Unit-1

Electronic Instrumentation &

Measurement
Accuracy, Precision, Resolution & Error

Manjot Kaur
Assistant Professor ECE
SCETW,HYD
Research Scholar (PHD),LPU
 CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Definition of Terms
• True value: standard or reference of known value or a
theoretical value

• Accuracy: closeness to the true value; closeness with which an

instrument reading approaches the true or accepted value of
the variable (quantity) being measured. It is considered to be
an indicator of the total error in the measurement without
looking into the sources of errors.

• Precision: a measure of the reproducibility of the

measurements; given a fixed value of a variable, precision is a
measure of the degree to which successive measurements
differ from one another i.e., a measure of reproducibility or
agreement with each other for multiple trials.

• Sensitivity: the ability of the measuring instrument to respond

to changes in the measured quantity. It is expressed as the ratio
of the change of output signal or response of the instrument to
a change of input or measured variable.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
• Resolution: the smallest change in measured value to which the
instrument will respond, i.e. the smallest incremental quantity that can
be reliably measured.

• Error: deviation from the true value of the measured variable.

• Linearity: the percentage of departure from the linear value, i.e.,

maximum deviation of the output curve from the best-fit straight line
during a calibration cycle.

• Tolerance: maximum deviation allowed from the conventional true

value. It is not possible to build a perfect system or make an exact
measurement. All devices deviate from their ideal (design)
characteristics and all measurements include uncertainties (doubts).
Hence, all devices include tolerances in their specifications. If the
instrument is used for high-precision applications, the design tolerances
must be small. However, if a low degree of accuracy is acceptable, it is
not economical to use expensive sensors and precise sensing
components.
 STATIC CALIBRATION

• The static calibration for a multi-input instrument is carried out by

keeping all inputs except one at some constant values. The single
input under study is varied over some range of constant values,
causing the output(s) to vary over some range of constant values.
The input- output relation developed in this way is called “static
calibration”. A calibration curve for a dual-input single-output
system is shown in figure. The static sensitivity (S) is the slope of
the calibration curve and is defined as,
• S = ð(output)/ð (input)
• S is a constant for linear relation. Otherwise, S is a function of the
input.
 ACCURACY
• Accuracy is defined as the degree of conformity of a
measured value to the true (conventional true value – CTV)
or accepted value of the variable being measured. It is a
measure of the total error in the measurement without
looking into the sources of the errors. Mathematically it is
expressed as the maximum absolute deviation of the
readings from the CTV. This is called the absolute accuracy.
 PROBLEM ON ACCURACY

Example :
A voltmeter is used for reading on a standard value of 50 volts, the
following readings are obtained: 47, 52, 51, 48
• Conventional true value (CTV) = 50 volts,
Max Deviation=max of{CTV-VMIN;VMAX-CTV}
• Maximum (VMAX) = 52 volts and minimum (VMIN) = 47 volts.
• CTV – VMIN = 50 – 47 = 3 volts; VMAX – CTV = 52 – 50 = 2 volts.
• Absolute accuracy = max of {3, 2} = 3 volts.

• Relative accuracy = 3/50 = 0.06 and % accuracy = 0.06x100 = 6%

 PRECISION

• Precision is composed of two characteristics as

conformity and the number of significant figures.
Conformity
• The conformity is the ability of an instrument to
produce the same reading, or it is the degree of
agreement between individual measurements. So, it
is also called repeatability or reproducibility.
• Mathematically it is expressed as “the absolute
maximum deviation from the average of the
readings”, i.e.
• Precision (Pr) = max {(VAV – VMIN ), (VMAX –VAV )}
 BIAS
• The difference between CTV and average value (VAV) is
called the bias. Ideally, the bias should be zero. For a high
quality digital voltmeter, the loading error is negligible
yielding bias very close to zero.
• Bias = CTV – VAV
Precision (Pr) = max {(VAV – VMIN ), (VMAX –VAV )}
In the previous example:
average (VAV) = (47+48+51+52)/4 = 49.5 V
Pr = max {(49.5 – 47), (52 – 49.5)} = 2.5 volts.
Thus, Bias = 50 – 49.5 = 0.5 volt.
A consistent bias can be due to the presence of a systematic
error or instrument loading. Hence, eliminating the causes
removes the bias. However, if the bias is consistent and causes
cannot be identified and/or eliminated, the bias can be
removed by re-calibrating the instrument.
 PROBLEM ON PRECISION
A known voltage of 100 volts (CTV = 100 V) is read five times by a voltmeter and
following readings are obtained: 104, 103, 105, 103, 105

Average reading = (1/5)x(104+103+105+103+105) = 104 volts

Pr = max {(VAV – VMIN), (VMAX – VAV)} = max {(104 – 103), (105 – 104)} = 1 volt
Accuracy = max {(CTV – VMIN), (VMAX - CTV)} = max {(100 – 103), (105 – 100)} =5 V

Bias = average – CTV = 104 – 100 = 4 volts.

If we re-calibrated the instrument to remove the bias, then the average reading = CTV.
The new readings would be 100, 99, 101, 99, 101
Hence, after re-calibration, average = CTV = 100 volts,
and accuracy = precision = 1 volt.
 ACCURACY vs PRECISION

Poor accuracy High accuracy Average accuracy Poor accuracy

High precision High precision Poor precision Poor precision

Accuracy refers to the degree of closeness or conformity to the true value at the quantity
under measurement. Precision refers to the degree of agreement within a group of
measurements or instruments. The target-shooting example shown in figure illustrates the
difference.
The high accuracy, poor precision situation occurs when the person hits all the bullets on a
target plate on the outer circle and misses the bull’s eye.
In the second case, all bullets hit the bull’s eye and spaced closely enough leading to high
accuracy and high precision. The bullet hits are placed symmetrically with respect to the
bull’s eye
In the third case but spaced apart yielding average accuracy but poor precision.
In the last example, the bullets hit in a random manner, hence poor accuracy and poor
precision.
 SIGNIFICANT FIGURE
An indication of the precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of
significant figures in which the result is expressed. Significant figures convey actual
information regarding the magnitude and the measurement precision of a quantity. The
more significant figures the greater the precision of measurement.

If a resistor is specified as having a resistance of 68 W, its resistance should be closer

to 68 W than to 67 W or 69 W. If the value of the resistor is described as 68.0 W, it
means that its resistance is closer to 68.0 W than it is to 67.9 W or 68.1 W. In 68 W
there are two significant figures; in 68.0 W there are three. The latter, with more
significant figures, expresses a measurement of greater precision than the former.
 PROBLEM ON SIGNIFICANT FIGURE

Two resistors, R1 and R2, are connected in series. Individual

resistance measurements using a digital multimeter, yield R1 = 18.7
W and R2 = 3.624 W. Calculate the total resistance to the
appropriate number of significant figures.

SOLUTION:
R1 = 18.7 W (three significant figures)
R2 = 3.624 W (four significant figures)
RT = R1 + R2 = 22.324 W (five significant figures) = 22.3 W
 Types of Errors (Uncertainties)
Gross errors: largely human errors, among them misreading of instruments, incorrect
adjustment and improper application of instruments, and computational mistakes.

Systematic (determinate) errors: shortcomings of the instruments, such as defective or

worn parts, and effects of the environment on the equipment or the user. They are
sometimes called bias due to error in one direction- high or low. They are generally
originated from a known cause such as result from mis-calibrated device, experimental
technique that always gives a measurement higher (or lower) than the true value,
operator’s limitations and calibration of glassware, sensor, or instrument. Their effects
can be minimized by trying a different method for the same measurement. They can be
corrected when determined.

Random (indeterminate) errors: those due to causes that cannot be directly established
because of random variations in the parameter or the system of measurement. Hence, we
have no control over them. Their random nature causes both high and low values to
average out.
Types of Errors (Uncertainties)
 ANALYSIS OF MEASUREMENT DATA
Arithmetic Mean
The arithmetic mean is given by:

where x = arithmetic mean, x1 . . . xn = readings taken, and n = number of readings.

A set of independent current measurements was taken by six observers and recorded as 12.8
mA, 12.2 mA, 12.5 mA, 13.1 mA, 12.9 mA, and 12.4 mA. Calculate the arithmetic mean.

Deviation from the Mean

The deviation from the mean may have a positive or a negative value and that the
algebraic sum of all the deviations must be zero.

d1 = 12.8 - 12.65 = 0.15 mA

d2 = 12.2 - 12.65 = -0.45 mA
d3 = 12.5 - 12.65 = -0.15 mA
d4 = 13.1 - 12.65 = 0.45 mA
d5 = 12.9 - 12.65 = 0.25 mA
d6 = 12.4 - 12.65 = -0.25 mA
 AVERAGE DEVIATION
The average deviation is an indication of the precision at the instruments used in making
the measurements. Highly precise instruments will yield a low average deviation between
readings. By definition average deviation is the sum of the absolute values of the
deviations divided by the number of readings. The absolute value of the deviation is the
value without respect to sign. Average deviation may be expressed as

Find the average deviation for previous example

A set of independent current measurements was taken by six observers and recorded as 12.8
mA, 12.2 mA, 12.5 mA, 13.1 mA, 12.9 mA, and 12.4 mA. Calculate the arithmetic mean.
 STANDARD DEVIATION
• The range is an important measurement. It indicates figures at
the top and bottom around the average value. The findings
farthest away from the average may be removed from the data
set without affecting generality. However, it does not give much
indication of the spread of observations about the mean. This is
where the standard deviation comes in.
• In statistical analysis of random errors, the root-mean-square
deviation or standard deviation is a very valuable aid. By
definition, the standard deviations of a finite number of data is
the square root of the sum of all the individual deviations
squared, divided by the number of readings minus one.
Expressed mathematically:

The variance is a convenient quantity to use in

many computations because variances are additive.
The standard deviation however, has the advantage
of being of the same units as the variable making it
easy to compare magnitudes.
 PROBABILITY OF ERRORS
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION OF ERRORS:
A practical point to note is that, whether the calculation is done on the whole “population” of
data or on a sample drawn from it, the population itself should at least approximately fall into
a so called “normal (or Gaussian)” distribution.
For unbiased experiments all observations include small disturbing effects, called random
errors. Random errors undergo a Normal (Gaussian) law of distribution shown in figure

They can be positive or negative and

there is equal probability of positive and
negative random errors. The error
distribution curve indicates that:
·Small errors are more probable than
large errors.
·Large errors are very improbable.
·There is an equal probability of plus and
minus errors so that the probability of a
given error will be symmetrical about the
zero value.
 PROBABLE ERROR
The quantity r is called the probable error and is defined as
probable error r = ±0.6745σ
This value is probable in the sense that there is an even chance that any one
observation will have a random error no greater than ±r. Probable error has been
used in experimental work to some extent in the past, but standard deviation is
more convenient in statistical work and is given preference.

Ten measurements of the resistance of a resistor gave 101.2 W, 101.7 W, 101.3 W,

101.0 W, 101.5 W, 101.3 W, 101.2 W, 101.4 W, 101.3 W, and 101.1 W. Assume that
only random errors are present. Calculate the arithmetic mean, the standard
deviation of the readings, and the probable error.

Probable error r = ±0.6745σ

PROBLEM
 RANDOM ERRORS
• Random errors are due to random variations in the parameter or the
system of measurement as mentioned before. We deal with them
using statistics and multiple trials generally help to minimize their
effects. One of their primary causes can be pinpointed to instrument
limit of error and least count. The least count is the smallest division
that is marked on the instrument. The instrument limit of error is the
precision to which a measuring device can be read, and is always
equal to or smaller than the least count. The estimation of the
uncertainty is important.
• For example, assume a volt meter may give us 3 significant digits, but
we observe that the last two digits oscillate during the measurement.

• What is the error? Average deviation or standard deviation based on

repeated measurements of the same quantity are used in
determining the uncertainty.
 Uncertainties in Reading Digital Displays
• A digital meter involves counting from a clock signal during
the gate interval as depicted in figure
– As the gate and clock signals are not synchronized and
combined in an AND gate, case
•
(b) results 4 pulses while case (a) supplies only 3 pulses.
Hence, a digital read-out has an uncertainty of ±1 digit.
 Uncertainties in Reading Analog
Displays

• The uncertainty in analog displays depends upon the

organization of display screen and capabilities of the
reader. In analog multi meters.
• It is accepted as ± ½ scale divisions (the least count).
• In oscilloscope displays, it depends upon the
thickness of the trace and it is around ±½ mm.
• For both analog and digital displays, it is
recommended to take the measurement as close to
full scale as possible to minimize the effect of the
reading error.
Uncertainties in Reading Analog Displays Problem
 Mathematical Analysis of the Uncertainty
If an experiment has number of component sources, each being measured individually
using independent instruments, a procedure to compute the total accuracy is
necessary. Let
 LIMITING ERROR
• Two methods are commonly used for determining the
uncertainty. The first one is called the method of equal effects
and it yields the limiting (guarantied) error (maximum
uncertainty possible).

calculated at the nominal value. The absolute value is used because some of the
partial derivatives may be negative and would have a canceling effect. If one of the
partial derivative is high compared to the others, then a small uncertainty in the
corresponding variable has large effect on the total error. Hence, the equation also
illustrates which of the variable exerts strongest influence on the accuracy of the
overall results.
 PROBLEM LIMITING ERROR
The voltage generated by a circuit is equally dependent on the value of three resistors
and is given by the following equation: V0 = I(R1R2/R3). If the tolerance of each
resistor is 1 per cent, what is the maximum error of the generated voltage?
 EXPECTED VALUE OF UNCERTAINITY
The second method is called the square root of sum of
squares. It is based on the observations stated before for the
random errors. It yields the expected value of the uncertainty
and computed as
PROBLEM ON UNCERTAINITY