CHAPTER 3

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CHAPTER 3 INTRODUCTION TO ANTENNA 3.1 INTRODUCTION Antennas are key components of any wireless system. An
antenna is a device that transmits and receives electromagnetic waves in a communication system. Most antennas are like
resonant devices which operate efficiently over a narrow frequency band. An antenna is tuned to the same frequency band
that the radio system to which it is connected operates in else reception & transmission will be impaired. The receiving
antenna as a part in the system is responsible of turning the received electromagnetic waves into its original form. The
properties of the transmitting and receiving antennas are fully represented by Maxwell’s equations. The dipole antenna was
the first type of antenna to be ever used & the simplest one to study & understand as it is like a strait wire fed from the centre.
To tune the wire to be effectively transmit and receive electromagnetic waves, the length of it must be half the value of
wavelength of the operating frequency. For example for a frequency of 150 MHz with a wavelength 2 metre and 1 metre
antenna is required. 3.2 TYPES OF ANTENNAS 1. DIPOLE In radio and communication systems a dipole antenna is the simplest
and most widely used antenna. The dipole antenna produces a radiation pattern similar to that of an elementary electric
dipole with a radiating structure supporting a line current so energised that current has only one node at each end. Fig 3.1
Diagram of Dipole Antenna For a dipole antenna of length L oriented along the z-axis and centered at z=0, the current flows in
the z-direction with amplitude(I) which closely follows the following function: 9 I(z) = Io sin[(L/2) - z)] , -L/2

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Dipole antenna - Wikiwand

[2] [3] The dipole is any one of a class of antennas producing a radiation pattern approximating that of an
elementary electric dipole with a radiating structure supporting a line current so energized that the current 10%
has only one node at each end. [4] A dipole antenna commonly consists of two...
https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Dipole_antenna
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4. SQUARE LOOP ANTENNA The small loop antenna is a closed loop as shown in Figure 3.6. These antennas have quiet lower
radiation resistance and a higher reactance, so that their impedance is difficult to match to a transmitter. As a result, these
antennas are most often used as receive antennas where impedance mismatch loss can be ignored. The radius is a, and is
assumed to be much smaller than a wavelength (a<< v). The loop lies in the x-y plane. Fig. 3.6 : Dimensions in a Loop Antenna
The fields from a small circular loop are given by: Where, E is the value of Electric-field magnitude at an angle theta n is the
efficiency of antenna Io is the maximum value of current K is a proportionality constant r is the distance between transmitting
an receiving end L is the length of antenna Ѳ is angle of antenna with a fixed axis Radiation resistance for small loops can be
approximated (in Ohms) by: Radiation Pattern : For a small loop, the reactive component of the impedance can be determined
by finding the inductance of the loop, which depends on its shape (then X=2*pi*f*L). For a circular loop with radius a and wire
radius p, the reactive component of the impedance is given by: Where, X is the reactive component of impedance f is
frequency of signal received a is arpeture width p is phase width Fig. 3.7 : Radiation Pattern of Square Loop Antenna 14 5.
INVERTED VEE ANTENNA The inverted V dipole can form an effective antenna system for use on the HF amateur radio bands,
or for other applications in many circumstances. The advantage of the inverted V is that it only requires one high support
whilst still achieving a high level of performance - the difference between an inverted V with its centre at the same height as a
horizontal dipole is very marginal, and in most instances the difference in performance may not be detectable. Normally the
inverted V dipole is used for HF operation as the advantages of the single support are apparent on these frequencies. Fig. 3.8 :
Inverted Vee Antenna diagram Radiation Pattern : Although an inverted-V has its greatest degree of radiation at right angles
to the axis of the antenna, its radiation pattern is more omnidirectional than that of a horizontal dipole as a result of the fact
that the legs are angled downwards. The inverted-V has an excellent reputation for long distance communication on the
lower-frequency amateur bands where the installation of large verticals or high horizontal dipoles is not practicable. As an
example, the inverted V dipole performance very well at low frequencies and will give good results on the 3.5MHz ham radio
band when the mast is only about 14 metres or 45 feet high. This makes it a very attractive proposition for many amateur
radio stations. Similarly it inverted V dipole antennas for other bands also perform well. 15 Fig. 3.9 : Radiation pattern of
Inverted Vee Antenna 6.WHIP ANTENNA A whip antenna is a single-element antenna that can be used with an unbalanced feed
line such as coaxial cable or attached directly to a wireless transmitter, receiver, or transceiver. The whip resembles a ground-
plane antenna without the radial system.The short, flexible "rubber duck" antennas found on handheld two-way radios and
cell phones are examples of whip antennas. So are the long, flexible stainless-steel antennas used in Citizens Band mobile
installations. Some portable whip antennas can be telescoped down to a length of only few inches for transport and storage,
and extended to several feet for operation. Fig. 3.10 : Whip Antenna Radiation Pattern : Assets of the whip antenna include
electrical and mechanical simplicity. Little or no installation is necessary. But, because most whip antennas are operated with
a poor electrical ground system, they are usually inefficient. A whip directly connected to a transmitter radiates radio-
frequency (RF) energy into the immediate operating environment. This may cause nearby electronic apparatus (including
medical devices) to malfunction. Whip antennas used with handheld radios and cell phones subject the human body,
especially the head and hands too strong electromagnetic fields. 16 This has given rise to uncertainty about the biological
safety of whip antennas directly connected to handheld transceivers. In high-powered or long-range wireless
communications, substantial outdoor antennas used with well-engineered feed systems, work much better than whip
antennas. In addition, when a transmitting antenna is placed at a distance from humans and electronic equipment, the
potential electromagnetic hazard is minimised. radiation resistance for small loops can be approximated (in Ohms) by: Where,
Rr is value of Radiation resistance N is number of loops λ is wavelength of signal S is a constant Fig. 3.11 : Radiation pattern of
Rr is value of Radiation resistance N is number of loops λ is wavelength of signal S is a constant Fig. 3.11 : Radiation pattern of
Inverted Whip Antenna 7. SLEEVE ANTENNA A sleeve antenna is a specific design of radio wave antenna used for both the
reception and transmission of radio frequency signals. The two-element construction of the sleeve antenna is what gives the
device its name. 17 Fig. 3.12 : Sleeve Antenna The desired operating frequency of the antenna was 220 – 225 MHz, and the
desired input impedance was 50 Ω, so that it could be matched to a 50 Ohm coaxial transmission line. A simple way to begin
the design process is to start with the symmetrical sleeve antenna where both antenna elements are equal to each other,
each being λ/4. This length can be determined from : Radiation Pattern : Assuming a symmetrical antenna the starting length
of each arm was determined as Where, l is arm length of antenna λ is signal wavelength c is speed os light fo is signal
frequency In order to determine the optimal antenna length the simulators optimizer was run with a goal of minimum S11
magnitude in the frequency range 202 – 225 MHz. The antenna element lengths were set as free parameters, not necessarily
equal, in the range of 150 mm to 340 mm.

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8. MONOPOLE ANTENNA A monopole antenna is a class of radio antenna consists of a straight rod shaped conductor which is
often mounted perpendicularly over some type of conductive surface called a ground plane. A monopole antenna is half of a
dipole antenna’s length, almost always mounted above some sort of ground plane on a base. The case of a monopole
antenna of length L mounted above an infinite ground plane is shown in the figure. Using image theory fields above the
ground plane can be found by using the equivalent source in free space as shown in Fig. 3.14. This is simply a dipole antenna
of double of its length. The fields above the ground plane are identical to the fields in Figure, which are known and presented
in the dipole antenna section. Fig. 3.14 : Monopole Antenna The far-fields from a monopole antenna of length L are given by:
Where, E is the value of Electric-field magnitude at an angle theta n is the efficiency of antenna Io is the maximum value of
current K is a proportionality constant r is the distance between transmitting an receiving end L is the length of antenna Ѳ is
angle of antenna with a fixed axis Radiation Pattern : The radiation pattern of monopole antennas above a ground plane are
also similar to the dipole antenna’s result. The only change that is required to be noted is that the impedance of a monopole
antenna is half of that of a full dipole antenna. For a quarter wave monopole, the impedance is half of that of a half-wave
dipole. So, Zin = 36.5 + j21.25 Ohms. Since, Zin = V/I, the impedance of the monopole antenna is about reduced to half. Fig. 3.15
: Radiation pattern of Inverted Monopole Antenna 20 9. BROADSIDE ANTENNA It is a stacked collinear antenna. It is composed
of half wave dipoles spaced from one another by one half wavelength.Figure-1 depicts Broadside array antenna. Two or more
elements are usually combined in this type of antenna.Each is connected to the other antenna and also to the transmission
line. Fig. 3.16 : Broadside Antenna. Radiation Pattern : Although an Broadside antenna has its greatest degree of radiation at
right angles to the axis of the antenna, its radiation pattern is more omnidirectional than that of a horizontal dipole as a result
of the fact that the legs are angled downwards. It has an excellent reputation for long distance communication on the lower
frequency bands where installation of large verticals or high horizontal dipoles is not practically applicable. As an example, It’s
performance very well at low frequencies and will give good results on the 3.5MHz ham radio band when the mast is only
about 14 metres or 45 feet high. This makes it a very attractive proposition for many amateur radio stations. Similarly it
broadside antennas for other bands also perform well. The far-fields from a monopole antenna of length L are given by:
Where, E is the value of Electric-field magnitude at an angle theta n is the efficiency of antenna Io is the maximum value of
current K is a proportionality constant 21 r is the distance between transmitting an receiving end L is the length of antenna Ѳ
is angle of antenna with a fixed axis Fig. 3.17 : Radiation pattern of Inverted Broadside Antenna 10. END FIRE ARRAY ANTENNA
End Fire Antenna is a typical printed UWB end-fire antenna, it has both the advantages of printed antennas, which results that
it is widely used for satellite communication, microwave imaging, remote sensing, wide band scanning arrays and military
applications . . Fig. 3.18 : End Fire Array Antenna. Radiation Pattern : For effective radiation, we need the antenna to be a good
radiating structure 22 (the currents or electric fields add up in phase), and we need to be able to get the energy down the
transmission line and onto the antenna. This means we need the impedance of the antenna to be roughly 50 Ohms (typically).
To accomplish this, it is desirable to have the reactive component of the impedance (imaginary part) to be zero. For the slot
antenna, note that the feed sees a shorted transmission line a small fraction of a wavelength from the antenna. A shorted tx
line that is a small fraction of a wavelength creates an inductive reactive component. Fig. 3.19 : Radiation pattern of Inverted
Broadside Antenna 11. DISCONE ANTENNA A discone antenna is a similar to a biconical antenna in which one of the cones is
replaced by a disc. It is usually mounted vertically with disc at it’s top and at cone beneath. Fig. 3.20 : Discone Antenna
Radiation Pattern : A discone may be made from solid metal sheet (often copper), which is practical for small indoor UHF
antennas, such as for Wi-Fi. At low frequencies a sufficient number of metal wires or rods in a spoke pattern is often used to
prepare a solid surface. 23 This simplifies construction and reduces wind loading. Mounted discone antenna designed for VHF
prepare a solid surface. 23 This simplifies construction and reduces wind loading. Mounted discone antenna designed for VHF
and UHF spectrum coverage. The spokes may be made of stiff wire or brazing rods or even coat hanger wire can be used. The
optimal number of rods used ranges from 8 to 16 . Fig. 3.21 : Radiation pattern of Discone Antenna 12. CROSS DIPOLE
ANTENNA A turnstile antenna or crossed dipole antenna is a radio antenna consisting of a set of two identical dipole antennas
mounted at right angles to each other and fed in phase quadrature. The two currents applied to the dipoles are 90° out of
phase. Radiation Pattern : The input impedance of the half-wavelength dipole antenna is given by Zin = 73 + j42.5 Ohms. The
fields from the half-wave dipole antenna are given by: 24 Where, Zt is the total effective impedance offered by the antenna Zo
is maximum impedance B is the angle of antenna with fixed axis L is length of antenna

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Monopole antenna - Wikipedia

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End-fire antenna | Article about end-fire antenna by The Free...

As a typical printed UWB end-fire antenna, the Vivaldi antenna has both the advantages of printed antennas
and end-fire antennas [10, 11], which results that it is widely used for satellite communication, remote 4%
sensing, microwave imaging, wide band scanning arrays and military...
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Turnstile Antenna Calculator - Bing

a turnstile antenna, or crossed-dipole antenna, is a radio antenna consisting of a set of two identical dipole
antennas mounted at right angles to each other and fed in phase quadrature; the two currents applied to 2%
the dipoles are 90° out of phase. the name reflects the notion the antenna...
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(Half-Wavelength) Half-Wave Dipole Antenna

the fields from the half-wave dipole antenna are given by: the directivity of a half-wave dipole antenna is
1.64 (2.15 db). the hpbw is 78 degrees. in viewing the impedance as a function of the dipole length in the 2%
section on dipole antennas, it can be noted that by reducing the length slightly...
http://www.antenna-theory.com/antennas/halfwave.php
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13. HELICAL ANTENNA The most used helical antenna is a travelling wave antenna in the shape of a corkscrew that produces
radiation along the axis of helix antenna. These helix antennas are also known as axial mode helical antennas. The advantages
of this helix antenna is it has a broad bandwidth is easily constructed. It also has a real input impedance and can produce
circularly polarised fields. Fig. 3.24 : Helical Antenna Radiation Pattern : The helix antenna is a travelling wave antenna which
means the current travels along the antenna and its phase varies continuously. In addition, the input impedance is primarily
real and can be approximated in Ohms by: Where, Zin is input resistance C is speed os light λ is signal wavelength The
normalized radiation pattern for the E-field components are given by: Where, E is the value of Electric field N is number of
circular coils θ is antenna angle with fixed axis Ω is resistance of antenna The gain of the helix antenna can be calculated by:
Where, G is Gain of helix antenna C is speed os light λ is signal wavelength N is number of circular coils S is surface area of coil
f is frequency of signal Fig. 3.25 : Radiation pattern of Helical Antenna. 26 14. QUAD ANTENNA A quad antenna is a type of
directional wire radio antenna used on very high frequencies. Like a Yagi Uda antenna, a quad consists of a driven element
and one or more parasitic elements. However in a quad each of element is a loop antenna may be square, round or some
other shape. Fig. 3.26 : Quad Antenna Radiation Pattern : In the same way that the element spacing played a large part in the
design oft he Yagi beam antenna, the same is found for the quad. In general a spacing of around 0.15 to 0.2 of a wavelength is
used. This conveniently gives a feed impedance of around 50Ω. If a double element quad beam antenna has a spacing of just
over a quarter of a wavelength than the feed impedance rises to around 80Ω. This is convenient for designs used for VHF FM
broadcast reception. If the spacing is reduced below about 0.15 wavelengths than the impedance falls. If this is done then
some form of impedance transformation would be required to enable the antenna to be fed by standard coax. Fig. 3.27 :
Radiation pattern of Quad Antenna. 27 15. BICONICAL ANTENNA In communication systems, a biconical antenna is a broad-
bandwidth antenna made of two roughly conical conductive objects that nearly touching at their points. Biconical antennas
are broadband dipole antennas that exhibits a bandwidth of three octaves or more. Fig. 3.28 : Biconical Antenna Radiation
Pattern : The radiation pattern is variation of the field intensity of an antenna as an angular function with respect to the
antenna axis. The radiation pattern of the biconical antennas are approximately equal to the half-wave dipoles. They have an
omni-directional response in the H-plane, and a figure eight shape in the E-plane. The H-plane beam width pattern makes
these antennas ideal for field survey and spectrum monitoring. The monocycle pulse has the form : Where, E is the Electric
field magnitude t is thickness of cone r is radius of cone to is maximum cone thickness σ is Charge density in antenna 28 Fig.
3.29 : Radiation pattern of Biconical Antenna. 3.3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS We performed a lab experiment where we tested all
the above antennas at a particular frequency of FM band (91.1 MHz) using a digital RF receiver. Power Gain of all the antennas
in dBµV is given below : 29 Conclusion : As the Whip antenna in above table is giving the highest gain of 45 dBµV at a frequency
of FM band (91.1 MHz), it will be used as receiving antenna in our project. It will receive the RF signals from the atmosphere
which will be further used to get DC power for our sensor node.

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Helical Antenna Presentation - Copy | Antenna (Radio) | Electronics

in addition, the input impedance is primarily real and can. be approximated in ohms by: impedance, gain,
and radiation pattern. the helix antenna functions well for pitch angles ( ) between. 12 and 14 degrees. 10%
typically, the pitch angle is taken as 13 degrees. the normalized radiation pattern...
https://www.scribd.com/presentation/353659292/Helical-Antenna-Presentation-Copy