UNIVERSITY OF TOBRUK

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Antenna and Wave Propagations

Prepared by:
Ismail Mohammed F17479

Under the supervision of:

Mrs. Heyam Swidek

2024-2025
 Antenna
Introduction
Antennas are a fundamental component of wireless communication systems, serving as
the interface between electrical signals and electromagnetic waves in free space. They
enable the transmission and reception of signals, making them essential in various
applications such as broadcasting, radar, satellite, and mobile communications. Antennas
vary in type, structure, and performance characteristics to suit different system
requirements. Measuring antenna performance accurately requires specific equipment
and controlled environments that minimize reflections and external interference. To
achieve this, specialized antenna measurement ranges are used, such as anechoic
chambers, elevated ranges, and compact ranges, which allow for precise evaluation of
antenna behavior.

Types of Antennas
In this section, different types of antennas used for various applications will be discussed.

Wire Antennas
Wire antennas are also known as linear or curved antennas. These antennas are very
simple, cheap, and are used in a wide range of applications, These antennas are classified
into different types which are discussed below.

Wire Antenna

 Short-Dipole Antenna
It is the simplest of all types of antennas. This antenna is an open-circuited wire in which
short denotes “ relative to a wavelength” so this antenna gives priority to the size of the
wire relative to the wavelength of the frequency of operation.

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 Short Dipole Antenna

It does take any consideration about the absolute size of the dipole antenna. The short
dipole antenna is made up of two co-linear conductors that are placed end to end, with a
small gap between conductors by a feeder. A Dipole is considered short if the length of
the radiating element is less than a tenth of the wavelength L < λ/10.

The short dipole antenna is made of two co-linear conductors that are placed end to end,
with a small gap between conductors by a feeder.

The short dipole antenna is infrequently satisfactory from an efficiency viewpoint

because most of the power entering this antenna is dissipated as heat and resistive losses
also become gradually high.

 Dipole Antenna
A dipole antenna is one of the most straightforward antenna alignments. This dipole
antenna consists of two thin metal rods with a sinusoidal voltage difference between
them. The length of the rods is chosen in such a way that they have a quarter length of the
wavelength at operational frequencies. These antennas are used in designing their own
antennas or other antennas. They are very simple to construct and use.

Dipole Antenna

The dipole antenna consists of two metallic rods through which current and frequency
flow. This current and voltage flow makes an electromagnetic wave and the radio signals
get radiated. The antenna consists of a radiating element that splits the rods and makes
current flow through the center by using a feeder at the transmitter out that takes from the

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receiver. The different types of dipole antennas used as RF antennas include half wave,
multiple, folded, non-resonant, and so on.

 Folded Dipole Antenna

A Folded dipole antenna is a half-wave dipole antenna with an additional parallel wire or
rod connecting its two ends and folded to form a cylindrical closed shape. One pole (rod)
is continuous with a length of λ/2 and the other is split at the center. During transmission,
the antenna is fed at the center terminals of the two rods. Similarly, while receiving, the
antenna receives the signal from these two center terminals. Folded dipole antennas
usually operate in the frequency range from 3 kHz to 300 GHz and are ideal for use
where an optimum power transfer and large input impedance is required.

Folded Dipole Antenna

 Monopole Antenna
A monopole antenna is half of a simple dipole antenna located over a grounded plane as
shown in the figure below.

Monopole Antenna
The radiation pattern above the grounded plane will be the same as the half-wave dipole
antenna, however, the total power radiated is half that of a dipole; the field gets radiated
only in the upper hemisphere region. The directivity of these antennas becomes double
compared to the dipole antennas.

The monopole antennas are also used as vehicle-mounted antennas as they provide the
required ground plane for the antennas mounted above the earth.

 Loop Antenna
Loop antennas share similar characteristics with both dipole and monopole antennas
because they are simple and easy to construct. Loop antennas are available in different
shapes like circular, elliptical, rectangular, etc. The fundamental characteristics of the

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loop antenna are independent of its shape. They are widely used in communication links
with a frequency of around 3 GHz. These antennas can also be used as electromagnetic
field probes in microwave bands.

Loop Antenna

The circumference of the loop antenna determines the efficiency of the antenna is similar
to that of dipole and monopole antennas. These antennas are further classified into two
types: electrically small and electrically large based on the circumference of the loop.
Electrically small loop antenna, Circumference ≤ λ⁄10.

Electrically large loop antenna, Circumference ≈ λ.

Electrically small loops of a single turn have small radiation resistance compared to their
loss resistance. The radiation resistance of small loop antennas can be improved by
adding more turns. Multi-turn loops have better radiation resistance even if they have less
efficiency.

Due to this, the small loop antenna is mostly used as receiving antennas where losses are
not mandatory. Small loops are not used as transmitting antennas due to their low
efficiency.

Resonant loop antennas are relatively large and are directed by the operation of
wavelength. They are also known as large loop antennas as they are used at higher
frequencies, such as VHF and UHF, wherein their size is convenient. They can be viewed
as a folded-dipole antenna and deformed into different shapes like spherical, square, etc.,
and have similar characteristics such as high-radiation efficiency.

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Log Periodic Antennas
A log-periodic antenna is also named a log-periodic array. It is a multi-element,
directional narrow beam antenna that works on a wide range of frequencies. This antenna
is made of a series of dipoles placed along the antenna axis at different space intervals of
time followed by a logarithmic function of frequency. A log-periodic antenna is used in a
wide range of applications where variable bandwidth is required along with antenna gain
and directivity, These antennas are classified into different types which are discussed
below.

Log Periodic Antenna

 Bow-Tie Antennas
A bow-tie antenna is also known as a Biconical antenna or Butterfly antenna. Biconical
antenna is an omnidirectional wide-band antenna. According to the size of this antenna, it
has low- frequency response and acts as a high-pass filter. As the frequency goes to
higher limits, away from the design frequency, the radiation pattern of the antenna gets
distorted and spreads.

Bow-Tie Antenna

Most of the bow-tie antennas are derivatives of biconical antennas. The discone is a type
of half-biconical antenna. The bow-tie antenna is a planar, and therefore, a directional
antenna.

 Log-Periodic Dipole Array

The most common type of antenna used in wireless communication technology is a log-
periodic dipole array that fundamentally comprises a number of dipole elements. These
dipole-array antennas reduce in size from the back end to the front end. The leading beam
of this RF antenna comes from the smaller front end.

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 Log-Periodic Dipole Array

The element at the back end of the array is large in size with the half-wavelength
operating in a low-frequency range. The spacing of the element gets reduced towards the
front end of the array wherein the smallest arrays are placed. During this operation, as the
frequency varies, a smooth transition takes place along the array of the elements, which
leads to forming an active region.

Travelling Wave Antennas

These antennas are classified into different types which are discussed below.

 Helical Antennas
Helical antennas are also known as helix antennas. They have relatively simple structures
with one, two, or more wires each wound to form a helix, usually backed by a ground
plane or shaped reflector and driven by an appropriate feed. The most common design is
a single wire backed by the ground and fed with a coaxial line.

In General, the radiation properties of a helical antenna are associated with this
specification: the electrical size of the structure, wherein the input impedance is more
sensitive to the pitch and wire size.

Helical Antenna

Helical antennas have two predominant radiation modes: the normal mode and the axial
mode. The axial mode is used in a wide range of applications. In the normal mode, the
dimensions of the helix are small compared to its wavelength. This antenna acts as the
short dipole or monopole antenna. In the axial mode, the dimensions of the helix are the
same compared to its wavelength. This antenna works as a directional antenna.

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  Rhombic Antenna
A rhombic antenna is made of four sections of wire suspended parallel to the ground in a
diamond or "rhombus" shape. Each of the four sides is the same length – about a quarter-
wavelength to one wavelength per section – converging but not touching at an angle of
about 42° at the fed end and at the far end. The length is not critical, typically from one to
two wavelengths (λ), but there is an optimum angle for any given length and frequency. A
horizontal rhombic antenna radiates horizontally polarized radio waves at a low elevation
angle off the pointy ends of the antenna.

Rhombic Antenna

If the sections are joined by a resistor at either of the acute (pointy) ends, then the antenna
will receive from and transmit to only the direction the end with the resistor points at. Its
principal advantages over other types of antenna are its simplicity, high forward gain,
wide bandwidth, and the ability to operate over a wide range of frequencies.

Array antennas
An antenna array (or array antenna) is a set of multiple connected antennas which work
together as a single antenna, to transmit or receive radio waves, These antennas are
classified into different types which are discussed below.

 Yagi-Uda Antenna
Another antenna that makes use of passive elements is the Yagi-Uda antenna. This type of
antenna is inexpensive and effective. It can be constructed with one or more reflector
elements and one or more director elements.

Yagi-Uda Antenna

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Yagi antennas can be made by using an antenna with one reflector, a driven folded-dipole
active element, and directors, mounted for horizontal polarization in the forward
direction.

 Phased Array Antennas

Phased Array Antennas are antenna arrays that have the unique ability to change the
shape and direction of the radiation pattern without physically moving the antenna.
Elements in an antenna array are placed in such a way that the signals transmitted by
individual antennas sum up and provide better gain, directivity and performance in a
particular direction.

Phased Array Antennas

This is achieved by transmitting signals of the same frequency from all the individual
elements in the array but with a certain phase difference/shift between each antenna
element in the array. The phase shift is calculated to provide constructive interference in
the desired direction while destructive interference may occur in other directions.

Determining the phase shift in accordance with the desired direction of beamforming
involves complex mathematical calculations and is done by a computer system.

 Uniform Linear Array (ULA)

A Uniform Linear Array (ULA) is a collection of sensor elements equally spaced along a
straight line. The most common type of sensor is a dipole antenna that can transmit and
receive Electromagnetic Waves over the air. Other types of sensors include acoustic
sensors that may be used in air or under water. The requirements of a ULA are different
for different applications but the most common requirement is to improve the Signal to
Noise Ratio (SNR) and to improve its response (Gain) in a particular direction. The
second property means that the array accepts a signal from a particular direction and
rejects the signal from another direction just as required in Radar.

 Conformal antenna
In radio communication and avionics a conformal antenna or conformal array is a flat
array antenna which is designed to conform or follow some prescribed shape, for
example a flat curving antenna which is mounted on or embedded in a curved surface. It
consists of multiple individual antennas mounted on or in the curved surface which work

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together as a single antenna to transmit or receive radio waves. Conformal antennas were
developed in the 1980s as avionics antennas integrated into the curving skin of military
aircraft to reduce aerodynamic drag, replacing conventional antenna designs which
project from the aircraft surface. Military aircraft and missiles are the largest application
of conformal antennas, but they are also used in some civilian aircraft, military ships and
land vehicles. As the cost of the required processing technology comes down, they are
being considered for use in civilian applications such as train antennas, car radio
antennas, and cellular base station antennas, to save space and also to make the antenna
less visually intrusive by integrating it into existing objects.

Conformal Antenna

Microwave Antennas
The antennas operating at microwave frequencies are known as microwave antennas.
These antennas are used in a wide range of applications. These antennas are classified
into different types which are discussed below.

 Rectangular Microstrip Antennas

For spacecraft or aircraft applications – based on the specifications such as size, weight,
cost, performance, ease of installation, etc. – low profile antennas are preferred. These
antennas are known as rectangular microstrip antennas or patch antennas; they only
require space for the feed line which is normally placed behind the ground plane. The
major disadvantage of using these antennas is their inefficient and very narrow
bandwidth, which is typically a fraction of a percent or, at the most, a few percent.

Rectangular Microstrip Antennas

 Planar Inverted-F Antennas

A Planar Inverted-F Antenna can be considered as a type of linear Inverted F antenna
(IFA) in which the wire radiating element is replaced by a plate to increase the
bandwidth. The advantage of these antennas is that they can be hidden into the housing of

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the mobile when compared to different types of antennas like a whip, rod, or helical
antennas, etc.

The other advantage is that they can reduce the backward radiation towards the top of the
antenna by absorbing power, which enhances the efficiency. They provide high gain in
both horizontal and vertical states. This feature is most important for any kind of antennas
used in wireless communications.

Planar Inverted-F Antenna

 Slot Antenna
A slot antenna consists of a metal surface, usually a flat plate, with one or more holes or
slots cut out. When the plate is driven as an antenna by an applied radio frequency
current, the slot radiates electromagnetic waves in a way similar to a dipole antenna. The
shape and size of the slot, as well as the driving frequency, determine the radiation
pattern. Slot antennas are usually used at UHF and microwave frequencies at which
wavelengths are small enough that the plate and slot are conveniently small. At these
frequencies, the radio waves are often conducted by a waveguide, and the antenna
consists of slots in the waveguide; this is called a slotted waveguide antenna. Multiple
slots act as a directive array antenna and can emit a narrow fan-shaped beam of
microwaves. They are used in standard laboratory microwave sources used for research,
UHF television transmitting antennas, antennas on missiles and aircraft, sector antennas
for cellular base stations, and particularly marine radar antennas. A slot antenna's main
advantages are its size, design simplicity, and convenient adaptation to mass production
using either waveguide or PC board technology.

Slot Antenna

 Dielectric Resonator Antenna (DRA)

A dielectric resonator antenna (DRA) is a microwave antenna, typically constructed of
ceramic for its high Q potential, that contains a radiated wave with its sharp transition

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from a higher dielectric constant to air. This technology is most impactful at higher
frequencies, where the designer has the advantage of not needing a conductor (and its
associated loss) in the transmission path. High relative permittivity is desired for
miniaturization. This is critical in arrays as there needs to be space for the antennas to fit
at the array spacing. Additionally, higher dielectrics define the border between the DRA
and the environment better. It is the delta in relative permittivity between the DRA and its
surroundings (usually air or 1.0) that creates the boundary of the object to act as a type of
waveguide.

Dielectric Resonator Antenna (DRA)

 Fractal Antennas
Fractal antennas use self-similar designs to maximize the length, or increase the
perimeter of material that can receive or transmit electromagnetic radiation within a given
total surface area or volume. Fractal antennas are printed structures that is they are etched
on a dielectric substrate.

The main advantage of fractal antennas are, Reduced space requirement because of the
compact size, and Higher input resistance because of increase in length or perimeter.

Fractal Antenna

Reflector Antennas
These antennas are classified into two types which are discussed below.

 Corner Reflector Antenna

The antenna that comprises one or more dipole elements placed in front of a corner
reflector, is known as a corner-reflector antenna. The directivity of an antenna can be
increased by using reflectors. In the case of a wire antenna, a conducting sheet is used
behind the antenna for directing the radiation in the forward direction.

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 Corner Reflector Antenna

 Parabolic-Reflector Antenna
The radiating surface of a parabolic antenna has very large dimensions compared to its
wavelength. The geometrical optics, which depend upon rays and wavefronts, are used to
know about certain features of these antennas. Certain important properties of these
antennas can be studied by using ray optics, and of other antennas by using
electromagnetic field theory.

Parabolic-Reflector Antenna

One of the useful properties of this antenna is the conversion of a diverging spherical
wave front into a parallel wavefront that produces a narrow beam of the antenna. The
various types of feeds that use this parabolic reflector include horn feeds, Cartesian feeds,
and dipole feeds.

Horn Antenna
A horn antenna is also called a microwave horn that includes a metal waveguide with
flaring & horn-shaped to direct radio signals within a ray. Horns are extensively used like
antennas at microwave & UHF frequencies over 300 MHz.

Horn Antenna

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These are used like feed antennas for huge antennas like parabolic antennas and typical
calibration antennas for calculating the other antennas gain and directive antennas like
radar guns, automatic door openers as well as microwave radiometers. The main benefits
of these antennas are low SWR (standing wave ratio), moderate directivity, wide
bandwidth, easy construction and adjustment.

Required Equipment in Antenna Measurements

Vector Network Analyzer (VNA)
For antenna testing, the most fundamental device is the VNA [Vector Network Analyzer].
The simplest type of VNA is a 1-port VNA. Fortunately, impedance measurements are
pretty easy if you have the right equipment. In this case, the right equipment is a Vector
Network Analyzer (VNA). This is a measuring tool that can be used to measure the input
impedance as a function of frequency. Alternatively, it can plot S11 (return loss), and the
VSWR, both of which are frequency-dependent functions of the antenna impedance. The
Agilent 8510 Vector Network Analyzer is shown below.

Vector Network Analyzer (VNA)

Measuring of an antenna's radiation pattern, gain and efficiency is more difficult and
requires a lot more equipment. the antenna to be measured is called the AUT, which
stands for Antenna Under Test. The required equipment for antenna measurements
include:

 A reference antenna An antenna with known characteristics (gain, pattern, etc).

 An RF Power Transmitter A way of injecting energy into the AUT [Antenna
Under Test].
 A receiver system - This determines how much power is received by the
reference antenna.
 A positioning system This system is used to rotate the test antenna relative to the
source antenna, to measure the radiation pattern as a function of angle.

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A block diagram of the above equipment is shown below.

Diagram of require antenna measurement equipment

These components will be briefly discussed. The Reference Antenna should of course
radiate well at the desired test frequency. Reference antennas are often dual-polarized
horn antennas, so that horizontal and vertical polarization can be measured at the same
time.

The Transmitting System should be capable of outputting a stable known power level.
The output frequency should also be tunable (selectable), and reasonably stable (stable
means that the frequency you get from the transmitter is close to the frequency you want,
does not vary much with temperature). The transmitter should contain very little energy
at all other frequencies (there will always be some energy outside of the desired
frequency, but there shouldn't be a lot of energy at harmonics, for instance).

The Receiving System simply needs to determine how much power is received from the
test antenna. This can be done via a simple power meter, which is a device for measuring
RF (radio frequency) power and can be connected directly to the antenna terminals via a
transmission line (such as a coaxial cable with N-type or SMA connectors). Typically the
receiver is a 50 Ohm system, but can be a different impedance if specified.

Note that the transmit/receive system is often replaced by a VNA. An S21 measurement
transmits a frequency out of port 1 and is records the received power at port 2. Hence, a
VNA is well-suited to this task; however it is not the only method of performing this task.

The Positioning System controls the orientation of the test antenna. Since we want to
measure the radiation pattern of the test antenna as a function of angle (typically in
spherical coordinates), we need to rotate the test antenna so that the source antenna
illuminates the test antenna from every possible angle. The positioning system is used for
this purpose. The diagram shows the AUT being rotated. Note that there are many ways
to perform this rotation; sometimes the reference antenna is rotated, and sometimes both
the reference and AUT antennas are rotated.

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Ranges
Free space ranges are antenna measurement locations designed to simulate measurements
that would be performed in space. That is, all reflected waves from nearby objects and the
ground (which are undesirable) are suppressed as much as possible. The most popular
free space ranges are anechoic chambers, elevated ranges, and the compact range.

Anechoic Chambers
Anechoic chambers are indoor antenna ranges. The walls, ceilings and floor are lined
with special electromagnetic wave absorbing material. Indoor ranges are desirable
because the test conditions can be much more tightly controlled than that of outdoor
ranges. The material is often jagged in shape as well, making these chambers quite
interesting to see. The jagged triangle shapes are designed so that what is reflected from
them tends to spread in random directions, and what is added together from all the
random reflections tends to add incoherently and is thus suppressed further. A picture of
an anechoic chamber is shown in the following picture, along with some test equipment.

Anechoic Chamber

The drawback to anechoic chambers is that they often need to be quite large. Often
antennas need to be several wavelengths away from each other at a minimum to simulate
far-field conditions. Hence, for lower frequencies with large wavelengths we need very
large chambers, but cost and practical constraints often limit their size. Some defense
contracting companies that measure the Radar Cross Section of large airplanes or other
objects are known to have anechoic chambers the size of basketball courts, although this
is not ordinary. Universities with anechoic chambers typically have chambers that are 3-5
meters in length, width and height. Because of the size constraint, and because RF
absorbing material typically works best at UHF and higher, anechoic chambers are most
often used for frequencies above 300 MHz.

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Elevated Ranges
Elevated Ranges are outdoor ranges. In this setup, the source and antenna under test are
mounted above the ground. These antennas can be on mountains, towers, buildings, or
wherever one finds that is suitable. This is often done for very large antennas or at low
frequencies (VHF and below, < 100 MHz) where indoor measurements would be
intractable. The basic diagram of an elevated range is shown below.

Diagram of Elevated Range

The source antenna (or reference antenna) is not necessarily at a higher elevation than the
test antenna. The line of sight (LOS) between the two antennas (illustrated by the black
ray in the diagram) must be unobstructed. All other reflections (such as the red ray
reflected from the ground) are undesirable. For elevated ranges, once a source and test
antenna location are determined, the test operators then determine where the significant
reflections will occur, and attempt to minimize the reflections from these surfaces. Often
rf absorbing material is used for this purpose, or other material that deflects the rays away
from the test antenna.

Compact Ranges
The source antenna must be placed in the far field of the test antenna. The reason is that
the wave received by the test antenna should be a plane wave for maximum accuracy.
Since antennas radiate spherical waves, the antenna needs to be sufficiently far such that
the wave radiated from the source antenna is approximately a plane wave.

A source antenna radiates a wave with a spherical wavefront

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However, for indoor chambers there is often not enough separation to achieve this. One
method to fix this problem is via a compact range. In this method, a source antenna is
oriented towards a reflector, whose shape is designed to reflect the spherical wave in an
approximately planar manner. This is very similar to the principle upon which a dish
antenna operates. The basic operation is shown below.

Compact Range – the spherical waves from the source antenna are reflected to be planar (collimated)

The length of the parabolic reflector is typically desired to be several times as large as the
test antenna. The source antenna is offset from the reflector so that it is not in the way of
the reflected rays. Care must also be exercised in order to keep any direct radiation
(mutual coupling) from the source antenna to the test antenna.

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