1.

Define Creeping
It is seen that without any current through current coil disc rotates due to the supply voltage
exciting its pressure coil. This is called creeping.
2.State the advantage disadvantage of instrument transformers.
The advantages
a) The normal range voltmeter and ammeter can be used along with these transformers to
measure high voltage and currents.
b) The rating of low range meter can be fixed irrespective of the value of high voltage or
current to be measured.
c) These can be used for operating many types of protecting devices such as relays .
The disadvantages
a) The only disadvantages of these instrument transformers is that they can be used only for
a.c not for d.c.
3.List two instrument for measurement of frequency.
a)Mechanical resonance type frequency meter.
b) Electrical resonance type frequency meter.
4.Why the pmmc instruments are not used for ac measurements?
AS the direction of the current through the current coil changes, the direction of the deflection of
the pointer also changes. Hence such instrument are well suited for the d.c measurement.
5.Draw the two element wattmeter.

Part-b
1. Explain with a neat sketch the
construction and working principle of
single-phase
induction type energy meter.
Construction: - A single phase induction type energy meter consists of driving system, moving
system,
braking system and registering system. Each of the systems is briefly explained below.
Driving system: - This system of the energy meter consists of two silicon steel laminated
electromagnets. M1 & M2 as shown in fig.1The electromagnet M1 is called the series magnet
and the electromagnet M2 is called the shunt magnet. The series magnet M1 carries a coil
consisting of a few turns of thick wire. This coil is called the current coil (CC) and it is
connected in series with the circuit. The load current flows through this coil. The shunt magnet
M2 carries a coil consisting many turns of thin wire. This coil is called the voltage coil (VC) and
is connected across the supply it consist of current proportional to the supply voltage. Short
circuited copper bands are provided on the lower part of the central limb of the shunt magnet. By
adjusting the position of these loops the shunt magnet flux can be made to lag behind the supply
voltage exactly 90° . These copper bands are called power factor compensator (PFC). A copper
shading band is provided on each outer limb of the shunt magnet (fc1 &fc2) these band provides
frictional compensation.
Moving system: - The moving system consists of a thin aluminum disc mounted on a spindle
and is placed in the air gap between the series and the shunt magnets. It cuts the flux of both the
magnet forces are produced by the fluxes of each of the magnets with the eddy current induced
in the disc by the flux of the other magnets. Both these forces act on the disc. These two forces
constitute a deflecting torque.
Braking system: - The braking system consists of a permanent magnet called brake magnet. It is
placed near the edge of the disc as the disc rotates in the field of brake magnet eddy current are
induced in it. These eddies current react with the flux and exert a torque. This torque acts in
direction so that it opposes the motion of disc. The braking torque is proportional to the speed of
the disc.
Registering system: - the disc spindle is connected to a counting mechanism this mechanism
records a number which is proportional to the number of revolutions of the disc the counter is
calibrated to indicate the energy consumed directly in kilo watts-hour (kWh)
 Or
2. Explain the working principle of moving iron instrument.Also derive its torque equation.
Construction of Moving-iron Instruments
The deflecting torque in any moving-iron instrument is due to forces on a small piece of
magnetically ‘soft’ iron that is magnetized by a coil carrying the operating current. In repulsion
(Fig.42.7) type moving–iron instrument consists of two cylindrical soft iron vanes mounted
within a fixed current-carrying coil. One iron vane is held fixed to the coil frame and other is free
to rotate, carrying with it the pointer shaft. Two irons lie in the magnetic field produced by the
coil that consists of only few turns if the instrument is an ammeter or of many turns if the
instrument is a voltmeter. Current in the coil induces both vanes to become magnetized and
repulsion between the similarly magnetized vanes produces a proportional rotation. The
deflecting torque is proportional to the square of the current in the coil, making the instrument
reading is a true ‘RMS’ quantity Rotation is opposed by a hairspring that produces the restoring
torque. Only the fixed coil carries load current, and it is constructed so as to withstand high
transient current. Moving iron instruments having scales that are nonlinear and somewhat
crowded in the lower range of calibration.
This instrument consists of a few soft iron discs (B) that are fixed to the spindle (), pivoted in
jeweled bearings. The spindle () also carries a pointer (), a balance weight (), a controlling
weight () and a damping piston (DDP1W2WE), which moves in a curved fixed cylinder (). The
special shape of the moving-iron discs is for obtaining a scale of suitable form.
3. Give a detailed notes on Instrument transformers.
Current transformer

Current transformers (CT) are a series connected type of instrument transformer. They are
designed to present negligible load to the supply being measured and have an accurate current
ratio and phase relationship to enable accurate secondary connected metering.
Current transformers are often constructed by passing a single primary turn (either an insulated
cable or an uninsulated bus bar) through a well-insulated toroidal core wrapped with many turns
of wire. This affords easy implementation on high voltage bushings of grid transformers and
other devices by installing the secondary turn core inside high-voltage bushing insulators and
using the pass-through conductor as a single turn primary.
A current clamp uses a current transformer with a split core that can be easily wrapped around a
conductor in a circuit. This is a common method used in portable current measuring instruments
but permanent installations use more economical types of current transformer. Specially
constructed wideband CTs are also used, usually with an oscilloscope, to measure high
frequency waveforms or pulsed currents within pulsed power systems. One type provides an IR
voltage output that is proportional to the measured current; another, called a Rogowski coil,
requires an external integrator in order to provide a proportional output.
Ratio
The CT is typically described by its current ratio from primary to secondary. A 1000:5 CT would
provide an output current of 5 amperes when 1000 amperes are passing through its primary
winding. Standard secondary current ratings are 5 amperes or 1 ampere, compatible with
standard measuring instruments.
Potential transformer

Potential transformers (PT) (also called voltage transformers (VT)) are a parallel connected type
of instrument transformer. They are designed to present negligible load to the supply being
measured and have an accurate voltage ratio and phase relationship to enable accurate secondary
connected metering.
Ratio
The PT is typically described by its voltage ratio from primary to secondary. A 600:120 PT
would provide an output voltage of 120 volts when 600 volts are impressed across its primary
winding. Standard secondary voltage ratings are 120 volts and 70 volts, compatible with standard
measuring instruments.
Types of PTs

Simplified circuit diagram of a CVT

There are three primary types of potential transformers (PT): electromagnetic, capacitor, and
optical. The electromagnetic potential transformer is a wire-wound transformer. The capacitor
voltage transformer (CVT) uses a capacitance potential divider and is used at higher voltages due
to a lower cost than an electromagnetic PT. An optical voltage transformer exploits the electrical
properties of optical materials.

Or

4.Explain the working principle of electrodynamometer type instrument. Also derive its torque
equation
electrodynamometer instruments have.

Operating Principle

•    It would have a torque in one direction during one half of the cycle and an equal effect in the
opposite direction during the other half of the cycle.
•    If the frequency were very low, the pointer would swing back and forth around the zero point.
•     However, for an ordinary meter, the inertia is so great that on power frequencies the pointer
does not go very far in either direction but merely stays (vibrates slightly) around zero.
•     If, however, we were to reverse the direction of the flux each time the current through the
movable coil reverses, a unidirectional torque would be produced for both positive and negative
halves of the cycle.
•     In electrodynamometer instruments the field can be made to reverse simultaneously with the
current in the movable coil if the field (fixed) coil is connected in series with the movable coil.

Construction
Fixed Coils

•    The field is produced by a fixed coil.

•     This coil is divided into two sections to give a more uniform field near the centre and to
allow passage of the instrument shaft.

Moving Coil

•    A single element instrument has one moving coil.

•    The moving coil is wound either as a self-sustaining coil or else on a non-metallic former.
•    A metallic former cannot be used as eddy current would be induced in it by the alternating
field.
•    Light but rigid construction is used for the moving coil.
•     It should be noted that both fixed and moving coils are air cored.
Control
•    The controlling torque is provided by two control springs.
•    These springs act as leads to the moving coil.
Moving System
•    The moving coil is mounted on an aluminum spindle.
•    The moving system also carries the counter weights and truss type pointer.
•    Sometimes a suspension may be used in case a high sensitivity is desired.
Damping
•    Air friction damping is employed for these instruments and is provided by a pair of aluminum
vanes, attached to the spindle at the bottom.
•    These vanes move in sector shaped chambers.
•    Eddy current damping cannot be used in these instruments as the operating field is very weak
(on account of the fact that the coils are air cored) and any introduction of a permanent magnet
required for eddy current damping would distort the operating magnetic field of the instrument.
Shielding
•    The field produced by the fixed coils is somewhat weaker than in other types of instruments
•    It is nearly 0.005 to 0.006 Wb/m
•    In D.C. Measurements even the earth magnetic field may affect the readings.
•    Thus it is necessary to shield an electrodynamometer type instrument from the effect of stray
magnetic fields.
•    Air cored electrodynamometer type instruments are protected against external magnetic fields
by enclosing them in a casing of high permeability alloy.
•    This shunts external magnetic fields around the instrument mechanism and minimizes their
effects on the indication.
Cases and Scales
•    Laboratory standard instruments are usually contained in highly polished wooden cases.
•    These cases are so constructed as to remain dimensionally stable over long periods of time.
•    The glass is coated with some conducting material to completely remove the electrostatic
effects.
•    Adjustable leveling screws support the case.
•    A spirit level is also provided to ensure proper leveling.
•    The scales are hand drawn, using machine sub-dividing equipment.
•    Diagonal lines for fine sub-division are usually drawn for main markings on the scale.
•    Most of the high-precision instruments have a 300 mr scale with 100, 120 or 150 divisions.
Torque Equation
Let,
    i1 = instantaneous value of current in the fixed coils: A.
    i2   = instantaneous value of current in the moving coil: A.
    L1 = self-inductance of fixed coils: H.
    L2 = self-inductance of moving coils H,
    M = mutual inductance between fixed and moving coils:
Flux linkages of coil 1, ψ1 = L1 i1 + Mi2 
Flux linkages f coil 2, ψ2  = L2 i2 + Mi1 
Electrical input energy     = e1i1dt+e2i2dt

Errors in Electrodynamometer Instruments

i)    Frequency error

ii)    Eddy current error
iii)    External magnetic field
iv)    Temperature changes

Advantages
i)    These instruments can be used on both a.c & d.c
ii)    Accurate rms value

Disadvantages

(i) They have a low torque/weight ratio and hence have a low sensitivity.
(ii) Low torque/weight ratio gives increased frictional losses.
(iii) They are more expensive than either the PMMC or the moving iron type instruments.
(iv) These instruments are sensitive to overloads and mechanical impacts. Therefore, they must
be handled with great care.
(v) The operating current of these instruments is large owing to the fact that they have weak
magnetic field. The flux density is about 0.006 Wb/m as against 0.1 to 0.5 Wb/m in PMCC
instruments
(vi) They have a non-uniform scale.

5.with a neat diagram, explain the working of mechanical resonance type and electrical
resonance type frequency meter.

FREQUENCY METERS

Alternating current electrical equipment is designed to operate within a given frequency range. In
some instances the equipment is designed to operate at one particular frequency, as are electric
clocks and time switches. For example, electric clocks are commonly designed to operate at 60
cps. If the supply frequency is reduced to 59 CPS, the clock will lose one minute every hour.

Transformers and ac machinery are designed to operate at a specified frequency. If the supply
frequency falls more than 10 percent from the rated value, the equipment may draw excessive
current, and dangerous overheating will result. It is, therefore, necessary to control the frequency
of electric power systems. Frequency meters are employed to indicate the frequency so that
corrective measures can be taken if the frequency varies beyond the prescribed limits.

Frequency meters are designed so that they will not be affected by changes in voltage. Because
ac systems are designed to operate normally at one particular frequency, the range of the
frequency meter may be restricted to a few cycles on either side of the normal frequency. There
are several types of frequency meters, including the vibrating reed type, the fixed coil and
moving coil type, the fixed coil and moving disk type, and the resonant circuit type. Of these
types, the vibrating reed frequency meter is used most often in aircraft systems, and is discussed
in some detail.

Vibrating Reed Frequency Meter

The vibrating reed type of frequency meter is one of the simplest devices for indicating the
frequency of an ac source. A simplified diagram of one type of vibrating reed frequency meter is
shown in figure 8-261.

The current whose frequency is to be measured flows through the coil and exerts maximum
attraction on the soft iron armature twice during each cycle. The armature is attached to the bar,
which is mounted on a flexible support. Reeds of suitable dimensions to have natural vibration
frequencies of 110, 112, 114, and so forth up to 130 cps are mounted on the bar .The reed having
a frequency of 110 cps is marked "55" cycles; the one having a frequency of 130 cps is marked
"65" cps; the one having a frequency of 120 cps is marked "60" cps, and so forth. In some
instruments the reeds are the same lengths, but are weighted by different amounts at the top so
that they will have different natural rates of vibration.

When the coil is energized with a current having a frequency between 55 and 65 cps, all the
reeds are vibrated slightly; but the reed having a natural frequency closest to that of the
energizing current (whose frequency is to be measured) vibrates through a larger amplitude. The
frequency is read from the scale value opposite the reed having the greatest amplitude of
vibration.

An end view of the reeds is shown in the indicator dial. If the energizing current has a frequency
of 60 cps, the reed marked "60" cps will vibrate the greatest amount,
 Or
6.Explain the working principle of single phase electrodynamometer type power factor meter
instrument . Also derive the torque equation.