GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING I

Engr. Marcelo R. Teñoso Jr.

Engr. Cristina Amor M. Rosales
Engr. Allen Paul Alcantara
Engr. Vivian Guda
Soil Mechanics
Course Rationale and Description

The record of a person’s first use of soil as a construction material is lost in antiquity. It
developed with the accumulation of experiences but without the aid of science, until later, it had
reached a considerable degree of refinement. There began a concerted scientific effort to
determine the physical laws responsible for the behavior of the subsurface materials from which
foundations derive their support. Soil Mechanics has provided new techniques for selecting the
appropriate types of foundations under a given set of conditions and for predicting the
performance of the completed substructure. It has defined the limits within which the traditional
techniques are applicable and has provided means suitable under the circumstances in which the
traditional procedures are not valid.

Intended Learning Outcomes

• ILO 1- Define soil mechanics and its importance in civil engineering.

• ILO 2- Show proficiency in determining soil properties, selecting soil parameters for
analysis and design relevant to geotechnical engineering.
• ILO 3- Understand various subsurface explorations equipment, soil laboratory tests and
equipment

Criteria for Assessment

The work of students shall be graded at the end of each term in accordance with the
following system:

Requirements Percentage (%)

Pre-final 70
Midterm Exam 30
End of Module Assessment 20
Laboratory Reports 35
Practical Output 15
Final Exam 30
Total 100
Module 1: Soil Formation
Introduction

The word “soil” has different meanings for different professions:

To the agriculturist, soil is the top thin layer of earth within which organic forces are
predominant and which is responsible for the support of plant life.
To the geologist, soil is the material in the top thin zone within which roots occur.
From the point of view of an engineer, soil includes all earth materials, organic and
inorganic, occurring in the zone overlying the rock crust.

The behavior of a structure depends upon the properties of the soil materials on which the
structure rests. The properties of the soil materials depend upon the properties of the rocks from
which they are derived. A brief discussion of the parent rock is, therefore, quite essential in
order to understand the properties of soil materials.

Topic Outcomes

1. Define soil mechanics and its importance to Civil Engineering

2. Identify the different processes involved in rock cycle and understand the origin of soils
INTRODUCTION

● soil is defined as the uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed organic
matter (solid particles) with liquid and gas in the empty spaces between the solid
particles.

● Soil is used as a construction material in various civil engineering projects, and it

supports structural foundations.

● Soil mechanics is the branch of science that deals with the study of the physical
properties of soil and the behavior of soil masses subjected to various types of forces.

● Soils engineering is the application of the principles of soil mechanics to practical

problems.

● Geotechnical engineering is the subdiscipline of civil engineering that involves natural

materials found close to the surface of the earth. It includes the application of the
principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to the design of foundations, retaining
structures, and earth structures.

A BRIEF HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

Many structures that were built centuries ago are monuments of curiosity even today.
Egyptian temples built three or four thousand years ago still exist though the design of the
foundations were not based on any presently known principles. Romans built notable
engineering structures such as harbors, breakwaters, aqueducts, bridges, large public buildings
and a vast network of durable and excellent roads . The leaning tower of Pisa in Italy completed
during the 14th century is still a center of tourist attraction. Many bridges were also built during
the 15th to 17th centuries. Timber piles were used for many of the foundations.

Another marvel of engineering achievement is the construction o f the famed mausoleum

Taj Mahal outside the city of Agra. This was constructed in the 17th century by the Mogul
Emperor of Delhi, Shahjahan, to commemorate his favorite wife Mumtaz Mahal. The
mausoleum is built on the bank of the river Jamuna. The proximity of the river required special
attention in the building of the foundations. I t is reported that masonry cylindrical wells have
been used for the foundations. It goes to the credit of the engineers who designed and
constructed this grand structure which is still quite sound even after a lapse of about three
centuries.

The first rational approach for the computation of earth pressures on retaining walls was
formulated by Coulomb (1776), a famous French scientist. He proposed a theory in 1776 called
the "Classical Earth Pressure Theory". Poncelet (1840 ) extended Coulomb' s theory by giving
an elegant graphical method for finding the magnitude of earth pressure on walls. Later,
Culmann (1875) gave the Coulomb-Poncelet theory a geometrical formulation, thus supplying
the method with a broad scientific basis. Rankine (1857) a Professor of Civil Engineering in the
University of Glasgow, proposed a new earth pressure theory, which is also called a Classical
Earth Pressure Theory.

Darcy (1856), on the basis of his experiments on filter sands, proposed a law for the flow
of water in permeable materials and in the same year Stokes (1856) gave an equation for
determining the terminal velocity of solid particles falling in liquids. The rupture theory of Mohr
(1900) Stress Circles are extensively used in the study of shear strength o f soils. One of the
most important contributions to engineering science was made by Boussinesq (1885) who
proposed a theory for determining stress distribution under loaded areas in a semi-infinite ,
elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic medium .

Atterberg (1911), a Swedish scientist, proposed simple tests for determining the
consistency limits o f cohesive soils . Fellenius (1927 ) headed a Swedish Geotechnical
Commission for determining the causes of failure of many railway and canal embankments. The
so-called Swedish Circle method or otherwise termed as the Slip Circle method was the outcome
of his investigation which was published in 1927 .

The development of the science of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering from the
year 1925 onwards was phenomenal. Terzaghi laid down definite procedures in his book
published in 1925 for determining properties and the strength characteristics of soils . The
modern soil mechanics was born i n 1925 . The present stage o f knowledge in Soil Mechanics
and the design procedures of foundations are mostly due to the work s of Terzaghi and his band
of devoted collaborators.

Karl Terzaghi

Karl Terzaghi writing in 1951, on “The Influence of Modern Soil Studies on The Design
and Construction of Foundations” commented on foundations as follows:

Foundations can appropriately be described as a necessary evil. If

a building is to be constructed on an outcrop of sound rock, no
foundation is required. Hence, in contrast to the building
itself which satisfies specific needs, appeals to the aesthetic sense,
and fills its matters with pride, the foundations merely serve as a
remedy for the deficiencies of whatever whimsical nature has
provided for the support of the structure at the site which has been
selected. On account of the fact that there is no glory attached to
the foundations, and that the sources of success or failures are
hidden deep in the ground, building foundations have always
been treated as step children; and their acts of revenge for the
lack of attention can be very embarrassing.

The comments made by Terzaghi are very significant and should b e taken note of by all
practicing Architects and Engineers. Architects or Engineers who do not wish to make use of the
growing knowledge of foundation design are not rendering true service to their profession. Since
substructures are as important as superstructures, persons who are well qualified in the design of
substructures should always be consulted and the old proverb that a 'stitch in time saves nine '
should always be kept in mind.

The design of foundations is a branch of Civil Engineering. Experience has shown that
most of these branches have passed i n succession through two stages, the empirical and the
scientific, before they reached the present one which may be called the stage of maturity.

The stage of scientific reasoning in the design of foundations started with the publication
of the book Erdbaumechanik (means Soil Mechanics) by Karl Terzaghi in 1925. This book
represents the first attempt to treat Soil Mechanics on the basis of the physical properties of
soils. Terzaghi’s contribution for the development of Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering is so vast that he may truly be called the Father o f Soil Mechanics, His activity
extended over a period o f about 50 years starting from the year 1913 . He was born on October
2, 1883 in Prague and died on October 25, 1963 in Winchester, Massachusetts, USA. His
amazing career is well documented i n the book 'From Theory to Practice in Soil Mechanics'.

Many investigators in the field of Soil Mechanics were inspired by Terzaghi. Some of
the notable personalities who followed his footsteps are Ralph B . Peck , Arthur Casagrande , A.
W. Skempton, etc. Because of the unceasing efforts of these and other innumerable
investigators, Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering has come to stay as a very important
part of the Civil Engineering profession.

The transition o f foundation engineering from the empirical stage to that of the scientific
stage started almost at the commencement of the 20th century . The design of foundations during
the empirical stage was based mostly on intuition and experience. There used to be many
failures since the procedure of design was only by trial and error.

However, in the present scientific age, the design of foundations based on scientific
analysis has received much impetus. Theories have been developed based on fundamental
properties of soils. Still one can witness unsatisfactory performance of structures constructed
even on scientific principles. The reasons for such poor performance are many. The soil mass on
which a structure is to be built is heterogeneous in character and no theory can simulate field
conditions . The fundamental properties o f soil which we determine i n laboratories may not
truly reflect the properties of the soil in-situ. A judicial combination o f theory and experience i s
essential for successful performance o f any structure built on earth. Another method that is
gaining popularity is the observational approach. This procedure consist s in making
appropriate observations soon enough during construction to detect signs of departure of the real
conditions from those assumed by the designer and in modifying either the design or the method
of construction in accordance with the findings.

Terzaghi defined Soil Mechanics as follows:

 Soil Mechanics is the application of the laws of mechanics and
hydraulics to engineering problems dealing with sediments and
other unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles produced
by the mechanical and chemical disintegration of rocks regardless
of whether or not they contain an admixture of organic
constituents.

The term Soil Mechanics is now accepted quite generally to designate that discipline of
engineering science which deals with the properties and behavior of soil as a structural material.

All structures have to be built on soils. Our main objective in the study of soil mechanics
is to lay down certain principles, theories and procedures for the design of a safe and sound
structure. The subject of Foundation Engineering deals with the design of various types of
substructures under different soil and environmental conditions.

During the design, the designer has to make use of the properties of soils , the theories
pertaining to the design and his own practical experience to adjust the design to suit field
conditions. He has to deal with natural soil deposits which perform the engineering function of
supporting the foundation and the superstructure above it . Soil deposits in nature exist in an
extremely erratic manner producing thereby an infinite variety of possible combinations which
would affect the choice and design of foundations. The foundation engineer must have the
ability to interpret the principles of soil mechanics to suit the field conditions. The success or
failure of his design depends upon how much in tune he is with Nature.

Rock Cycle and the Origin of Soil

In general, soils are formed by weathering of rocks. The physical properties of soil are
dictated primarily by the minerals that constitute the soil particles and, hence, the rock from
which it is derived.

The mineral grains that form the solid phase of a soil aggregate are the product of rock
weathering. The size of the individual grains varies over a wide range. Many of the physical
properties of soil are dictated by the size, shape, and chemical composition of the grains. To
better understand these factors, one must be familiar with the basic types of rock that form the
earth’s crust, the rock-forming minerals, and the weathering process. On the basis of their mode
of origin, rocks can be divided into three basic types: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
Figure 1 shows a diagram of the formation cycle of different types of rock and the processes
associated with them. This is called the rock cycle.
 Figure 1. Rock Cycle

Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are formed by the solidification of molten magma ejected from deep
within the earth’s mantle. After ejection by either fissure eruption or volcanic eruption, some of
the molten magma cools on the surface of the earth. Sometimes magma ceases its mobility
below the earth’s surface and cools to form intrusive igneous rocks that are called plutons.
Intrusive rocks formed in the past may be exposed at the surface as a result of the continuous
process of erosion of the materials that once covered them.

Table 1. Composition of Some Igneous Rocks

Weathering of Rocks and Types of Soils

Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks by mechanical and chemical

processes into smaller pieces. Most of the soils that cover the earth are formed by the weathering
of various rocks. There are two general types of weathering: (1) mechanical weathering and (2)
chemical weathering.
Mechanical weathering is the process by which rocks are broken into smaller and
smaller pieces by physical forces, including running water, wind, ocean waves, glacier ice, frost,
and expansion and contraction caused by the gain and loss of heat.
Chemical weathering is the process of chemical decomposition of the original rock. In
the case of mechanical weathering, the rock breaks into smaller pieces without a change in its
chemical composition. However, in chemical weathering, the original material may be changed
to something entirely different. For example, the chemical weathering of feldspar can produce
clay minerals. Most rock weathering is a combination of mechanical and chemical weathering.
Soil produced by the weathering of rocks can be transported by physical processes to
other places. The resulting soil deposits are called transported soils. In contrast, some soils stay
where they were formed and cover the rock surface from which they derive. These soils are
referred to as residual soils.

Residual Soil
Residual soils are found in areas where the rate of weathering is more than the rate at
which the weathered materials are carried away by transporting agents. The rate of weathering is
higher in warm and humid regions compared to cooler and drier regions and, depending on the
climatic conditions, the effect of weathering may vary widely.

Residual soil deposits are common in the tropics. The nature of a residual soil deposit
will generally depend on the parent rock. When hard rocks, such as granite and gneiss, undergo
weathering, most of the materials are likely to remain in place. These soil deposits generally
have a top layer of clayey or silty clay material, below which are silty or sandy soil layers. These
layers in turn, are generally underlain by a partially weathered rock, and then sound bedrock.
The depth of the sound bedrock may vary widely, even within a distance of a few meters.

In contrast to hard rocks, there are some chemical rocks, such as limestone, that are
chiefly made up of calcite (CaCo3) minerals. Chalk and dolomite have large concentrations of
dolomite minerals [Ca Mg(Co3)2]. These rocks have large amounts of soluble materials, some
of which are removed by groundwater, leaving behind the insoluble fraction of the rock.
Residual soils that derive from chemical rocks do not possess a gradual transition zone to the
bedrock. The residual soils derived from the weathering of limestone-like rocks are mostly red
in color. Although uniform in kind, the depth of weathering may vary greatly. The residual soils
immediately above the bedrock may be normally consolidated. Large foundations with heavy
loads may be susceptible to large consolidation settlements on these soils.

Transported Soil
 Transported soils can be subdivided into five major categories based on the transporting
agent: gravity transported soil/ colluvial soil, lacustrine (lake) deposits, alluvial or fluvial soil
deposited by running water, glacial deposited by glaciers, aeolian deposited by the wind, marine
soils formed by deposition in the sea

1. Gravity Transported Soil

Residual soils on a steep natural slope can move slowly downward, and this is usually
referred to as creep. When the downward soil movement is sudden and rapid, it is called a
landslide. The soil deposits formed by landslides are colluvium. Mudflows are one type of
gravity transported soil. In this case, highly saturated, loose sandy residual soils, on relatively
flat slopes, move downward like a viscous liquid and come to rest in a more dense condition.
The soil deposits derived from past mud flows are highly heterogeneous in composition.

2. Lacustrine Deposits

Water from rivers and springs flows into lakes. In arid regions, streams carry large
amounts of suspended solids. Where the stream enters the lake, granular particles are deposited
in the area forming a delta. Some coarser particles and the finer particles; that is, silt and clay
that are carried into the lake are deposited onto the lake bottom in alternate layers of coarse-
grained and fine-grained particles. The deltas formed in humid regions usually have finer
grained soil deposits compared to those in arid regions.

3. Alluvial Deposits

Alluvial soil deposits derive from the action of streams and rivers and can be divided into
two major categories: (1) braided-stream deposits, and (2) deposits caused by the meandering
belt of streams.

3.1 Deposits from Braided Streams

Braided streams are high-gradient, rapidly flowing streams that are highly erosive and
carry large amounts of sediment. Because of the high bed load, a minor change in the velocity of
flow will cause sediments to deposit. By this process, these streams may build up a complex
tangle of converging and diverging channels, separated by sandbars and islands.

The deposits formed from braided streams are highly irregular in stratification and have a
wide range of grain sizes. Figure 2 shows a cross section of such a deposit. These deposits share
several characteristics:

1. The grain sizes usually range from gravel to silt. Clay-sized particles are generally not
found in deposits from braided streams.
2. Although grain size varies widely, the soil in a given pocket or lens is rather uniform.
3. At any given depth, the void ratio and unit weight may vary over a wide range within a
lateral distance of only a few meters.
 Figure 2. Cross section of braided stream deposit

3.2 Meander Belt Deposits

The term meander is derived from the Greek work maiandros, after the Maiandros (now
Menderes) River in Asia, famous for its winding course. Mature streams in a valley curve back
and forth. The valley floor in which a river meanders is referred to as the meander belt. In a
meandering river, the soil from the bank is continually eroded from the points where it is
concave in shape and is deposited at points where the bank is convex in shape, as shown in
Figure 3. These deposits are called point bar deposits, and they usually consist of sand and silt-
sized particles. Sometimes, during the process of erosion and deposition, the river
abandons a meander and cuts a shorter path. The abandoned meander, when filled with
water, is called an oxbow lake.

During floods, rivers overflow low-lying areas. The sand and silt-size particles carried by
the river are deposited along the banks to form ridges known as natural levees (Figure 4). Finer
soil particles consisting of silts and clays are carried by the water farther onto the floodplains.
These particles settle at different rates to form backswamp deposits, often highly plastic clays.
 Figure 3. Formation of point bar
deposits and oxbow lake in a
meandering stream

Figure 4. Levee and backswamp deposit

4.Glacial Deposits

During the Pleistocene Ice Age, glaciers covered large areas of the earth. The glaciers
advanced and retreated with time. During their advance, the glaciers carried large amounts of
sand, silt, clay, gravel, and boulders. Drift is a general term usually applied to the deposits laid
down by glaciers. Unstratified deposits laid down by melting glaciers are referred to as till. The
physical characteristics of till may vary from glacier to glacier.

The landforms that developed from the deposits of till are called moraines. A terminal
moraine (Figure 5) is a ridge of till that marks the maximum limit of a glacier’s advance.
Recessional moraines are ridges of till developed behind the terminal moraine at varying
distances apart. They are the result of temporary stabilization of the glacier during the
recessional period. The till deposited by the glacier between the moraines is referred to as
ground moraine. Ground moraines constitute large areas of the central United States and are
called till plains.

The sand, silt, and gravel that are carried by the melting water from the front of a glacier
are called outwash. In a pattern similar to that of braided-stream deposits, the melted water
deposits the outwash, forming outwash plains, also called glaciofluvial deposits. The range of
grain sizes present in a given till varies greatly.

Figure 5. Terminal moraine, ground moraine, and outwash plain

5.Aeolian Soil Deposits

Wind is also a major transporting agent leading to the formation of soil deposits. When
large areas of sand lie exposed, wind can blow the sand away and redeposit it elsewhere.
Deposits of windblown sand generally take the shape of dunes (Figure 6). As dunes are formed,
the sand is blown over the crest by the wind. Beyond the crest, the sand particles roll down the
slope. The process tends to form a compact sand deposit on the windward side, and a rather
loose deposit on the leeward side of the dune. Following are some of the typical properties of
dune sand:

a. The grain-size distribution of the sand at any particular location is surprisingly uniform.
This uniformity can be attributed to the sorting action of the wind.
b. The general grain size decreases with distance from the source, because the wind carries
the small particles farther than the large ones.
c. The relative density of sand deposited on the windward side of dunes may be as high as
50 to 65%, decreasing to about 0 to 15% on the leeward side.

Loess is an aeolian deposit consisting of silt and silt-sized particles. The grain size
distribution of loess is rather uniform. The cohesion of loess is generally derived from a clay
coating over the silt-sized particles, which contributes to a stable soil structure in an unsaturated
state. The cohesion may also be the result of the precipitation of chemicals leached by rainwater.
Loess is a collapsing soil, because when the soil becomes saturated, it loses its binding strength
between particles. Special precautions need to be taken for the construction of foundations over
loessial deposits.

Volcanic ash (with grain sizes between 0.25 to 4 mm), and volcanic dust (with grain
sizes less than 0.25 mm), may be classified as wind-transported soil. Volcanic ash is a
lightweight sand or sandy gravel. Decomposition of volcanic ash results in highly plastic and
compressible clays.

Figure 6. Sand dune

In addition to transported and residual soils, there are peats and organic soils, which
derive from the decomposition of organic materials. Organic soils are usually found in low-lying
areas where the water table is near or above the ground surface. The presence of a high water
table helps in the growth of aquatic plants that, when decomposed, form organic soil. This type
of soil deposit is usually encountered in coastal areas and in glaciated regions. Organic soils
show the following characteristics:

1. Their natural moisture content may range from 200 to 300%.

2. They are highly compressible.
3. Laboratory tests have shown that, under loads, a large amount of settlement is derived
from secondary consolidation.

Sedimentary Rock

The deposits of gravel, sand, silt, and clay formed by weathering may become compacted
by overburden pressure and cemented by agents like iron oxide, calcite, dolomite, and quartz.
Cementing agents are generally carried in solution by ground-water. They fill the spaces
between particles and form sedimentary rock. Rocks formed in this way are called detrital
sedimentary rocks. The following are some examples of detrital rocks.
 Sedimentary rock also can be formed by chemical processes. Rocks of this type are
classified as chemical sedimentary rock. The following are some examples of chemical
sedimentary rocks.

Metamorphic Rock

Metamorphism is the process of changing the composition and texture of rocks (without
melting) by heat and pressure. During metamorphism, new minerals are formed, and mineral
grains are sheared to give a foliated-texture to metamorphic rock.
● Gneiss is a metamorphic rock derived from high-grade regional metamorphism of
igneous rocks, such as granite, gabbro, and diorite.
● Low-grade metamorphism of shales and mudstones results in slate. The clay
minerals in the shale become chlorite and mica by heat; hence, slate is composed
primarily of mica flakes and chlorite.
● Phyllite is a metamorphic rock, which is derived from slate with further
metamorphism being subjected to heat greater than 250 to 300C.
● Schist is a type of metamorphic rock derived from several igneous, sedimentary, and
low-grade metamorphic rocks with a well-foliated texture and visible flakes of platy
and micaceous minerals.
● Metamorphic rock generally contains large quantities of quartz and feldspar as well.
● Marble is formed from calcite and dolomite by recrystallization. The mineral grains
in marble are larger than those present in the original rock. Green marbles are
colored by hornblends, serpentine, or talc. Black marbles contain bituminous
material, and brown marbles contain iron oxide and limonite.
● Quartzite is a metamorphic rock formed from quartz-rich sandstones. Silica enters
into the void spaces between the quartz and sand grains and acts as a cementing
agent. Quartzite is one of the hardest rocks.

Under extreme heat and pressure, metamorphic rocks may melt to form magma, and the
cycle is repeated.
Soil Particle Size
Irrespective of the origin of soil, the sizes of particles in general, that make up soil, vary
over a wide range. Soils are generally called gravel, sand, silt, or clay, depending on the
predominant size of particles within the soil. To describe soils by their particle size, several
organizations have developed soil-separate-size limits. Table 2 shows the soil-separate-size
limits developed by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the U.S. Department of
Agriculture, the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, and the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. In this table, the MIT system
is presented for illustration purposes only, because it plays an important role in the history of the
development of soil-separate-size limits. Presently, the Unified System is almost universally
accepted. The Unified Soil Classification System has now been adopted by the American
Society for Testing and Materials.

Gravels are pieces of rocks with occasional particles of quartz, feldspar, and other minerals.
Sand particles are made mostly of quartz and feldspar. Other mineral grains may also be
present at times.
Silts are the microscopic soil fractions that consist of very fine quartz grains and some flake-
shaped particles that are fragments of micaceous minerals.
Clays are mostly flake-shaped microscopic and submicroscopic particles of mica, clay
minerals, and other minerals. As shown in Table 2, clays are generally defined as particles
smaller than 0.002 mm. In some cases, particles between 0.002 and 0.005 mm in size are also
referred to as clay. Particles are classified as clay on the basis of their size; they may not
necessarily contain clay minerals. Clays are defined as those particles “which develop plasticity
when mixed with a limited amount of water” (Grim, 1953). (Plasticity is the putty-like property
of clays when they contain a certain amount of water.) Non-clay soils can contain particles of
quartz, feldspar, or mica that are small enough to be within the clay size classification. Hence, it
is appropriate for soil particles smaller than 2μ or 5μ as defined under different systems, to be
called clay-sized particles rather than clay. Clay particles are mostly of colloidal size range
(<1μ), and 2μ appears to be the upper limit.

Table 2: Soil-separate-size limits

Soil Particle Shapes

Weathering and transportation processes produce a variety of particle shapes, from

angular to rounded, as shown in Figure 7 (Müller 1967). Since soil is an assemblage of particles,
interlocking of those particles and their contact mechanism—in particular, for larger particles—
determines many important mechanical properties of soils such as strength, rigidity,
permeability, and compaction. For example, angular particle assembly will give more resistance
to sliding deformation (higher rigidity and strength) as compared to rounded particle assembly.
Soil angularity can be determined by comparing particle shape (under a microscope, if
needed) with the sample shapes shown in Figure 7. For smaller particle assemblies, such as in
clay minerals, particle shapes are much flatter and sometimes flaky. In those smaller particle
soils, short-range interparticle forces play an important role to determine the behavior of soils.
The details of clay minerals will be discussed in the succeeding modules.
 Figure 7. Soil Angularity

In this module, we discussed the soil, its definition based on different professional perspectives,
and how it is formed from the rock cycle process. The development of geotechnical engineering
specialization and key persons in this field was also presented.
End of Module Assessment
Activity

1. Collect samples of different rock types within your vicinity. Upload the picture and its
description in our google classroom.
2. Collect soil samples and take a picture of its grain size and shape. Upload the picture and
its description in our google classroom.

Reminder:
a. Samples must be taken within your area. Exercise safety and caution.
b. Label your samples of the following details: date taken, location, GPS Coordinates,
type/model of camera/mobile phone used. Please note also if the sample is wet, moist or
dry as it may have an effect on its color as seen on the picture.
c. Discuss relevant physical data such as weight, length, texture.

Tip:
1. Think technical. Avoid flowery words as we are now in our professional course.

Bibliography
Principles of Geotechnical Engineering; 7th Edition; Braja M. Das
Geotechnical Engineering (Principles and Practices of Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering); V.N.S. Murthy
Soil Mechanics Fundamentals and Applications; 2nd Edition; Isao Ishibashi, Hemanta Hazarika