOPIC 9 CIRCLES 249
Arc Minor
arc
Arc length Perimeter
Area Plane
Central Portion
angle
Centre Quadrant
Chord Radii
Circle Radius
Circular Secant
sector
Circumference Sector
Coordinate Segment
Degree Semicircle
Diameter Shaded region
Major arc Tangent
Birkhoff, G. D., & Beatley, R. (2000). Basic geometry: Manual for teachers.
Harvard, MA: AMS Chelsea.
Cheong, Q. L., & Teh, W. L. (2008). Essential mathematics form 2. Petaling Jaya,
Malaysia: Pearson.
Lee, L. M. (2007). Mathematics form 2. Shah Alam, Malaysia: Arah Pendidikan.
Wilder, S. J., Primm, D., & Westwell, J. (2005). Learning to teach mathematics in
the secondary school. London, England: Routledge Falmer.
Topic
Topi Solid
10 Geometry
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to teach your students how to:
1. Use solid geometry-related vocabulary correctly;
2. Describe various aspects of solid geometry and platonic solids;
3. Investigate the nets and cross sections of solids as a way of
establishing the relationship between two-dimensional and three-
dimensional geometry; and
4. Solve problems involving the volume and surface area of cylinders,
prisms and composite shapes.
INTRODUCTION
We live in a three-dimensional (3-D) global village. Every object you see or touch
has three dimensions that can be measured: length, width and height. The
classroom can be described using these three dimensions; the monitor of your
computer has these three dimensions. Even you yourself can be described based
on these three dimensions! In fact, the clothes you are wearing were made
specifically for people with your dimensions. In our surroundings, there are many
3-D geometric shapes (please refer to Figures 10.1 and 10.2). In this topic, we will
learn the terminology used to describe objects, how to calculate their surface area
and volume, as well as their mathematical properties.
TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY 251
Figure The Great Pyramid of Giza
10.1:
Figure Constructive solid geometry
10.2:
Pedagogical Content Knowledge
Solid geometry (as opposed to a plane or flat geometry) is the study of 3-D
shapes called solids. These can be made up of flat or curved surfaces.
Students need to be given the opportunity to work with 3-D figures so that they
can develop spatial skills that are basic to everyday life. Visualisation also
includes plane figures. Computer graphics software that allows students to
create and manipulate shapes makes conjecturing and testing their attempts
at two- dimensional (2-D) visualisation easier. The following subtopics will
guide you in teaching this topic in the classroom.
252 TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY
10.1 PROPERTIES OF PRISMS, PYRAMIDS,
CONES, CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
This topic will help your students to identify the important properties of 3-D
shapes, with emphasis on drawing nets and cross sections of solids, so that
they can have a firm foundation in 3-D geometric shapes. You are strongly
encouraged to incorporate multimedia software like the GeometerÊs
Sketchpad to enhance their understanding of the concepts. Please explore
this website: www.dynamicgeometry.com.
Help your students to understand the defining properties of 3-D figures (for
example, a cube has edges with equal lengths, faces with equal areas and
congruent shapes, and right-angle corners).
Properties of Prisms and Pyramids
Ask your students to give some examples of solid geometry models based on
their surrounding objects. Begin a class by explaining the basic idea of 3-D
geometric constructions. Introduce the following solid geometry by giving them
samples of solid geometry. Let them hold the samples and then slowly
introduce the solid geometry-related vocabulary one by one.
(a) Prisms
Prisms are solids (3-D figures) that, unlike planar figures, occupy space.
They come in many shapes and sizes. Every prism has the following
characteristics:
(i) Bases
A prism has two bases, which are congruent polygons lying in
parallel planes.
(ii) Lateral
Edges
The lines formed by connecting the corresponding vertices, which
form a sequence of parallel segments.
(iii) Lateral Faces
The parallelograms formed by the lateral edges.
TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY 253
A prism is named by the polygon that forms its base, as follows:
(i) Altitude
A segment perpendicular to the planes of the bases with an
endpoint in each plane.
(ii) Oblique Prism
A prism where the lateral edges are not perpendicular to the bases.
(iii) Right
Prism
A prism where the lateral edges are perpendicular to the bases. In a
right prism, a lateral edge is also an altitude.
In Figure 10.3, prism (a) is a right triangular prism, prism (b) is a right
rectangular prism, and prism (c) is an oblique pentagonal prism. The
altitude in prism (c) is h.
Figure Different types of prisms
10.3:
A prism has the same cross section all along its length. A cross section is
the shape you get when cutting straight across an object (refer to Table
10.1).
A prism is officially a polyhedron, which means all sides should be flat,
with no curved sides. So, the cross section will be a polygon (a straight-
edged figure). For example, if the cross section was a circle, then it
would be a cylinder, not a prism.
254 TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY
Table 10.1: Types of Prisms and Cross Sections
Type of Prism Cross Section
Square Prism
Cube
Triangular Prism
Pentagonal Prism
(b) Pyramids
A pyramid is a solid that has the following characteristics:
(i) It has one base, which is a polygon.
(ii) The vertices of the base are each joined to a point, not in the plane of
the base. This point is called the vertex of the pyramid.
TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY 255
(iii) The triangular sides, all of which meet at the vertex, are its lateral
faces.
(iv) The segments where the lateral faces intersect are lateral edges.
(v) The perpendicular segment from the vertex to the plane of the base is
the altitude of the pyramid.
There are many types of pyramids, and they are named after the shapes of their
bases (refer to Table 10.2).
Table 10.2: Types of Pyramids and Bases
Type of Pyramid Base
Triangular Pyramid
Square Pyramid
Pentagonal Pyramid
256 TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY
Properties of Cones and Cylinders
The properties of cones and cylinders are as follows (refer to Table 10.3):
Table 10.3: Properties of Cones and Cylinders
Solid Property
Right circular cone
Cone
A cone is a rotated triangle.
Right circular cylinder
Cylinder
It does not have to be circular.
(a) Right Circular
Cones is similar to a regular pyramid except that its base is
A right
a circle.circular
The vocabulary and equations pertaining to the right circular
cone are similar to those used for the regular pyramid.
cone
Refer to Figure 10.4 for the vocabulary involving right circular cones.
Right circular cone
Figure
10.4:
(b) A Cone is a Rotated
Triangle
A cone is made by rotating a triangle!
The triangle has to be a right-angled triangle, and it gets rotated around
one of its two short sides.
The side it rotates around is the axis of the cone.
TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY 257
An object shaped like a cone is said to be conical (refer to Figure 10.5).
Figure Different shaped cones
10.5:
(c) Right Circular Cylinders
A cylinder is a prism with circular base. If the segment joining the centres
of the circles of a cylinder is perpendicular to the planes of the bases,
the cylinder is a right circular cylinder.
In Figure 10.6, cylinder (a) is a right circular cylinder and cylinder (b) is
an oblique circular cylinder.
Right circular cylinder and oblique circular cylinder
Figure
10.6:
(d) It Does Not Have to Be
Circular
Usually when we say cylinder, we mean a circular cylinder, but you can
also have elliptical cylinders, like the one in Figure 10.7.
You can even have stranger cylinders: if the cross section is curved and
is the same from one end to the other, then it will still be a cylinder.
An object shaped like a cylinder is said to be cylindrical.
258 TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY
Figure Circular and elliptical cylinders
10.7:
Properties of Spheres
A sphere is a set of all points in space that are equidistant from a fixed point
(the centre). That distance is the radius of the sphere. Since a sphere (refer to
Figure 10.8) has no bases, its area is called surface area. Examples of
spheres include balls, bubbles and water drops. Can you think of more?
Sphere
Figure
10.8:
ACTIVITY
10.1
Ask your students to state the properties of solid geometric shapes
verbally.
10.2 SURFACE AREA AND VOLUME
In this subtopic, students will learn how to recognise the construction of 3-D
figures from everyday examples. They need to identify the shape, surface
area, volume and construction of solid geometric forms.
TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY 259
onstruction, Drawing and Folding of Two Plane, and Solid
Geometric Forms
We will be looking at three different ways of representing 3-D figures. The first is
orthographic drawing, which shows six different views of the object:
(a) Top;
(b) Bottom;
(c) Front;
(d) Back;
(e) Left side; and
(f) Right side.
A net is a 2-D representation of a 3-D object. It is a diagram that can be folded to
form the 3-D figure. To identify a 3-D figure from its net, look at the number of
faces and the shape of each face.
Ask students to access this website:
www.crocodile-clips.com/Our_Products/Mathematics/Yenka 3D_Shapes
(a) Pyramids
Pyramids are named after their base. The pyramid shown in Figure 10.9 is
an example of a rectangular pyramid.
A pyramid is said to be right when its vertex is directly above the centre of
the base. The cross sections parallel to the base are the same shape but
have different sizes.
Rectangular pyramid
Figure
10.9:
260 TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY
The net of the above pyramid consists of:
(i) A rectangular base; and
(ii) Four triangular faces.
Various types of pyramid are shown in Figure 10.10.
Figure Various types of pyramid
10.10:
(i) The cross sections parallel to the base have the same shape as the
base but different sizes.
(ii) The net of a pyramid consists of a base polygon and a number of
triangular faces (refer to Figure 10.11).
(iii) A regular pyramid has a base that is a regular polygon and has faces
which are isosceles triangles.
Net of a rectangular
Figure pyramid
10.11:
TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY 261
(b) Prisms
Ask students to draw the nets on the right column for the following
geometric solids:
Figure 10.12: Triangular prism
Figure 10.13: Rectangular prism
Figure 10.14: Hexagonal prism
Figure 10.15: Pentagonal prism
262 TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY
(c) Cones
If one end of a line is rotated about a second fixed line while keeping the
line's other end fixed, then a cone is formed. The point about which the line
is rotated is called the vertex and the base of the cone is a circle (refer to
Figure 10.16).
Right cone
Figure
A cone is said to be right10.16:
when the vertex is directly above the centre of the
base. The net of a 3-D object is a representation of its faces in two
dimensions.
The net of a cone consists of the following two parts (refer to Figure 10.17):
(i) A circle that gives the base; and
(ii) A sector that gives the curved surface.
Net of a cone
Figure
10.17:
TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY 263
(d) Cylinders
The fixed line about which the line is rotated is called axis of symmetry
(refer to Figure 10.18). The base of the cylinder is a circle and the top of the
cylinder is also a circle.
A cylinder is said to be right when the line joining the centre of the base
and the centre of the top is perpendicular to the base of the cylinder. The
cross sections parallel to the base are circles and are all identical.
Figure Right cylinder
10.18:
The net of a cylinder consists of three parts (refer to Figure 10.19):
(i) One circle gives the base;
(ii) Another circle gives the top; and
(iii) A rectangle gives the curved surface.
Figure Net of a cylinder
10.19:
264 TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY
Deriving the Formula for Surface Area and Volume
In this subtopic, we will go through the steps of deriving the formula for:
(a) The surface area and volume of a prism;
(b) The surface area and volume of a pyramid;
(c) The surface area and volume of a cone;
(d) The surface area and volume of a cylinder; and
(e) The surface area and volume of a sphere.
The surface area formula can be derived from the net of the solid geometry.
(a) The Surface Area and Volume of a Prism
Ask your students to study the formulas below and see if they can spot
any patterns (refer to Figure 10.20).
Surface area, A = bh + 2ls + lb
1
Volume bhl
2
Figure Isosceles triangular prism
10.20:
(b) The Surface Area and Volume of a Pyramid
The surface area of a pyramid (refer to Figure 10.21) has two parts: the area
of the sides (lateral area) and the area of the base (base area).
The formula for the base area depends on the shape. There are different
formulas for triangles, squares, etc.
TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY 265
However, the formula for the latera area is surprisingly simple. Just
multiply the perimeter by the sidel length and divide by 2. This is because
the sides are always triangles and the triangle formula is base times
height divided by 2.
1
Surface area = Perimeter [Side length] + [Base area]
2
1
Volume = Base areaHeight
3
Pyramid
Figure
10.21:
(c) The Surface Area and Volume of a
Cone
Take note of these interesting facts about cones (refer to Figure 10.22):
(i) It has a flat base.
(ii) It has one curved side.
(iii) Because it has a curved surface, it is not a polyhedron.
And for reference:
Surface area of the base r 2
r2h
2
Surface area of the curved
r in which s
side
s
1
Volume = r 2h
3
266 TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY
Figure Cone
10.22:
(d) The Surface Area and Volume of a
Cylinder
We will need to calculate the surface area of the top, base and sides of the
cylinder (refer to Figure 10.23):
Area of the
r2
top
Area of the
r2
bottom
Area of the
side 2rh
Surface area, A 2 r 2 2rh
Volume
r
2
h
Cylinder
Figure
10.23:
TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY 267
(e) The Surface Area and Volume of a
Sphere
The surface area and volume of a sphere (refer to Figure 10.24) with a
radius of r is given by:
Surface area 4 r 2
Volume 1
r 3
3
Also, if the surface area of the sphere is known, then the radius can be
calculated as such:
Surface area
r
4
Figure Sphere
10.24:
You may choose to add some of the following questions to the studentsÊ
worksheet to challenge the students with specific, thought-provoking questions.
268 TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY
ACTIVITY 10.2
1. A right pyramid 12cm high stands on a square base of sides
10cm. Calculate the total surface area.
2. A right circular cone is formed by bending a semi-circular piece
of
paper of radius 8cm. Determine the curved surface area of the
cone, corrected to 1 decimal place.
3. Two canvas tents are made differently. One has a rectangular base
2m by 1.4m and height 2m, while the other tent is in the shape of a
cone of radius 1m and height 2m. Which tent requires more
canvas to make, and by how much?
4. Seven steel balls, each of diameter 4cm, are dropped into a tall
cylinder flask of radius 5cm, which contains water. By how much
does the water level rise, assuming that the balls are entirely
submerged.
10.3 THE VOLUME OF CYLINDERS AND
RIGHT PRISMS
You are strongly encouraged to help your students to derive the formula for the
volume of right prisms and cylinders and solve problems involving solid
geometrical constructions.
Deriving the Formula for the Volume of
Cylinders and Prisms
The following are formula derivations for:
(a) Volume of a cylinder; and
(b) Volume of a prism.
TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY 269
Let us learn each formula in details.
(a) Volume of a Cylinder
The volume of a cylinder is the product of the area of its base and its
height. As a cylinder has a circular base, the volume of a cylinder is:
V r 2 h
where r is the radius of the circular base and h is the height.
Example
10.1:
Try to find the volume of the following cylinder:
This cylinder has a radius of 4 and a height of 6. Use the volume formula:
V (4)2 (6) 96
(b) Volume of a
Prism
Rectangular Prism
The volume of a prism is simply the area of one end (with uniform cross
section) times the length of the
prism. Volume = Area Length
V lwh
270 TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY
Isosceles Triangular Prism
1
V (bh)(l)
2
Example
10.2:
Find the volume of the following triangular prism:
Solution:
b = 19cm, h = 24cm, l = 47cm
V Al
1
bh l
2
1
19 24 47
2
10, 716
So, the volume is 10,716cm3.
TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY 271
Example
10.3:
Find the total surface area of the solid prism shown in the diagram. The cross
section is an isosceles trapezium.
Solution:
The prism has six surfaces. Two are trapeziums and four are rectangles.
The area of the front and back surfaces are:
1
(3 9) 4 6 4 24 cm2
2
The two surfaces each have an area equal 5 8 40cm2
to
The area of the top face is:
3 8 24cm2
The area of the base is:
9 8 72cm2
So, the total surface area is:
24 + 24 + 40 + 40 + 24 + 72 = 224cm2
272 TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY
Solving Problems Involving the Volume of
Cylinders and Prisms
Once your students have mastered the concepts well, you can gradually
introduce some examples related to solid geometrical constructions in their daily
lives. Ask them to discuss the following questions in small groups.
Example
10.4:
A cube has a length of 10cm. The volume of the sphere shown in the figure is the
same as that of the cube. What is the radius of the sphere?
Solution:
The volume of the cube
Step
1:
Vc
1, 000 cm3
Step Assume that the radius of the sphere is r, the volume of the sphere
2: 4
V r 3 .
s
3
4
Step Since Vs Vc , we have r 3 1, 000
3: 3
r 6.204cm
Example
10.5:
How do we change a right cylinder into a corresponding rectangular solid whose
volume can be readily calculated without changing the original volume?
Solution: As a cylinder is cut into more and more congruent pieces, they can
be rearranged into a rectangular solid without changing the original volume as
the number approaches infinity. The length of the front face of the newly
formed rectangular solid is r and its width is r, while both still have the same
height.
Therefore, the volume is r2(height).
TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY 273
10.4 THE VOLUME OF RIGHT PYRAMIDS
AND CIRCULAR CONES
Now, let us look at how to derive the formula for the volume of right pyramids
and circular cones and solve problems involving solid geometrical
constructions.
eriving the Formula for the Volume of Pyramids and Circular
Cones
To find the volume of a circular cone, we accumulate the area of circles (cross
section of circular cones). The following websites may help your students to
visualise the concept of finding:
The volume of a pyramid: http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=BjbilpBaA-U&feature=related
The volume of a circular cone: http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=QnVr_x7c79w&feature=related
274 TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY
Example
10.6:
(a) How does the volume of the cone compare to the volume of the cylinder?
Assume that their bases are congruent and they both have the same
height. If you fill the cone with sand or other filling material, predict how
many cones of sand will fit into the cylinder.
(b) Try it. How many cones fit into the cylinder? About what fraction of the
cylinder is filled by the volume of one cone?
(c) What about a pyramid and a prism with the same bases? Predict how
many pyramids filled with rice will fit into a prism.
Try it with two or three sets of same-base pyramids and prisms. How
many pyramids fit into same-base prisms?
About what fraction of the prism is filled by the volume of one pyramid?
(d) Compare your results with the results of others. Did you get similar results
with both your pyramid-prism pair and the cone-cylinder pair?
Conclude the following relationships:
Volume of cone = volume of cylinder.
Volume of pyramid = volume of prism.
TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY 275
olving Problems Involving Pyramids and Circular Cones
The following examples demonstrate how problems involving pyramids and
circular cones are solved.
Example
10.7:
The diagram shows a large cone of height 24cm and base radius of 4cm.
A small cone of radius 1.5cm is cut off from the top leaving a frustum.
Calculate the volume of the frustum.
Solution:
The volume of the large cone 1 42 24 402.29cm3
is 3
To find the volume of the small cone, we need its height.
1.5
The radius of the small cone is
of the radius of the large cone.
3
4 8
3
Therefore, the height of the small cone is
of the height of the large cone, that is,
8
3
the small cone has height 24 9cm.
8
1
1.5 9 21.21cm3
2
So the volume of the small cone is
3
The volume of the frustum is 402.29 � 21.21 = 381.08cm3
276 TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY
Example
10.8:
A pyramid has a square base. The square has sides of length 12cm.The height of
the pyramid is 10cm.Find the volume.
Solution:
The area of the square base is 12 12 = 144cm 2
So, the volume of the pyramid is:
1
Volume 144 10 48 10 480cm3
3
10.5 COMPOSITE SOLIDS
In this subtopic, we will discuss nets of geometrical solids and solving
problems involving volumes of composite solids.
Nets of Geometrical Solids
A net is a pattern that you can cut and fold to make a model of a solid shape.
Figure 10.25 shows a net of a cube.
Figure A net of cube
10.25:
Ask students to sketch other net patterns for this die.
TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY 277
Example
10.9:
Ask students to draw the nets of these platonic solids:
(a) Tetrahedron
(b) Octahedron
Solving Problems Involving Volumes of
Composite Solids
Discuss with your students the following examples:
Example
10.10:
The following object is made up of a cylinder and a hemisphere. The cylinder has
radius 5cm and height 22cm. Find the volume of the object.
278 TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY
Solution:
Volume of cylinder = r 2h
= 52 22
= 1728.57cm3
The hemisphere must also have radius 5cm.
1
Volume of the hemisphere = Volume of sphere
2
1 4
= r 3 = 1 4 53 = 261.90cm3
2 3 2 3
Total volume = 1728.57 + 261.90 = 1990.47cm 3
Example
10.11:
The diagram shows an object made of two cones, one on top of the other. The top
cone has a height of 8cm and the bottom cone has a height of 10cm. Both cones
have a radius of 5cm.
Find:
(a) The total surface area.
(b) The total volume of the object.
TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY 279
Solution:
(a) The formula for the curved surface area of a cone is: rl .
We can find the slant length, l, for each cone using PythagorasÊ theorem �
we know the radius and the height of each cone.
Top cone:
l 2 52 82 25 64 89
l 89 9.434cm
Therefore,
Curved surface area 5 9.434 148.249cm2
Bottom cone:
l 2 52 102 25 100 125
l 125 11.180cm
Therefore,
Curved surface area 5 11.180 175.686cm2
So, the total surface area is 324.176cm2.
(b) Ask your students to find the volume of the cone.
Use class discussion to gauge the progress of the class and to identify
common misconceptions. Walk around and observe individual students
while they go through the lesson to chart individual progress and
challenges.
280 TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY
ACTIVITY 10.3
1. This activity will help your students to develop greater
understanding of solid geometrical constructions. The diagram
shows a triangular-based pyramid. The base of the pyramid is a
right-angled triangle. The volume of the pyramid is 325cm 3. Find
the height of the pyramid.
2. A tank measures 15cm by 10cm by 10cm. The tank is half-full
with water. A solid metal sphere with radius 2cm is placed into
the tank. Assuming that the sphere sinks to the bottom of the
tank, calculate the amount by which the water level in the tank
rises.
3. A childÊs toy is made out of plastic. The toy is solid. The top of the
toy is a cone of height 10cm and base radius 4cm.The bottom of
the toy is a hemisphere of radius 4cm. Calculate the volume of
plastic needed to make the toy.
TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY 281
Mathematical formulas are available for determining the area and volume
of any figures or objects in geometry.
An area of study closely related to solid geometry is nets of a solid.
Imagine making cuts along some edges of a solid and opening it up to
form a plane figure.
In the world around us, there are many three-dimensional geometric
shapes. In this topic, you have learned some of the terminology used to
describe them, how to calculate their surface area and volume, as well as
their mathematical properties.
The GeometerÊs Sketchpad provides you with a faster, more dynamic and
engaging way to demonstrate mathematical concepts than using
transparencies or drawings on the board.
Altitude Orthographic drawing
Axis symmetry Pentagonal prism
Base Pentagonal
area pyramid
Bases Polyhedron
Circle Prism
Composite solids Pyramid
Cone Radius
Conical Rectangle
Cross Regular
sections polygon
Cylinder Regular pyramid
Cylindrical Right circular
cone
Edge Right prism
Elliptical Side length
cylinder
282 TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY
GeometerÊs Sketchpad Solid
Height Sphere
Hexagonal Square
prism pyramid
Isosceles Surface area
triangle
Lateral area Three-dimensional
Lateral Triangular prism
edges
Lateral Vertex
faces
Length Volume
Net Width
Oblique prism
Cheong, Q. L., & Teh, W. L. (2008). Essential mathematics form 2. Petaling Jaya,
Malaysia: Pearson.
George, W., & David, E. S. (1913). Solid geometry. Boston, MA: Ginn.
Lee, L. M. (2007). Mathematics form 2. Shah Alam, Malaysia: Arah Pendidikan.
ANSWERS 283
Answers
TOPIC 1: OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS
Activity 1.1
1. (a) RM+15
(b) -20 marks
2. +231
3. -1,096
Activity 1.2
1. 3 11. -10
2. -6 12. -4
3. 9 13. 60
4. -1 14. -12
5. -30 15. 6
6. -5 16. -10
7. -4 17. 4
8. -9 18. -40
9. 8 19. 1
10. 7 20. 3
Self-Check 1.1
12.3
284 ANSWERS
Activity 1.3
1. 24.3
2. 3.005
Activity 1.4
1. -6.2ÀC
2. -550 metres
3. 985 years
4. 86ÀF
5. 118 years
TOPIC 2: SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS,
CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS
Self-Check 2.1
(a) 49 (b) 64 (c) 81 (d) 100 (e) 121
(f) 144 (g) 169 (h) 196 (i) 225 (j) 256
(k) 289 (l) 324 (m) 361 (n) 400
ANSWERS 285
Self-Check 2.2
Approximation Determining the Range
(a) 6.7 7 and 72 = 49 6.7 is in between 6 and 7.
6.72 49 62 = 36; 72 = 49
Therefore, 6.72 is between 36 and 49.
(b) 2.8 3 and 32 = 9 2.8 is in between 2 and 3.
2.82 9 22 = 4; 32 = 9
Therefore, 2.82 is between 4 and 9.
(c) 39 40 and 402 = 1,600 39 is in between 30 and 40.
392 1,600 302 = 900; 402 = 1,600
Therefore, 392 is between 900 and 1,600.
(d) 58 60 and 602 = 3,600 58 is in between 50 and 60.
582 3,600 502 = 2,500; 602 = 3,600
Therefore, 582 is between 2,500 and 3,600.
(e) 291 300 and 3002 = 90,000 291 is in between 200 and 300.
2912 90,000 2002 = 40,000; 3002 = 90,000
Therefore, 2912 is between 40,000 and
90,000.
(f) 512 500 and 5002 = 250,000 512 is in between 500 and 600.
5122 250,000 5002 = 250,000; 6002 = 360,000
Therefore, 5122 is between 250,000 and
360,000.
(g) 1,103 1,000 and 1,0002 1,103 is in between 1,000 and 2,000.
= 1,000,000
1,0002 = 1,000,000; 2,0002 = 4,000,000
1,1032 1,000,000
Therefore, 1,1032 is between 1,000,000
and
4,000,000.
286 ANSWERS
Self-Check 2.3
(a) 6 (b) 7 (c) 8 (d) 9 (e) 10
(f) 11 (g) 12 (h) 13 (i) 14 (j) 15
(k) 16 (l) 17 (m) 18 (n) 19 (o) 20
Self-Check 2.4
(a) 0.05 (b) 1.5 (c) 0.13 (d) 1.9 (e) 0.03
(f) 2 (Clas 12 (i) 9 17
(h) 4 (j)
5 s 3 7
11
discu
ssion)
Activity 2.1 (g)
1
0
Self-Check 2.5
Approximation Determining the Range
(a) 1.4 1 and 13 = 1 1.4 is in between 1 and
1.43 1 2. 13 = 1; 23 = 8
Therefore, 1.43 is between 1 and 8.
(b) 17.8 20 and 203 = 8,000 17.8 is in between 10 and 20.
17.83 8,000 103 = 1,000; 203 = 8,000
Therefore, 17.83 is between 1,000 and
8,000.
(c) 39 40 and 403 = 64,000 39 is in between 30 and 40.
393 64,000 303 = 27,000; 403 = 64,000
Therefore, 393 is between 27,000 and
64,000. .
ANSWERS 287
(d) 186 200 and 2003 186 is in between 100 and 200.
= 8,000,000
1003 = 1,000,000; 2003 = 8,000,000
1863 8,000,000
Therefore, 1863 is between 1,000,000 and
8,000,000.
(e) 1,203 1,000 and 1,0003 1,203 is in between 1,000 and 2,000.
= 1,000,000,000
1,0003 = 1,000,000,000; 2,0003 =
1,2033 1,000,000,000 8,000,000,000
Therefore, 1,2033 is between
1,000,000,000
and 8,000,000,000.
Self-Check 2.6
(a) 4 (b) 5 (c) 6 (d) 7 (e) 8
Self-Check 2.7
7
(a) 0.4 (b) -6 (c) (d)
5
5
6
Activity 2.2
1. 33 3 3 3 27
2. 2, 4, 10,
5 1 3 1 1 1 1
1
1 3
3. 4
3 3
4 because 4
3 3
4 3 43 43 43 43 3 3 43 41 4
4. (a) 11
(b) 11
(c) 1.11
(d) x
(e) 8
(f) 11
(g) 2
288 ANSWERS
(h) k
(i) 3
(j) 6
(k) 11
(l) w
5. From the table, 64 < 110 < 125.
Thus,
3
3 3
64 110 125
4 3 110 5
6. We find that 3
4.9 = 117.649 119.
3
4.9 119 5
7. (a) 3.3 3 37 3.4
(b) 4.2 3 4.3
77
(c) 4.5 3 4.6
95
(d) 4.6 3 4.7
99.8
(e) 6.0 3 6.1
218
(f) 9.9 3 10.0
991
ANSWERS 289
Activity 2.3
1. Let the distance of the ship from its starting point be x km. We can draw a
diagram of the ship's voyage on a set of axes, with the horizontal axis
representing east and the vertical axis representing north. The ship is at
point P and it started at the origin. There is a right angle at A.
Theorem
By Pythagoras from triangle
OAPÊ,
x 2 802 182
6400
324
6724
x 6724
82
So, the ship is 82km from the starting
point.
2. Let ABC have vertex A and centre O, with the foot of altitude from A at D.
Then, by the Pythagorean Theorem (with
radius r, height OD = h) on OBD and
ABD :
h21r2
h r 2 1 9
9
Substituting and solving gives r .
4 2
Then, the area of the circle is:
r 2 9
2
81
42 32
290 ANSWERS
3. Let the distance from the foot of the ladder to the base of the wall be x m.
By PythagorasÊ Theorem and the
diagram,
x 2 52 7.252
x 2 25 52.5625
x 2 27.5625
x 27.5625 5.25
So, the distance from the foot of
the ladder to the wall is 5.25m.
4. Let the length of the straw be x cm.
By PythagorasÊ Theorem and the
diagram,
x 2 82 152
x 2 64 225 289
x 289 17
So, the length of the longest straw that
will fit inside the can is 17cm.
5. (a) Let the distance from one corner to the opposite corner be x m.
By PythagorasÊ Theorem and the diagram,
x 2 472 472
x 2 2209 2209 4418
x 4418 66.47
So, the length of the diagonal is 66m (to
the nearest metre).
(b) The path along the two sides covers a distance of 94m, so the
difference between walking along the two sides and cutting across is
94 � 66 = 28 metres. You need to walk 28 metres further.
ANSWERS 291
TOPIC 3: ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION II
Self-Check 3.1
(a) 8xyz
(b) 23mn
(c) 15xy + 5yz
(d) 20mn � 10
(e) 5uv + 12st
Self-Check 3.2
1. (a) uvw 2. (a) -6cde
(b) cd 2e (b) -28fg2h
(c) fg2 (c) 5m2n2
(d) hijk (d) -6v2w2
(e) a3bcd (e) -60fg3h
(f) p3q2r (f) 64p2q3
Activity 3.1
1. (a) 9xy 2. (a) 8xy
(b) 7vw (b) 18ab
(c) 8xy + 8yz (c) 3pq
(d) 5vw � 4wz (d) 26mn +
4ab
292 ANSWERS
3. (a) 18a2b2c2 4. (a) 6xy
(b) -3abcd (b) -5ef
7
(c) -10m2n 2pq (c) abc
9
4
(d) -72ef 2ghj (d) wx
3
(e) 20pqr
Activity 3.2
1. (a) 3xy + 2z (b) -11x � 8yz
4
(c) -2yz + 3z (d) y 5
3
(e) 8xyz (f) 8xyz � 6x � 28
10 2z3
(g) 9x2 yz 7xy (h)
y2
2 x2
2. (a) 6pq (b) 2a � 4ac + 16c
7x 16 yz
(c) (d) 7xy � 2yz
6
Activity 3.3
1. (a) Area Areaframe
picture
lw (l 4)(w 4) lw
lw lw lw 4l 4w 16
lw 4l 4w 16
l (w 4) 4(w 4)
4(w 4)
l (w 4)
ANSWERS 293
(b) w4
That is,
w 5, 6, 8, 12, 20, 36
l 36, 20, 12, 8, 6, 5
We obtain 6 different values of w and l since l 4(w
4) (1 equation
(w 4)
with 2 unknowns).
2. (a) x �y
(b) Area of the shaded rectangle =y(x � y).
(c) Given that the area of the shaded rectangle = 16m2
16 y (x y )
16 xy y 2
16 y 2 xy
16 y 2
x
y
16
x y
y
(d) Area ABCD,
A x (x ) x 2
2
16
y
A
y
2
(e) 16
16 A
16
(17)2
289
294 ANSWERS
TOPIC 4: INDEX
Activity 4.1
(a)
30(ef )9 (b) 36x8 y10 (c) 48 65536
5
b 8 5 1
(d) (e) (f)
a 3 y 3q
Activity 4.2
1. (a) (i) 8 8 6 82 6 (ii) 8 12 96
384
(iii) 42 (iv) 0
8
(b) Even number of faces painted red = 96 cubes
(c) Odd number of faces painted red = 384 + 8 = 392
2. 222 24 16
3. Let the number be x. Then, we have x 3 27.
x 3 2
33
1 3
x 2 (3)3
1
x 3 2
x 32 9.
4. (a) 12À = 1 or (21)À = 1
(b) 210 1024
ANSWERS 295
TOPIC 5: LINEAR EQUATIONS
Self-Check 5.1
Given that xy 1, hence we obtain
1
y x 1
x which is unknown x , raised to the power of -1.
xy 1 is not a linear function.
Activity 5.1
1. (Class discussion; answers not provided)
2. Let x denote the number of units produced and C (x) the corresponding
total cost.
Total cost = (Cost per unit)(Number of units) + Overhead
where
Cost per unit = 50
Number of units = x
Overhead = 200
Hence,
C (x) = 50x + 200
Cost function, C(x) = 50x + 200
Figure
5.1:
296 ANSWERS
Activity 5.2
(a), (d), (f), (g)
Activity 5.3
1. Let the smallest number be n. The word consecutive means one
after another. So, the next two consecutive numbers after n will be n + 1 and
n + 2.
n (n 1) (n 2) 30
n n 1 n 2 30
3n 3 Subtract 3 from both sides
30
3n 3 3 30
3 Divide both sides by 3
3n 27
3n 27
3 3
n 9
So, the largest number is 11.
2. 3x 2x x 90o 360o
6x 270o
x 45o
So, the largest angle is 3x = 135À.
Activity 5.4
1
1. (a) m = 4, n = -2 (b) a = 3, b = -2 (c) p = 2, q = -
2
(d) h = 2, k = -
1 (e) x = 2, y = -3 (f) x = -1, y = -3
2
ANSWERS 297
2. If x is the number of units manufactured and sold, the total revenue is
given by R(x) = 110x and the total cost by C (x) = 7,500 + 60x.
(a) To find the break-even point, set R(x) equal to C (x) and
solve: 110x = 7,500 + 60x
50x = 7,500
x = 150
It follows that the manufacturer will have to sell 150 units to break even
(see Figure 5.2).
Figure Revenue and cost function
5.2:
(b) The profit P(x) is revenue minus cost. Hence,
P(x) = R(x) � C (x) = 110x � (7,500 + 60x) = 50x � 7,500
The profit from the sale of 100 units is
P(100) = 50(100) � 7,500 = -2,500
The minus sign indicates a negative profit (meaning a loss), which
was expected since 100 units are less than the break-even level of
150 units. It follows that the manufacturer will lose RM2,500 if 100
units are sold.
(c) To determine the number of units that must be sold to generate a
profit of RM1,250, set the formula for profit P(x) equals to 1,250
and solve x.
P(x) = 1,250
50x � 7,500 = 1,250
50x = 8,750
x = 175
You can conclude that 175 units must be sold to generate the desired
profit.
298 ANSWERS
TOPIC 6: GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS
Activity 6.1
(Practical exercise)
Activity 6.2
(Practical exercise)
Activity 6.3
(Practical exercise)
Activity 6.4
(Practical exercise)
Self-Check 6.1
(Class discussion)
Activity 6.5
1.
The electrical cable should be placed perpendicular to a line segment
connecting the two houses and crossing that line segment at a point 90
feet from each house. In this way, each point on the cable will be the
same distance from each house.
ANSWERS 299
2.
The locus of points equidistant from the two given points will be a
straight line halfway between the two points. In this problem, the points
are 7 units
apart, so the line will be 3 and units from each point. The equation of the
1
2
line will be y = 1 . (True)
2
3.
At first it may seem that there is only one spot to stand where you are the
same distance from both of your friends � that spot being directly between
your friends, 5 feet from each friend.
300 ANSWERS
However, as the diagram shows, there are actually many spots that
will position you exactly the same distance from both friends. Notice the
formation of the isosceles triangles, where the congruent (equal) sides
represent the distances to each friend.
The different positions where you might stand form the locus of points
equidistant from your two friends. This line is the perpendicular bisector
of the segment joining your two friends.
TOPIC 7: COORDINATES
Self-Check 7.1
(a) G (e) A
(b) F (f) H
(c) B (g) C
(d) E (h) D
Activity 7.1
1. A(2, 3), B(5, -3), C(-1, -5)
2. D(-5, -4)
Activity 7.2
(a) Just plug them into the Distance Formula:
d -4 -2 2 4 -
2 4 3 2
2
-4+2
3
-2 2 7
53
2
7.28
Thus, the distance is 53 or about 7.28, rounded to two decimal places.
ANSWERS 301
1
(b) (i) 17 (ii) , (iii) (4, -1)
6, 11
2 2
Activity 7.3
1. Area of OAC = Area of OBC Area of ABC
1 1
20 10BC (5)(BC )
2 2
5
20 BC
2
8 BC
C 10, 8
2. Let
S x , y .
Comparing the horizontal distance, we obtain:
30x4
x7
Comparing the vertical distance, we have:
409y
y5
Hence, S 7, 5.
3.
k 2k
2 11 9k
k 122 4k 2 4k 1 11 9k
5k 2 5k 10 0
k2k 20
k 1 k 2 0
k 1, k -2
302 ANSWERS
4. 3 11 7 6
R ,
2 2
14 1
,
2 2
1
R 7,
2
5. Perimeter of ABC = 10 + 10 + 12 = 32 unit.
Area of ABC
1 1
68
68
2
24 24
48unit2
The length of the perpendicular from A to BC
12 5
2 2
119 10.91
-3 11
p 4
2
1q
6. 7
2
q 13
TOPIC 8: TRANSFORMATION
Self-Check 8.1
(Class discussion)
Self-Check 8.2
(Class discussion)
ANSWERS 303
Activity 8.1
1. A (-2, 1)
2. The image is triangle K D H with coordinates:
K (11, 7), D (5, 0) and H (2, 10)
3. D(6, 11) and M(4, -8)
Activity 8.2
1. No. It has been rotated 90 degrees.
2. True.
3. False. The rotation is 90 degrees clockwise or 270 degrees counter-
clockwise.
4. When its reflection is viewed in a rear view mirror, automobile drivers
can clearly read the word AMBULANCE.
Activity 8.3
1. (a), (c) and (e)
2. No, slide triangle left and down.
3. (a)
4. (b)
5. 8
feet
6. True
7. True
8. (a) WOW (b) MOM
9. (a) Reflection (b) Translation
(c) Rotation (d) Reflection
304 ANSWERS
TOPIC 9: CIRCLES
Self-Check 9.1
(Class discussion)
Activity 9.1
1. (a) 44cm (b) 66cm (c) 110cm (d) 132cm
2. (a) 22cm (b) 44cm (c) 176cm (d) 352cm
Activity 9.2
1. (a) 14.66cm (b) 13.75cm
2. (a) 77cm (b) 14.67cm
Activity 9.3
1. (a) 73.89cm2 (b) 83.13cm2 (c) 102.63cm2
5
2 169 cm
. 7
3. 316 pieces of
bricks 4. 314.16mm
5. (a) 157.08mm (b) 706.86mm2
5
6 15 m
. 7
7. 0.36
4 2
8. 452 cm
7
9. 7.48 cm
10. 1 2
5, 749 cm
3
ANSWERS 305
TOPIC 10: SOLID GEOMETRY
Activity 10.1
(Class discussion)
Activity 10.2
1. 360cm2
2. The slant height l = 8cm.
The curved surface area of the cone = 100.6cm 2
3. The tent with pyramid shape required 1.3143m 2 extra canvas.
4. 3.41cm
Activity 10.3
1. 27.0833cm
2. 0.186cm
3. 234.67cm3
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