CHAPTER - I

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 SPRING

A spring is an elastic object that stores mechanical energy. Springs are

typically made of spring steel. There are many spring designs. In everyday use, the
term often refers to coil springs.

1.2 HISTORY

Simple non-coiled springs were used throughout human history, e.g.

the bow (and arrow). In the Bronze Age more sophisticated spring devices were
used, as shown by the spread of tweezers in many cultures. Ctesibius of
Alexandria developed a method for making bronze with spring-like characteristics
by producing an alloy of bronze with an increased proportion of tin, and then
hardening it by hammering after it was cast.

Coiled springs appeared early in the 15th century,[1] in door locks.[2] The first

spring powered-clocks appeared in that century[2][3][4] and evolved into the first
large watches by the 16th century.

In 1676 British physicist Robert Hooke postulated Hooke's law, which states

that the force a spring exerts is proportional to its extension.

1.3 TYPES

Springs can be classified depending on how the load force is applied to them:

 Tension/extension spring – the spring is designed to operate with

a tension load, so the spring stretches as the load is applied to it.
 Compression spring – is designed to operate with a compression load, so
the spring gets shorter as the load is applied to it.
 Torsion spring – unlike the above types in which the load is an axial force,
the load applied to a torsion spring is a torque or twisting force, and the end of
the spring rotates through an angle as the load is applied.
 Constant spring – supported load remains the same throughout deflection
cycle[5]
 Variable spring – resistance of the coil to load varies during compression[6]
 Variable stiffness spring – resistance of the coil to load can be dynamically
varied for example by the control system,some types of these springs also vary
their length thereby providing actuation capability as well [7]

They can also be classified based on their shape:

 Flat spring – this type is made of a flat spring steel.

 Machined spring – this type of spring is manufactured by machining bar
stock with a lathe and/or milling operation rather than a coiling operation. Since
it is machined, the spring may incorporate features in addition to the elastic
element. Machined springs can be made in the typical load cases of
compression/extension, torsion, etc.
 Serpentine spring – a zig-zag of thick wire – often used in modern
upholstery/furniture.
 Garter spring - A coiled steel spring that is connected at each end to
create a circular shape.

The most common types of spring are:

 Cantilever spring – a spring fixed only at one end.

 Coil spring or helical spring – a spring (made by winding a wire around a
cylinder) is of two types:
 Tension or extension springs are designed to become longer under
load. Their turns (loops) are normally touching in the unloaded position, and
they have a hook, eye or some other means of attachment at each end.
 Compression springs are designed to become shorter when loaded.
Their turns (loops) are not touching in the unloaded position, and they need
no attachment points.
 Hollow tubing springs can be either extension springs or compression
springs. Hollow tubing is filled with oil and the means of changing
hydrostatic pressure inside the tubing such as a membrane or miniature
piston etc. to harden or relax the spring, much like it happens with water
pressure inside a garden hose. Alternatively tubing's cross-section is chosen
of a shape that it changes its area when tubing is subjected to torsional
deformation – change of the cross-section area translates into change of
tubing's inside volume and the flow of oil in/out of the spring that can be
controlled by valve thereby controlling stiffness. There are many other
designs of springs of hollow tubing which can change stiffness with any
desired frequency, change stiffness by a multiple or move like a linear
actuator in addition to its spring qualities.
 Volute spring – a compression coil spring in the form of a cone so that under
compression the coils are not forced against each other, thus permitting longer
travel.
 Hairspring or balance spring – a delicate spiral spring used
in watches, galvanometers, and places where electricity must be carried to
partially rotating devices such as steering wheels without hindering the rotation.
 Leaf spring – a flat spring used in vehicle suspensions, electrical switches,
and bows.
 V-spring – used in antique firearm mechanisms such as the wheel
lock, flintlock and percussion cap locks. Also door-lock spring, as used in
antique door latch mechanisms.[8]

Other types include :

 Belleville washer or Belleville spring – a disc shaped spring commonly used

to apply tension to a bolt (and also in the initiation mechanism of pressure-
activated landmines)
 Constant-force spring — a tightly rolled ribbon that exerts a nearly constant
force as it is unrolled
 Gas spring – a volume of compressed gas
 Ideal Spring – a notional spring used in physics—it has no weight, mass, or
damping losses. The force exerted by the spring is proportional to the distance
the spring is stretched or compressed from its relaxed position.[9]
 Mainspring – a spiral ribbon shaped spring used as a power store
of clockwork mechanisms: watches, clocks, music boxes, windup toys,
and mechanically powered flashlights

 Negator spring – a thin metal band slightly concave in cross-section. When

coiled it adopts a flat cross-section but when unrolled it returns to its former
curve, thus producing a constant force throughout the displacement
and negating any tendency to re-wind. The most common application is the
retracting steel tape rule.[10]
 Progressive rate coil springs – A coil spring with a variable rate, usually
achieved by having unequal pitch so that as the spring is compressed one or
more coils rests against its neighbour.
 Rubber band – a tension spring where energy is stored by stretching the
material.
 Torsion spring – any spring designed to be twisted rather than compressed or
extended.[11] Used in torsion bar vehicle suspension systems.
 Wave spring – any of many wave shaped springs, washers, and expanders,
including linear springs—all of which are generally made with flat wire or discs
that are marcelled according to industrial terms, usually by die-stamping, into a
wavy regular pattern resulting in curvilinear lobes.

1.4 OUR PROJECT

This paper is to discuss to design and fabrication of a manual spring
rolling machine by a simple mechanism arrangement for the production of closed
and open coil helical springs. This machine is operated by manual method. This
machine produces closed coil helical spring of different diameter and different
length. Rolling is the process of bending metal wire to a curved form. The article in
the shape of round is made by spring roller shaft. Rolling operation can be done on
hand or power operated rolling machine. It can make a spring from a shaft. A shaft
is a rotating machine element which is used to transmit power from one place to
another. A bearing is machine element which supports another moving machine
element. Guider is used to guide the raw material (spring wire). This guider moves
on the shaft automatically. This self-movement is achieved by the lead of spring.
Handle is used to operate the rolling machine manually, without electric power
frame is carries an all parts of the machine, it is made up of mild steel. A work
holding mechanism is used to hold the mandrel; it is attached to the main shaft of
machine. Mandrel is fitting in the work holding mechanism, the mandrel's outer
diameter is known as internal diameter of the spring.

CHAPTER – II

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

• Abdul Rahim Abu Talib, Aidy Ali, G. Goudah, Nur Azida Che Lah, A.F.
Golestaneh, in this study, finite element models were developed to optimize the
material and geometry of the composite elliptical spring based on the spring
rate, log life and shear stress parameters. The influence of the ellipticity ratio on
the performance of woven roving–wrapped composite elliptical springs was
investigated both experimentally and numerically. The study demonstrated that
composite elliptical springs can be used for light and heavy trucks with
substantial weight reduction.
 • Y. Prawoto, M. Ikeda, S.K. Manville, A. Nishikawa, NHK International, this
paper is a discussion about automotive suspension coil springs, their
fundamental stress distribution, materials characteristic, manufacturing and
common failures. An in depth discussion on the parameters influencing the
quality of coil springs is also presented. Failure analyses of suspension coil
springs were performed and summarized in this paper.

• Heikki martikka ilkka pöllänen, the aim of this paper is to present results of
using fundamental machine element design principles into re-designing
optimally heavy duty springs used in terrain machinery and in industry.
Background for this study is observation that conventionally designed helical
springs did not have the expected long fatigue life time promised by standards.

• Koutaro Watanabe, Hideo Yamamoto, Yuichi Ito, Hisao Isobe, in order to

solve this problem, a simplified calculation formula and a chart of the maximum
shear stress and maximum principal stress that take initial pitch angles into
consideration were devised using the design of experiments and FEM analysis.
This paper is a summary of activities in the collaboration research committee of
the Japan Society of Spring Engineers. • Reza Mirzaeifar a, Reginald
DesRoches b, Arash Yavari b,a George W, In this paper, the pseudoelastic
response of shape memory alloy (SMA) helical springs under axial force is
studied both analytically and numerically. In the analytical solution two
different approximations are considered.
 CHAPTER - III

OBJECTIVE AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 OJECTIVE

This project fabrication of a manual spring rolling machine is a simple

mechanism arrangement for the production of closed and open coil helical
springs. This machine is operated by manual method. This machine produces
closed coil helical spring of different diameter and different length. Rolling is
the process of bending metal wire to a curved form. The article in the shape of
round is made by spring roller shaft. Rolling operation can be done on hand or
power operated rolling machine. It can make a spring from a shaft. A shaft is a
rotating machine element which is used to transmit power from one place to
another. A bearing is machine element which supports another moving machine
element. Guider is used to guide the raw material (spring wire). This guider
moves on the shaft automatically. This self-movement is achieved by the lead of
spring. Handle is used to operate the rolling machine manually, without electric
power frame is carries an all parts of the machine, it is made up of mild steel. A
work holding mechanism is used to hold the mandrel; it is attached to the main
shaft of machine. Mandrel is fitting in the work holding mechanism, the
mandrel's outer diameter is known as internal diameter of the spring.

3.2 METHODOLOGY

 THREADED ROD
 WINDING MACHINE
3.2.1 THREADED ROD

This paper is to discuss to design and fabrication of a manual spring

rolling machine by a simple mechanism arrangement for the production of
closed and open coil helical springs. This machine is operated by manual
method. This machine produces closed coil helical spring of different diameter
and different length. Rolling is the process of bending metal wire to a curved
form. The article in the shape of round is made by spring roller shaft. Rolling
operation can be done on hand or power operated rolling machine. It can make a
spring from a shaft.

A shaft is a rotating machine element which is used to transmit power

from one place to another. A bearing is machine element which supports
another moving machine element. Guider is used to guide the raw material
(spring wire). This guider moves on the shaft automatically. This self-
movement is achieved by the lead of spring. Handle is used to operate the
rolling machine manually, without electric power frame is carries an all parts of
the machine, it is made up of mild steel. A work holding mechanism is used to
hold the mandrel; it is attached to the main shaft of machine.

3.2.2 WINDING MACHINE

In spring working industry a wide range of power and hand operated

machines are used. As the industry is a large and growing industry different
types of machines are used for different operations. Our project the spring
rolling machine is very simple in operation by using gear arrangement which is
coupled with motor.

CHAPTER – IV

WORK DONE
 FIG 4.1: DRAWING FOR SPRING WINDING MACHINE:

4.1 PARTS

1. BASE
2. THREAD ROD
3. NUT
4. SPRING MATERIAL

4.1.1 BASE
The base of the machine withstands the total weight of the body. Generally
the base is made of Mild Steel Grade EN8. These are hammered, rolled, and
machined to get the required shape.
circuit diagram

Battery 12v
4ah

Dc control unit Control switch

motor

Battery Voltage
Even though most car, motorcycle and tractor batteries are sold
as "12-volt" batteries, the nominal voltage of a fully charged
battery is closer to 12.6 volts. The electrochemical reaction
between the lead plates and the battery electrolyte is what
produces the voltage differential between the positive and
negative terminals on a battery. Over time, the lead plates within
the battery will become covered with lead sulfate crystals. These
crystals inhibit the electrochemical reaction between the lead
plates and the electrolyte, causing a drop in battery voltage.
Electrical Current Capacity
The electrical current capacity for each battery is rated using two
metrics: "cranking amps" and "cold cranking amps." Cranking
amps are a measure of how much electrical current (as
measured in amps) a battery can provide for 30 seconds at 32
degrees Fahrenheit. Cold cranking amps are a measure of how
much electrical current a battery can provide for 30 seconds at 0
degrees Fahrenheit. Since the electrochemical processes that
produce electrical energy in a battery are affected by cold
temperatures, a battery will always produce more cranking amps
than cold cranking amps.
Reserve Capacity
If the alternator (or generator in some older vehicles) fails, the
battery is the sole source of electrical power for that vehicle.
Batteries are designed to operate for several minutes in the
event of an electrical failure. A battery's "reserve capacity" is a
measure of how long, in minutes, a battery can deliver 25
amperes of electrical current during a charging system failure.
What are Control Signals?
Both Hardwired and Microprogrammed control unit was designed
to ‘generate’ the control signals. The control
signals operate the functioning of the processor’s hardware. It
decides what operation has to be performed, what must be the
sequence of the operations performed by the processor, in what
time an operation must be executed and so on.

What is Hardwired Control Unit?

In simple words, the hardwired control unit generates the control
signals to execute the instructions in a proper sequence and at
the correct time. The hardwired control unit is created with the
hardware; it is a circuitry approach. It is designed for
the RISC style instruction set.

A hardwired circuit organization is shown in the figure below. Let

us discuss all the components one by one, in order to understand
the “generation of control signals” from this circuitry organization.
4.1.1.1 Raw Materials
 India is endowed with abundant Iron ore resources, the basic input for steel
making. Of late, large scale exports of iron ore have raised concerns about future
availability of iron ore resources to meet the fast rising domestic steel demand.
Large quantities of iron ore fines are exported due to mismatch between domestic
production and consumption and also lack of adequate sintering and pelletisation
facilities for steel making. Steel industry confronts the problem of depletion of
high grade ore deposits and lack of domestic technological capabilities to process
low grade iron ores. In the larger national interest of conservation of natural
resources and environment, efforts are being made to preserve and utilize the
precious Iron ore fines for domestic production of steel and at the same time the
Ministry has taken measures to discourage export by imposing higher tariffs and
special levies etc. The domestic availability of Coking coal, a critical raw material
required by steel industry is limited and therefore the Indian Steel industry has to
depend heavily on imported coking coal to meet its needs. Currently, domestic
steel makers meet 70% of their coking coal requirement through imports. The
quantum of imports may go up significantly in the 12th plan as steel production in
a large number of new projects is likely to be through the BF-BOF route. To
ensure raw material security and minimize the impact of volatility in coal prices, it
is desirable to acquire overseas coking coal assets. International Coal Ventures
Limited (ICVL), a Joint Venture company promoted by SAIL in 2008-09 and
consisting of RINL, NMDC, CIL and NTPC to achieve the above objective has not
made much progress so far but it is imperative to make this venture more effective.
17 In view of the limited availability of coking coal in the global market and the
fact that its supply is controlled by a few large companies, it will be extremely
important to increase the domestic production of coking coal and upgrade its
quality to meet the requirements of steel making. Technologies which require less
of coking coal and lower grades of it will need to be encouraged. Non-coking coal
used for production of sponge iron is also increasingly becoming scarce in the
country. With the demand for non-coking coal from priority sectors like power,
Fertilizers etc going up further, its availability for steel making is likely to be
limited during the 12th plan. While sponge iron producers may opt for import of
coal, the economic viability of this sector may be under pressure due to higher
prices of imported coal. Moreover, the gas based DRI units face restricted supply
of CNG, largely due to priority allocation of gas to power and fertilizer sectors.
Supply of CNG to this sector is a major concern for its growth and these units may
have to depend more on imported source of fuel supply. Many existing and new
producers propose to create additional capacity manifold under gas based route in
Twelfth plan period.
4.1.1.2 Infrastructure
Development and growth of Infrastructure sector is critical for rapid growth
of domestic steel industry in the country. Steel industry is a major user of
infrastructural facilities especially of Railways, roads, power, and ports. Besides,
the competitiveness of domestic steel industry depends heavily on the expansion
and provision of efficient infrastructural facilities. As per the working group
projections, the steel production in the country will nearly double within the next
five years. This requires rapid growth of railways, roads, ports and power facilities.
The existing infrastructural facilities are not adequate. The domestic steel industry
meets 70% of its coking coal requirement from imported sources and if the same
trend is maintained, nearly 50 million tonnes of coking coal will have to be
imported by 2016-17. There is urgent need for expansion of port capacity to handle
the raw materials and finished goods of steel sector. The steel plants which are
likely to come on stream in Twelfth plan period will need to transport 85 to 90
million tonnes of iron ore from the mines and also deliver 45 to 50 million tonnes
of finished steel from steel plants to distribution centres. Therefore, there is
immediate need for substantial up gradation of infrastructural facilities to meet the
increasing steel requirements of the steel industry. Investments to the tune of US $
1 Trillion are proposed in the infrastructure sector in the 12th plan. An investment
of this scale and size is likely to generate higher domestic demand for steel and at
the same time help build necessary infrastructure required for the steel industry.
Large investments of this nature suffer from gestation lags, constraints in
mobilization of financial resources, land acquisition issues and hurdles in obtaining
statutory clearances in case of mega infrastructural projects. These need to be
sorted out since the development of infrastructure sector has strong forward and
backward linkages and contributes significantly to overall growth and development
of the economy.
Leadscrews are threaded rods used to lead a component on, for example the
X-axis assembly on the Z-axis. For most RepRaps a common (straight!) threaded
rod is sufficient, but for higher precision and reduced wobble you might want to
use real leadscrews.There are two main thread profiles for leadscrews, both of which
are trapezoidal: Trapezoidal and Acme. The important but subtle difference is the
angle of the thread flank. Be sure to get matching nuts.

A common way to reduce leadscrew backlash is to preload: ensure the nut is

in contact with the thread at all times. You can do this using two nuts with a spring
in between. This keeps each nut pressed against the thread, reducing backlash.
However, it will also make the rod harder to turn. More information and pictures in
the article

4.2 THREAD ROD

A threaded rod is a metal rod with threads welded on or rolled out. It is

usually used as a frame construction part and as lead screws for the Z-axis. The most
commonly used type of threaded rod in a RepRap or a RepStrap is a steel M8 (8
mm diameter) one

A screw thread, often shortened to thread, is a helical structure used to

convert between rotational and linear movement or force. A screw thread is a ridge
wrapped around a cylinder or cone in the form of a helix, with the former being
called a straight thread and the latter called a tapered thread. A screw thread is the
essential feature of the screw as a simple machine and also as a fastener.

The mechanical advantage of a screw thread depends on its lead, which is the
linear distance the screw travels in one revolution.[1] In most applications, the lead
of a screw thread is chosen so that friction is sufficient to prevent linear motion
being converted to rotary, that is so the screw does not slip even when linear force
is applied, as long as no external rotational force is present. This characteristic is
essential to the vast majority of its uses. The tightening of a fastener's screw thread
is comparable to driving a wedge into a gap until it sticks fast through friction and
slight elastic deformation.

4.2.1Applications

Screw threads have several applications:

1. Fastening:
2. Fasteners such as wood screws, machine screws, nuts, and bolts.
3. Connecting threaded pipes and hoses to each other and to caps and fixtures.
4. Gear reduction via worm drives

4.2.2 Gender
 Every matched pair of threads, external and internal, can be described as
male and female. For example, a screw has male threads, while its matching hole
(whether in nut or substrate) has female threads. This property is called gender.

4.2.3 Handedness

The helix of a thread can twist in two possible directions, which is known as
handedness. Most threads are oriented so that the threaded item, when seen from a
point of view on the axis through the center of the helix, moves away from the
viewer when it is turned in a clockwise direction, and moves towards the viewer
when it is turned counterclockwise. This is known as a right-handed (RH) thread,
because it follows the right hand grip rule. Threads oriented in the opposite direction
are known as left-handed (LH).

4.2.4 Form

The cross-sectional shape of a thread is often called its form or thread form
(also spelled thread form). It may be square, triangular, trapezoidal, or other shapes.
The terms form and thread form sometimes refer to all design aspects taken
together.

Most triangular thread forms are based on an isosceles triangle. These are
usually called V-threads or vee-threads because of the shape of the letter V. For 60°
V-threads, the isosceles triangle is, more specifically, equilateral. For buttress threads,
the triangle is scalene.

The theoretical triangle is usually truncated to varying degrees (that is, the tip
of the triangle is cut short). A V-thread in which there is no truncation (or a
minuscule amount considered negligible) is called a sharp V-thread. Truncation
occurs (and is codified in standards) for practical reasons—the thread-cutting or
thread-forming tool cannot practically have a perfectly sharp point, and truncation
is desirable anyway, because otherwise:

 The cutting or forming tool's edge will break too easily;

 The part or fastener's thread crests will have burrs upon cutting, and will be
too susceptible to additional future burring resulting from dents (nicks);
 The roots and crests of mating male and female threads need clearance to
ensure that the sloped sides of the V meet properly despite (a) error in pitch
diameter and (b) dirt and nick-induced burrs.
 The point of the thread form adds little strength to the thread.

In ball screws, the male-female pairs have bearing balls in between. Roller screws use
conventional thread forms and threaded rollers instead of balls.

4.2.5 Angle

The included angle characteristic of the cross-sectional shape is often called

the thread angle. For most V-threads, this is standardized as 60 degrees, but any
angle can be used. The cross section to measure this angle lies on a plane which
includes the axis of the cylinder or cone on which the thread is produced.

4.2.6 Coarse versus fine

Coarse threads are those with larger pitch (fewer threads per axial distance),
and fine threads are those with smaller pitch (more threads per axial distance).
Coarse threads have a larger threadform relative to screw diameter, where fine
threads have a smaller threadform relative to screw diameter. This distinction is
analogous to that between coarse teeth and fine teeth on a saw or file, or between
coarse grit and fine grit on sandpaper.

The common V-thread standards (ISO 261 and Unified Thread Standard) include
a coarse pitch and a fine pitch for each major diameter. For example, 1⁄2-13 belongs
to the UNC series (Unified National Coarse) and 1⁄2-20 belongs to the UNF series
(Unified National Fine). Similarly, ISO261 M10 (10mm (398 thou) nominal outer
diameter) has a coarse thread version at 1.25mm pitch (49 thou) and a fine thread
version at 1 mm (39 thou) pitch.

The term coarse here does not mean lower quality, nor does the term fine
imply higher quality. The terms when used in reference to screw thread pitch have
nothing to do with the tolerances used (degree of precision) or the amount of
craftsmanship, quality, or cost. They simply refer to the size of the threads relative
to the screw diameter.

Coarse threads are more resistant to stripping and cross threading because
they have greater flank engagement. Coarse threads install much faster as they
require fewer turns per unit length. Finer threads are stronger as they have a larger
stress area for the same diameter thread. Fine threads are less likely to vibrate loose
as they have a smaller helix angle and allow finer adjustment. Finer threads
develop greater preload with less tightening torque.[5]

4.2.7 Diameters
 FIG 4.2: The three diameters that characterize threads

There are three characteristic diameters of threads: major diameter, minor

diameter, and pitch diameter: Industry standards specify minimum (min.) and
maximum (max.) limits for each of these, for all recognized thread sizes. The
minimum limits for external (or bolt, in ISO terminology), and the maximum limits
for internal (nut), thread sizes are there to ensure that threads do not strip at the
tensile strength limits for the parent material. The minimum limits for internal, and
maximum limits for external, threads are there to ensure that the threads fit
together.

4.2.8 Major diameter

The major diameter of threads is the larger of two extreme diameters

delimiting the height of the thread profile, as a cross-sectional view is taken in a
plane containing the axis of the threads. For a screw, this is its outside diameter
(OD). The major diameter of a nut may not be directly measured, but it may be
tested with go/no-go gauges.

The major diameter of external threads is normally smaller than the major
diameter of the internal threads, if the threads are designed to fit together. But this
requirement alone does not guarantee that a bolt and a nut of the same pitch would
fit together: the same requirement must separately be made for the minor and pitch
diameters of the threads. Besides providing for a clearance between the crest of the
bolt threads and the root of the nut threads, one must also ensure that the
clearances are not so excessive as to cause the fasteners to fail.

4.2.9 Minor diameter

FIG 4.3: MINOR DIAMETERS

The basic profile of all UTS threads is the same as that of all ISO metric screw

threads. Only the commonly used values for Dmaj and P differ between the two
standards.

The minor diameter is the lower extreme diameter of the thread. Major
diameter minus minor diameter, divided by two, equals the height of the thread.
The minor diameter of a nut is its inside diameter. The minor diameter of a bolt can
be measured with go/no-go gauges or, directly, with an optical comparator.

As shown in the figure at right, threads of equal pitch and angle that have
matching minor diameters, with differing major and pitch diameters, may appear to
fit snugly, but only do so radially; threads that have only major diameters matching
(not shown) could also be visualized as not allowing radial movement. The
reduced material condition, due to the unused spaces between the threads, must be
minimized so as not to overly weaken the fasteners.
4.2.10 Pitch diameter

FIG 4.4: PITCH DIAMETER

The pitch diameter (PD, or D2) of a particular thread, internal or external, is

the diameter of a cylindrical surface, axially concentric to the thread, which
intersects the thread flanks at equidistant points, when viewed in a cross-sectional
plane containing the axis of the thread, the distance between these points being
exactly one half the pitch distance. Equivalently, a line running parallel to the axis
and a distance D2 away from it, the "PD line," slices the sharp-V form of the
thread, having flanks coincident with the flanks of the thread under test, at exactly
50% of its height. We have assumed that the flanks have the proper shape, angle,
and pitch for the specified thread standard. It is generally unrelated to the major
(D) and minor (D1) diameters, especially if the crest and root truncations of the
sharp-V form at these diameters are unknown. Everything else being ideal, D2, D,
& D1, together, would fully describe the thread form. Knowledge of PD determines
the position of the sharp-V thread form, the sides of which coincide with the
straight sides of the thread flanks: e.g., the crest of the external thread would
truncate these sides a radial displacement D − D2 away from the position of the PD
line.

Provided that there are moderate non-negative clearances between the root
and crest of the opposing threads, and everything else is ideal, if the pitch
diameters of a screw and nut are exactly matched, there should be no play at all
between the two as assembled, even in the presence of positive root-crest
clearances. This is the case when the flanks of the threads come into intimate
contact with one another, before the roots and crests do, if at all.

However, this ideal condition would in practice only be approximated and

would generally require wrench-assisted assembly, possibly causing the galling of
the threads. For this reason, some allowance, or minimum difference, between the
PDs of the internal and external threads has to generally be provided for, to
eliminate the possibility of deviations from the ideal thread form causing
interference and to expedite hand assembly up to the length of engagement. Such
allowances, or fundamental deviations, as ISO standards call them, are provided
for in various degrees in corresponding classes of fit for ranges of thread sizes. At
one extreme, no allowance is provided by a class, but the maximum PD of the
external thread is specified to be the same as the minimum PD of the internal
thread, within specified tolerances, ensuring that the two can be assembled, with
some looseness of fit still possible due to the margin of tolerance. A class called
interference fit may even provide for negative allowances, where the PD of the
screw is greater than the PD of the nut by at least the amount of the allowance.

The pitch diameter of external threads is measured by various methods:

 A dedicated type of micrometer, called a thread mic or pitch mic, which has a
V-anvil and a conical spindle tip, contacts the thread flanks for a direct
reading.
 A general-purpose micrometer (flat anvil and spindle) is used over a set of
three wires that rest on the thread flanks, and a known constant is subtracted
from the reading. (The wires are truly gauge pins, being ground to precise
 size, although "wires" is their common name.) This method is called the 3-
wire method. Sometimes grease is used to hold the


4.2.11 Classes of fit

The way in which male and female fit together, including play and friction, is
classified (categorized) in thread standards. Achieving a certain class of fit requires
the ability to work within tolerance ranges for dimension (size) and surface finish.
Defining and achieving classes of fit are important for interchangeability. Classes
include 1, 2, 3 (loose to tight); A (external) and B (internal); and various systems
such as H and D limits.

4.2.12 Thread limit

Thread limit or pitch diameter limit is a standard used for classifying the
tolerance of the thread pitch diameter for taps. For imperial, H or L limits are used
which designate how many units of 5 ten thousandths of an inch over or undersized
the pitch diameter is from its basic value, respectively. Thus a tap designated with
an H limit of 3, denoted H3, would have a pitch diameter 5 ten thousandths × 3 =
1.5 thousandths of an inch larger than base pitch diameter and would thus result in
cutting an internal thread with a looser fit than say an H2 tap. Metric uses D or DU
limits which is the same system as imperial, but uses D or DU designators for over
and undersized respectively, and goes by units of 0.013 mm (0.51 mils).[6]
Generally taps come in the range of H1 to H5 and rarely L1.

The pitch diameter of a thread is measured where the radial cross section of
a single thread equals 0.5 × pitch example: 16 pitch thread = 1/16 in = 0.0625 in
the pitch actual pitch diameter of the thread is measured at the radial cross section
measures 0.03125 in.

4.2.13 Standardization and interchangeability

To achieve a predictably successful mating of male and female threads and

assured interchangeability between males and between females, standards for form,
size, and finish must exist and be followed. Standardization of threads is discussed
below.

4.2.14 Thread depth

Screw threads are almost never made perfectly sharp (no truncation at the
crest or root), but instead are truncated, yielding a final thread depth that can be
expressed as a fraction of the pitch value. The UTS and ISO standards codify the
amount of truncation, including tolerance ranges.

A perfectly sharp 60° V-thread will have a depth of thread ("height" from
root to crest) equal to 0.866 of the pitch. This fact is intrinsic to the geometry of an
equilateral triangle — a direct result of the basic trigonometric functions. It is
independent of measurement units (inch vs mm). However, UTS and ISO threads
are not sharp threads. The major and minor diameters delimit truncations on either
side of the sharp V.

The nominal diameter of Metric (e.g. M8) and Unified (e.g. 5/16")
threads is the theoretical major diameter of the male thread, which is truncated
(diametrically) by 0.866/4 of the pitch from the dimension over the tips of the
"fundamental" (sharp cornered) triangles. The resulting flats on the crests of the
male thread are theoretically one eighth of the pitch wide (expressed with the
notation 1⁄8p or 0.125p), although the actual geometry definition has more variables
than that. A full (100%) UTS or ISO thread has a height of around 0.65p.

Threads can be (and often are) truncated a bit more, yielding thread depths
of 60% to 75% of the 0.65p value. For example, a 75% thread sacrifices only a
small amount of strength in exchange for a significant reduction in the force
required to cut the thread. The result is that tap and die wear is reduced, the
likelihood of breakage is lessened and higher cutting speeds can often be
employed.

This additional truncation is achieved by using a slightly larger tap drill in the
case of female threads, or by slightly reducing the diameter of the threaded area of
workpiece in the case of male threads, the latter effectively reducing the thread's
major diameter. In the case of female threads, tap drill charts typically specify sizes

that will produce an approximate 75% thread. A 60% thread may be appropriate in
cases where high tensile loading will not be expected. In both cases, the pitch
diameter is not affected. The balancing of truncation versus thread strength is

similar to many engineering decisions involving the strength, weight and cost of
material, as well as the cost to machine it.

4.2.15 Taper

Tapered threads are used on fasteners and pipe. A common example of a

fastener with a tapered thread is a wood screw.

The threaded pipes used in some plumbing installations for the delivery of
fluids under pressure have a threaded section that is slightly conical. Examples are
the NPT and BSP series. The seal provided by a threaded pipe joint is created when
a tapered externally threaded end is tightened into an end with internal threads.
Normally a good seal requires the application of a separate sealant into the joint,
such as thread seal tape, or a liquid or paste pipe sealant such as pipe dope, however
some threaded pipe joints do not require a separate sealant.

4.2.16 Standardization

FIG 5:An example of M16, ISO metric screw thread

Standardization of screw threads has evolved since the early nineteenth

century to facilitate compatibility between different manufacturers and users. The
standardization process is still ongoing; in particular there are still (otherwise
identical) competing metric and inch-sized thread standards widely used.[7]
Standard threads are commonly identified by short letter codes (M, UNC, etc.)
which also form the prefix of the standardized designations of individual threads.
 Additional product standards identify preferred thread sizes for screws and
nuts, as well as corresponding bolt head and nut sizes, to facilitate compatibility
between spanners (wrenches) and other tools.

4.2.17 ISO standard threads

The most common threads in use are the ISO metric screw threads (M) for most
purposes and BSP threads (R, G) for pipes.

These were standardized by the International Organization for Standardization

(ISO) in 1947. Although metric threads were mostly unified in 1898 by the
International Congress for the standardization of screw threads, separate metric
thread standards were used in France, Germany, and Japan, and the Swiss had a set
of threads for watches.

4.2.18 History of standardization

A good summary of screw thread standards in current use in 1914 was given
in Colvin FH, Stanley FA (eds) (1914): American Machinists' Handbook, 2nd ed, New
York and London, McGraw-Hill, pp. 16–22. USS, metric, Whitworth, and BA

standards are discussed. The SAE series was not mentioned—at the time this
edition of the Handbook was being compiled, they were either still in development
or just newly introduced.

A table of standard sizes for machine screws as provided by the American

Screw Company of Providence, Rhode Island, USA, and published in a
Mechanical Engineers' Handbook of 1916. Standards seen here overlap with those
found elsewhere marked as ASME and SAE standards and with the later Unified
Thread Standard (UTS) of 1949 and afterward. One can see the theme of how later
standards reflect a degree of continuation from earlier standards, sometimes with
hints of long-ago intracompany origins. For example, compare the 6–32, 8–32, 10–
24, and 10–32 options in this table with the UTS versions of those sizes, which are
not identical but are so close that interchange would work.

The first historically important intra-company standardization of screw

threads began with Henry Maudslay around 1800, when the modern screw-cutting lathe
made interchangeable V-thread machine screws a practical commodity.[11] During
the next 40 years, standardization continued to occur on the intra- and inter-
company levels.[12] No doubt many mechanics of the era participated in this
zeitgeist; Joseph Clement was one of those whom history has noted. In 1841, Joseph
Whitworth created a design that, through its adoption by many British railroad

companies, became a national standard for the United Kingdom called British
Standard Whitworth. During the 1840s through 1860s, this standard was often used in

the United States and Canada as well, in addition to myriad intra- and inter-
company standards. In April 1864, William Sellers presented a paper to the Franklin
Institute in Philadelphia, proposing a new standard to replace the US' poorly

standardized screw thread practice. Sellers simplified the Whitworth design by

adopting a thread profile of 60° and a flattened tip (in contrast to Whitworth's 55°
angle and rounded tip).[13][14] The 60° angle was already in common use in America,
[15]
but Sellers's system promised to make it and all other details of threadform
consistent.

The Sellers thread, easier for ordinary machinists to produce, became an

important standard in the U.S. during the late 1860s and early 1870s, when it was
chosen as a standard for work done under U.S. government contracts, and it was
also adopted as a standard by highly influential railroad industry corporations such
as the Baldwin Locomotive Works and the Pennsylvania Railroad. Other firms adopted it,
and it soon became a national standard for the U.S.,[15] later becoming generally
known as the United States Standard thread (USS thread). Over the next 30 years the
standard was further defined and extended and evolved into a set of standards
including National Coarse (NC), National Fine (NF), and National Pipe Taper
(NPT). Meanwhile, in Britain, the British Association screw threads were also
developed and refined.

During this era, in continental Europe, the British and American threadforms
were well known, but also various metric thread standards were evolving, which
usually employed 60° profiles. Some of these evolved into national or quasi-
national standards. They were mostly unified in 1898 by the International Congress
for the standardization of screw threads at Zurich, which defined the new
international metric thread standards as having the same profile as the Sellers
thread, but with metric sizes. Efforts were made in the early 20th century to
convince the governments of the U.S., UK, and Canada to adopt these international
thread standards and the metric system in general, but they were defeated with
arguments that the capital cost of the necessary retooling would drive some firms
from profit to loss and hamper the economy. (The mixed use of dueling inch and
metric standards has since cost much, much more, but the bearing of these costs
has been more distributed across national and global economies rather than being
borne up front by particular governments or corporations, which helps explain the
lobbying efforts.)

Sometime between 1912 and 1916, the Society of Automobile Engineers (SAE)
created an "SAE series" of screw thread sizes reflecting parentage from earlier
USS and ASME standards.
 During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, engineers found that ensuring
the reliable interchangeability of screw threads was a multi-faceted and
challenging task that was not as simple as just standardizing the major diameter
and pitch for a certain thread. It was during this era that more complicated analyses
made clear the importance of variables such as pitch diameter and surface finish.

A tremendous amount of engineering work was done throughout World War I

and the following interwar period in pursuit of reliable interchangeability. Classes of
fit were standardized, and new ways of generating and inspecting screw threads
were developed (such as production thread-grinding machines and optical comparators).
Therefore, in theory, one might expect that by the start of World War II, the
problem of screw thread interchangeability would have already been completely
solved.

Unfortunately, this proved to be false. Intranational interchangeability was

widespread, but international interchangeability was less so. Problems with lack of
interchangeability among American, Canadian, and British parts during World War
II led to an effort to unify the inch-based standards among these closely allied
nations, and the Unified Thread Standard was adopted by the Screw Thread
Standardization Committees of Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United
States on November 18, 1949 in Washington, D.C., with the hope that they would be
adopted universally. (The original UTS standard may be found in ASA (now
ANSI) publication, Vol. 1, 1949.) UTS consists of Unified Coarse (UNC), Unified
Fine (UNF), Unified Extra Fine (UNEF) and Unified Special (UNS). The standard
was widely taken up in the UK, although a small number of companies continued
to use the UK's own British standards for Whitworth (BSW), British Standard Fine
(BSF) and British Association (BA) micro-screws.
 However, internationally, the metric system was eclipsing inch-based measurement
units. In 1947, the ISO was founded; and in 1960, the metric-based International

System of Units (abbreviated SI from the French Système International) was created.

With continental Europe and much of the rest of the world turning to SI and ISO
metric screw thread, the UK gradually leaned in the same direction. The ISO
metric screw thread is now the standard that has been adopted worldwide and is
slowly displacing all former standards, including UTS. In the U.S., where UTS is
still prevalent, over 40% of products contain at least some ISO metric screw
threads. The UK has completely abandoned its commitment to UTS in favour of
ISO metric threads, and Canada is in between. Globalization of industries produces
market pressure in favor of phasing out minority standards. A good example is the
automotive industry; U.S. auto parts factories long ago developed the ability to

conform to the ISO standards, and today very few parts for new cars retain inch-
based sizes, regardless of being made in the U.S.

Even today, over a half century since the UTS superseded the USS and SAE
series, companies still sell hardware with designations such as "USS" and "SAE"
to convey that it is of inch sizes as opposed to metric. Most of this hardware is in
fact made to the UTS, but the labeling and cataloging terminology is not always
precise.

4.3 NUT

A nut is a type of fastener with a threaded hole. Nuts are almost always used in

conjunction with a mating bolt to fasten multiple parts together. The two partners
are kept together by a combination of their threads' friction (with slight elastic
deformation), a slight stretching of the bolt, and compression of the parts to be held

together.
 In applications where vibration or rotation may work a nut loose, various
locking mechanisms may be employed: lock washers, jam nuts, specialist
adhesive thread-locking fluid such as Loctite, safety pins (split pins) or lockwire in
conjunction with castellated nuts, nylon inserts (nyloc nut), or slightly oval-shaped
threads.

Square nuts, as well as bolt heads, were the first shape made and used to be
the most common largely because they were much easier to manufacture,
especially by hand. While rare today[when?] due to the reasons stated below for the
preference of hexagonal nuts, they are occasionally used in some situations when a
maximum amount of torque and grip is needed for a given size: the greater length
of each side allows a spanner to be applied with a larger surface area and more
leverage at the nut.

The most common shape today is hexagonal, for similar reasons as the bolt
head: six sides give a good granularity of angles for a tool to approach from (good
in tight spots), but more (and smaller) corners would be vulnerable to being
rounded off. It takes only one sixth of a rotation to obtain the next side of the
hexagon and grip is optimal. However, polygons with more than six sides do not
give the requisite grip and polygons with fewer than six sides take more time to be
given a complete rotation. Other specialized shapes exist for certain needs, such
as wingnuts for finger adjustment and captive nuts (e.g. cage nuts) for inaccessible
areas.

A wide variety of nuts exists, from household hardware versions to specialized

industry-specific designs that are engineered to meet various technical standards.
Fasteners used in automotive, engineering, and industrial applications usually need
to be tightened to a specific torque setting, using a torque wrench. Nuts are graded
with strength ratings compatible with their respective bolts
4.4 SPRING MATERIALS

This section will tell you about the different kinds of material that springs
are made out of. It will also tell you where to get your wire -- make sure you read
the Safety section so you know how to handle it safely once you've got it.

4.4.1 Types of Wire

Springs are usually made from alloys of steel. The most common spring
steels are music wire, oil tempered wire, chrome silicon, chrome vanadium,
and 302 and 17-7 stainless. Other materials can also be formed into springs,
depending on the characteristics needed. Some of the more common of these
exotic metals include beryllium copper, phosphor bronze, Inconel, Monel, and
titanium. The following table summarizes the more important properties of
each material:

1. Music Wire
2. Oil Tempered Wire (OT)
3. Chrome silicon
4. Chrome vanadium
5. Stainless Steel
6. Copper
4.4.2 General Safety

Springs under load want to return to their original shape. The same goes for
spring wire. Spring wire will try to straighten itself out if given the chance: don't
let your body get in its way.

4.4.3 Small wire

 Small wire (diameter less than about .025") will not hurt you if it hits you.
On the other hand, small wire is nothing more than an edge, waiting for
something to cut. Don't use your hand to try to stop wire that's moving, especially
if it's moving under power (like being pulled by a lathe). Instead, wait till it stops
moving. Gloves are an excellent idea, too.

4.4.4 Medium wire

Medium wire (diameter from about .025" - .312") is too wide to act as an
edge, and usually not massive enough to break bones, but it can raise quite a knot
if you get in its way. Again, always keep track of where the ends of the wire are,
and if they start to move, get out of the way.

4.4.5 Heavy wire

Heavy wire (diameter greater than about .312") needs respect. If it gets
loose, it can EASILY break bones, or worse.

4.4.6 Stainless steel

Stainless steel is a lot softer than other types of wire. When cut, the end of
the wire is like a knife edge. Always keep track of where the end of the wire is,
and keep your hands away from it while it's moving.

4.4.7 Handling Wire

The two most dangerous times are when you're breaking open a coil of
wire and when you're actually winding a spring.

4.4.8 Breaking open coils

 Once you have your wire, you'll need to take it out of its coil. The coil may
be wrapped in paper -- take that off first.

Under the paper, the wire will be tied. Light wire will be tied with string.
Medium wire will be tied with tie wire. Large wire will be tied with metal bands.
Whatever size wire you have, remember that the coil should have only two ends.
One will be on the inside of the coil, and the other will be on the outside. You'll
normally use wire from the inside, to avoid tangling. Always make a hook on the
"inside" end so it's easy to find again:

4.4.9 Handling Small Wire in Coils

To break open a coil of small (up to about .125") wire, cut all the ties
except two. Don't cut the closest tie holding the outside end of the wire, and the
tie most directly opposite to that one.

To remove wire from the coil, start with the end on the inside of the coil:
this will keep the coil from tangling. Grab the end of the wire and cut off the
hook. Pull it slightly, until you can see the gap between it and the rest of the coil.
Grab the wire at the gap and pull the end free from the tie holding it. Repeat this
process, working around the coil, until you have the length you need.

4.4.10 Medium-sized wire

(.125 - .312") can be handled the same way, except that you should keep
three ties instead of two. When uncoiling wire larger than .250", you should lay
the coil flat on the ground and always stand in the center of the coil, for safety.

4.4.11 large wire

 (.312 - .625") needs special handling. First of all, you'll probably be using
a hoist or forklift to move the coil, because of the weight. Lay the coil on top of
something (a 2x4 or a pipe works great) to keep one end off the ground so that
you can pick it up when you're done. Stand inside the coil from now on!

Then, take a length of tie wire and double it over. Loop it twice around the
coil, right next to the second tie holding the inside end of the wire. Pull it tight
and twist it so that you have a "pigtail" and the tie wire is too tight to move by
hand. Then, cut the first two original ties. Grab the end of the wire and flip it over
the coil, so that it sticks out.

4.4.12 Coiling

If you're using a lathe to make your springs, you'll be standing there, letting
the lathe pull the wire. The lathe will do what you want, but it will not know to
stop if things get out of control. So, before you start the lathe, figure out what
you're going to do if things go haywire. Know how to stop the lathe, and know
which way you can safely run.

Never reach over the wire to get to your lathe controls, especially when
working with heavy wire. Reach under it and avoid injury if your wire guide
breaks.

Keep the lathe speed DEAD SLOW: with heavy wire, 10 rpm is about right.
Don't grab onto wire that's being fed into the lathe. Stop the lathe and back it off
until there's no tension in the wire before you put your hands near. Never try to
guide wire by hand. Use tooling.

4.4.13 Storing Wire

Common sense second: keep your wire dry. Steel wire will rust if it gets
wet.More common sense: keep your wire tight. When you're finished working
with a coil of wire, make a hook in the inside end (so you can find it again easily)
and tie the coil securely.

5 WORKING

When the hand wheel is rotated, the shaft will run. The main shaft is
coupled to the bearing with the help of mild steel plate arrangement. The main
shaft is rotated with help of hand wheel rotation. Before the hand wheel
rotation, the spring wire locked to the lock nut in the spring mandrel. The spring
wire is supplied by applying the load through a guide which is fixed in the
frame stand. The guide will rotate freely according to the speed of the spring
rolling shaft. The main shafts one end is coupled to the chuck and other end is
coupled to the hand wheel.
 A spindle shaft or mandrel (various diameters) is attached to the chuck
and it rotates. The spring rolling shaft is rotated when the hand wheel is rotates.
The spring is rolled with the spring rolling shaft. The change in the length of
spring due to the rotation of the spring is decided by the operator. After making
the required length of the spring the hand wheel is rotation is stopped. After
producing the finished product of spring, the procedure is repeated for mass
production.

CHAPTER – VI

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

 . 

Fig 5.1: OPEN COIL SPRING

A helical spring who's coils are open thus having pitch in between them. Open

coil helical springs are known as compression springs.

Fig 5.2: CLOSED COIL SPRING

Designed to resist stretching and twisting, these springs are also known as

tension/extension springs.

CHAPTER – VII

APPLICATIONS
1. It is very useful in Transformer manufacturing Company, to wind the
transformer quickly.
2. To wind the stator or rotor in motor or submersible pump company.
3. To wind the condensers coil and fan coils quickly.
4. It is very useful in small scale industries where ever winding coils are used.
5. Little Scale ventures, for example, were moving, belt moving and so forth.
6. Wire moving ventures
7. All spring moving ventures

CHAPTER – VIII

ADVANTAGES

1. Simple in Construction and Working Principle

2. Labor necessity is less
3. High generation
4. Length of the spring fluctuates
5. Generation cost is lessened
6. Minimal effort
7. Upkeep cost is low.
8. The unit is minimal so less space is required
9. Time utilization is less
10.Less exertion and beneficial
11.Simple to introduce at any were
12.Gifted specialists are not required
13.Advantageous for large-scale manufacturing
14.Less in weight

CHAPTER – IX

DISADVANTAGES

1. This machine is pertinent for specific measurement of the spring

2. This machine is utilized to deliver delicate spring wire as it were
 CHAPTER – X

CONCLUSION

After completing the work, it is concluded that work is simple in

construction and compact in size for use. Even in the absence of power supply it
can be operated manually, and also manufacturing of machine is easy and cost
of the machine is less .This machine can fabricate spring up to 3mm wire
diameter of spring with less production time with ease by mass or batch
production. This work can be implemented in small scale industries.
 CHAPTER – XI

REFERENCES

[1]. Mr. Chetan P. Sable , prof. P.D.Kamble , Mr. Dhiraj D. Dube review on”
Paper Plate Making Machines” International Journal of Research in
Aeronautical and Mechanical Engineering /vol.2 issue.2,february 2014.
pgs:105-111.
[2]. Supriya Burgul review on “Design and Fatigue Life of a Mechanical
Spring” International Journal of Research in Aeronautical and Mechanical
Engineering / vol.2 issue 7, july 2014 pgs:76-83

[3]. Mr. Niranjan Singh review article on “General Review of Mechanical

Spring used in Automobile Suspension System” International Journal of
Advanced Engineering Research and Studies/ December 2013 ,vol.1

[4]. Mr. Desheng Li review on “Vibration of a Tapered Roller Bearing with

Localized defect on Multiple Rollers” International Congress on Sound and
Vibration/ July 2015

[5]. O.Vahid – Araghi and F. Golnaraghi ”Frictional Induced Vibration in Lead

Screw Drives” chapter 2 february 2011