Lecture Handouts

on

VECTORS AND CLASSICAL MECHANICS

(MTH-622)

Virtual University of Pakistan

Pakistan
 i

About the Handouts

The following books have been mainly followed to prepare the slides and handouts:

1. Spiegel, M.R., Theory and Problems of Vector Analysis: And an Introduction to Tensor
Analysis. 1959: McGraw-Hill.
2. Spiegel, M.S., Theory and problems of theoretical mechanics. 1967: Schaum.
3. Taylor, J.R., Classical Mechanics. 2005: University Science Books.
4. DiBenedetto, E., Classical Mechanics: Theory and Mathematical Modeling. 2010:
Birkhäuser Boston.
5. Fowles, G.R. and G.L. Cassiday, Analytical Mechanics. 2005: Thomson Brooks/Cole.

The first two books were considered as main text books. Therefore the students are advised to
read the first two books in addition to these handouts. In addition to the above mentioned books,
some other reference book and material was used to get these handouts prepared.
 ii

Contents
Module No. 51.............................................................................................................................................. 1
Selected Example/Problem 2: Volume Integral ................................................................................... 1
Module No. 52.............................................................................................................................................. 3
Divergence Theorem ............................................................................................................................... 3
Module No. 53.............................................................................................................................................. 6
Divergence theorem in Rectangular Form ........................................................................................... 6
Module No. 54.............................................................................................................................................. 7
Verification of Divergence Theorem by an Example ........................................................................... 7
Module No. 55............................................................................................................................................ 10
Another Example: Divergence Theorem ............................................................................................ 10
Module No. 56............................................................................................................................................ 12
Further Example 1 of Divergence Theorem ....................................................................................... 12
Module No. 57............................................................................................................................................ 13
Further Example 2 of Divergence Theorem ....................................................................................... 13
Module No. 58............................................................................................................................................ 15
Further Example 3 of Divergence Theorem ....................................................................................... 15
Module No. 59............................................................................................................................................ 17
Stokes’ Theorem.................................................................................................................................... 17
Module No. 60............................................................................................................................................ 21
Stokes’ Theorem in Rectangular Form............................................................................................... 21
Module No. 61............................................................................................................................................ 23
Verification of Stokes’ Theorem by an Example ............................................................................... 23
Module No. 62............................................................................................................................................ 26
Another Example: Stokes’ Theorem ................................................................................................... 26
Module No. 63............................................................................................................................................ 28
Related Theorem: Stokes’ Theorem .................................................................................................... 28
Module No. 64............................................................................................................................................ 29
Related Theorem: Stokes’ Theorem .................................................................................................... 29
Module No. 65............................................................................................................................................ 30
Further Example 2 of Stokes’ Theorem .............................................................................................. 30
Module No. 66............................................................................................................................................ 32
Further Example 3 of Stokes’ Theorem .............................................................................................. 32
 iii

Module No. 67............................................................................................................................................ 34

Simply and Multiply Connected Regions............................................................................................ 34
Module No. 68............................................................................................................................................ 36
Green’s Theorem in the Plane ............................................................................................................. 36
Module No. 69............................................................................................................................................ 39
Related Example: Green’s Theorem ................................................................................................... 39
Module No. 70............................................................................................................................................ 42
Green's Theorem in the Plane in Vector Notation ............................................................................. 42
Module No. 71............................................................................................................................................ 44
Green's Theorem in the Plane as Special case of Stokes' Theorem .................................................. 44
Module No. 72............................................................................................................................................ 45
Gauss' Divergence Theorem as Generalization of Green's Theorem............................................... 45
Module No. 73............................................................................................................................................ 47
Green’s First Identity ........................................................................................................................... 47
Module No. 74............................................................................................................................................ 49
Green’s Second Identity ....................................................................................................................... 49
Module No. 75............................................................................................................................................ 51
Related Example: Green’s Theorem ................................................................................................... 51
Module No. 76............................................................................................................................................ 53
Selected Problem 1: Green’s Theorem................................................................................................ 53
Module No. 77............................................................................................................................................ 55
Selected Problem 2: Green’s Theorem................................................................................................ 55
Module No. 78............................................................................................................................................ 57
Selected Problem 3: Green’s Theorem................................................................................................ 57
 1

Module No. 51

Selected Example/Problem 2: Volume

Integral
Problem Statement
If 𝐹⃗ = (2𝑥 2 − 3𝑧)𝚤̂ − 2𝑥𝑦𝚥̂ − 4𝑥𝑘� , evaluate

� ∇. 𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑉
𝑅

the closed region bounded by the planes 𝑥 = 0, у = 0, 𝑧 = 0 and 2𝑥 + 2у + 𝑧 = 4.

Solution
Since 𝐹⃗ = (2𝑥 2 − 3𝑧)𝚤̂ − 2𝑥𝑦𝚥̂ − 4𝑥𝑘�,
Thus
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇. 𝐹⃗ = � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�� . �(2𝑥 2 − 3𝑧)𝚤̂ − 2𝑥𝑦𝚥̂ − 4𝑥𝑘��
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕(2𝑥 2 − 3𝑧) 𝜕2𝑥𝑦 𝜕4𝑥
= − −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 4𝑥 − 2𝑥 = 2𝑥
2 2−𝑥 4−2𝑥−2𝑦

� ∇. 𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑉 = � � � 2𝑥𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝑅 0 0 0

Using equation 2𝑥 + 2у + 𝑧 = 4 for limit

Integrating w.r.t z we obtain,
2 2−𝑥 2 2−𝑥 2 2−𝑥
4−2𝑥−2𝑦
= 2� � 𝑥|𝑧|0 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 2 � � 𝑥(4 − 2𝑥 − 2𝑦)𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = � � (8𝑥 − 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
0 0 0 0 0 0
2 2−𝑥 2
𝑦2
= �(8𝑥|𝑦|2−𝑥
0 − 4𝑥 2 |𝑦|2−𝑥
0 − 4𝑥 � � )𝑑𝑥 = � 8𝑥(2 − 𝑥) − 4𝑥 2 (2 − 𝑥) − 2𝑥(2 − 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
2 0
0 0
 2

= � 8𝑥 − 8𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
0
2
8 3 𝑥4
2
= �4𝑥 − 𝑥 + �
3 2 0
64 8
= 16 − +8=−
3 3
 3

Module No. 52

Divergence Theorem
Divergence theorem is also called Gauss’s divergence theorem. Gauss’s divergence theorem has
wide applications in physics and engineering and is used to derive equation governing the flow
of fluids, heat conduction, wave propagation and electrical fields.
In words the divergence theorem may states that the surface integral of the normal component of
a vector function 𝐴⃗ taken over a closed surface S is equal to the integral of the divergence of
𝐴⃗ taken over the region R enclosed by the surface.
We can write it mathematically as

Statement
It states that if R is the region bounded by a closed surface S and 𝐴⃗ is a vector point function
with continuos first partia derivatives, then

� �𝑨⃗. 𝒏 ��⃗𝒅𝑽
� 𝒅𝑺 = � 𝛁. 𝑨
𝑺 𝑹

Where 𝑛� is outward drawn unit normal to S.

Proof
If 𝐴⃗ is expressed as 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴1 𝚤̂ + 𝐴2 𝚥̂ + 𝐴3 𝑘�, then the divergence theorem can be written
component wise as

𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴3

�(𝐴1 𝚤̂ + 𝐴2 𝚥̂ + 𝐴3 𝑘�). 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = �( + + )𝑑𝑉
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑆 𝑅

To establish this relation, we will prove that the respective integrals on each sides are equal.
We prove this for a closed surface S, which has the property that any line parallel to the
coordinate axes cuts S in at most two points. Under this assumption, it follows that S is doubled
valued surface over its projection on each of the coordinate planes.
 4

Let 𝑅’ be the projection of S on the xy-plane. Divide the surface S into the lower and upper parts
𝑆1 and 𝑆2 and assume the equations of 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 to be 𝑧 = 𝑓1 (𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑧 = 𝑓2 (𝑥, 𝑦) respectively.
Consider

𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴3
� 𝑑𝑉 = � 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝑅 𝑅
𝑧=𝑓2 (𝑥,𝑦)
𝜕𝐴3 𝑧=𝑓 (𝑥,𝑦)
= �� � 𝑑𝑧� 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = �|𝐴3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)|𝑧=𝑓12(𝑥,𝑦) 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑧
𝑅′ 𝑧=𝑓1 (𝑥,𝑦) 𝑅′

= �{𝐴3 [(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑓2 (𝑥, 𝑦))] − 𝐴3 [(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑓1 (𝑥, 𝑦))]} 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 (1)

𝑅′

For the upper part 𝑆2 = 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = cos 𝛾2 𝑑𝑆2 = 𝑘�. 𝑛�2 𝑑𝑆2 , since the normal 𝑛� to
𝑆2 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 with k. For the lower part 𝑆1 , 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = −cos 𝛾1 𝑑𝑆2 = 𝑘�. 𝑛�1 𝑑𝑆1 , since
the normal 𝑛�1 to 𝑆1 , makes an angle 𝛾1 with −𝑘�.
Then

� 𝐴3 ��𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑓2 (𝑥, 𝑦)�� = � 𝐴3 𝑘�. 𝑛�2 𝑑𝑆2

𝑅′ 𝑆2

And

� 𝐴3 ��𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑓1 (𝑥, 𝑦)�� = − � 𝐴3 𝑘�. 𝑛�1 𝑑�1

𝑅′ 𝑆1

and therefore the equation (1) becomes

 5

𝜕𝐴3
� 𝑑𝑉 = � 𝐴3 𝑘�. 𝑛�2 𝑑𝑆2 + � 𝐴3 𝑘�. 𝑛�1 𝑑𝑆1
𝜕𝑧
𝑅 𝑆2 𝑆1

𝜕𝐴3
� 𝑑𝑉 = � 𝐴3 𝑘�. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 (2)
𝜕𝑧
𝑅 𝑆

Similarly, by projecting S on the yz and zx coordinate plane, we obtain respectively,

𝜕𝐴1
� 𝑑𝑉 = � 𝐴1 𝚤̂. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 (3)
𝜕𝑧
𝑅 𝑆

𝜕𝐴2
� 𝑑𝑉 = � 𝐴2 𝚥̂. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 (4)
𝜕𝑧
𝑅 𝑆

By adding equation (2),(3) and (4), we obtain

𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴3

� 𝑑𝑉 + � 𝑑𝑉 + � 𝑑𝑉 = � 𝐴1 𝚤̂. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 + � 𝐴2 𝚥̂. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 + � 𝐴3 𝑘�. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆

Which is equal to

𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴3

�( + + )𝑑𝑉 = �(𝐴1 𝚤̂ + 𝐴2 𝚥̂ + 𝐴3 𝑘�). 𝑛�𝑑𝑆
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑅 𝑆

or

𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴3

�(𝐴1 𝚤̂ + 𝐴2 𝚥̂ + 𝐴3 𝑘�). 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = �( + + )𝑑𝑉
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑆 𝑅

Hence the theorem.

 6

Module No. 53

Divergence theorem in Rectangular Form

As we studies earlier about the rectangular coordinate system and rectangular coordinates. The
Cartesian coordinate system (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is also called rectangular system. In this article, we will
express the gauss’s divergence theorem in the form of Cartesian coordinates.
Let 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴1 𝚤̂ + 𝐴2 𝚥̂ + 𝐴3 𝑘� , and 𝑛� = 𝑛1 𝚤̂ + 𝑛2 𝚥̂ + 𝑛3 𝑘�
Then
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇. 𝐴⃗ = � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�� . �𝐴1 𝚤̂ + 𝐴2 𝚥̂ + 𝐴3 𝑘��
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴3
= + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
and
𝐴⃗. 𝑛� = �𝐴1 𝚤̂ + 𝐴2 𝚥̂ + 𝐴3 𝑘��. �𝑛1 𝚤̂ + 𝑛2 𝚥̂ + 𝑛3 𝑘��
The unit normal to S is 𝑛� = 𝑛1 𝚤̂ + 𝑛2 𝚥̂ + 𝑛3 𝑘�. Then 𝑛� . 𝚤̂ = 𝑛1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼, 𝑛� . 𝚥̂ = 𝑛2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 and
𝑛� . 𝑘� = 𝑛3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 , where 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 are the angles which 𝑛� makes with the positive 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧-axes or
𝚤̂, 𝚥̂, 𝑘� directions respectively. The quantities 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 are the direction cosines of 𝑛�.
Hence
𝐴⃗. 𝑛� = 𝐴1 cos 𝛼 + 𝐴2 cos 𝛽 + 𝐴3 cos 𝛾
Using these values, Gauss’s divergence theorem can be written as

𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴3

�( + + )𝑑𝑉 = �( 𝐴1 cos 𝛼 + 𝐴2 cos 𝛽 + 𝐴3 cos 𝛾)𝑑𝑆
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑅 𝑆

is the required form of divergence theorem.

 7

Module No. 54

Verification of Divergence Theorem by an

Example
Problem Statement

Verify the divergence theorem for 𝐴⃗ = 4𝑥𝚤̂— 2𝑦 2 𝚥̂ + 𝑧 2 𝑘� taken over the region bounded by
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4, 𝑧 = 0 and 𝑧 = 3.
Solution

[1]
As we know the divergence theorem is

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � ∇. 𝐴⃗𝑑𝑉

𝑆 𝑉

𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴3

� ∇. 𝐴⃗𝑑𝑉 = �( + + )𝑑𝑉
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑉 𝑉

𝜕4𝑥 𝜕 2𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
= �( − + )𝑑𝑉 = �(4 − 4𝑦 + 2𝑧)𝑑𝑉
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑉 𝑉

2 √4−𝑥 2 3

= � � �(4 − 4𝑦 + 2𝑧)𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝑥=−2 𝑦=−√4−𝑥 2 𝑧=0
 8

Here we use the given equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4, for limits

The surface S of the cylinder consists of a base 𝑆1 (𝑟 = 0), the top 𝑆2 (𝑟 = 3) and the convex
portion 𝑆3 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4). Then

Surface Integral = � 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆1 + � 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆2 + � 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆3
𝑆 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3

On Surface 𝑆1 (𝑧 = 0), 𝑛� = −𝑘�, 𝐴⃗ = 4𝑥𝚤̂— 2𝑦 2 𝚥̂

Therefore 𝐴⃗. 𝑛� = �4𝑥𝚤̂— 2𝑦 2 𝚥̂�. �−𝑘�� = 0

⟹ � 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆1 = 0
𝑆1

On Surface 𝑆2 (𝑧 = 3), 𝑛� = 𝑘�, 𝐴⃗ = 4𝑥𝚤̂— 2𝑦 2 𝚥̂ + 9𝑘�

Therefore 𝐴⃗. 𝑛� = �4𝑥𝚤̂— 2𝑦 2 𝚥̂ + 9𝑘��. �𝑘�� = 9

⟹ � 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆2 = 9 � 𝑑𝑆2 = 9(4𝜋) = 36𝜋

𝑆2 𝑆2

Since we have 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4 ⟹ �𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 2 = 𝑟, radius of the base of the cylinder.

Therefore the area of the base of cylinder is 𝜋𝑟 2 = 4𝜋
On 𝑆3 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4). A perpendicular to 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4 has the direction
∇(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) = 2𝑥𝚤̂ + 2𝑦𝚥̂
Then a unit normal is
2𝑥𝚤̂ + 2𝑦𝚥̂ 2(𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂) (𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂) (𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂)
𝑛� = = = =
�4𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 2�𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 √4 2

Since 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4
(𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂)
𝐴⃗. 𝑛� = �4𝑥𝚤̂— 2𝑦 2 𝚥̂ + 𝑧 2 𝑘��. = 2𝑥 2 − 𝑦 3
2

�(2𝑥 2 − 𝑦 3 )𝑑𝑆3
𝑆3

Since 𝑟 = 2 is the radius of the base of the cylinder

So, using cylindrical coordinates, 𝑥 = 2 cos 𝜃, 𝑦 = 2 sin 𝜃 , 𝑑𝑆3 = 2𝑑𝜃𝑑𝑧
We have
 9

2𝜋 3
2
�(2𝑥 − 𝑦 3 )𝑑𝑆3 = � �[2(2 cos 𝜃)2 − (2 sin 𝜃)3 ]2𝑑𝑧𝑑𝜃
𝑆3 𝜃=0 𝑧=0
2𝜋

= � 48 cos2 𝜃 − 48 sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 48𝜋

0

Then the surface integral= 0 + 36𝜋 + 48𝜋 = 84𝜋, agreeing with the volume integral and
verifying the divergence theorem.
 10

Module No. 55

Another Example: Divergence Theorem

Problem Statement
Evaluate

� 𝐹⃗ . 𝑛�𝑑𝑉
𝑅

where 𝐹 = 4𝑥𝑧𝚤̂ — 𝑦 2 𝚥̂ + 𝑦𝑧𝑘� and S is the surface of the cube bounded S by

𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑦 = 1, 𝑧 = 0, 𝑧 = 1.

Solution
By the divergence theorem, the required integral is equal to

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � ∇. 𝐴⃗𝑑𝑉

𝑆 𝑅

𝛻. 𝐴⃗ = 𝛻. �4𝑥𝑧𝚤̂ — 𝑦 2 𝚥̂ + 𝑦𝑧𝑘��
𝜕4𝑥𝑧 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦𝑧
= − +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕4𝑥𝑧 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦𝑧
� ∇. 𝐴⃗𝑑𝑉 = � � − + � 𝑑𝑉
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑅 𝑅

Now

= �(4𝑧 − 2𝑦 + 𝑦)𝑑𝑉 = �(4𝑧 − 𝑦)𝑑𝑉

𝑅 𝑅
1 1 1

= � � �(4𝑧 − 𝑦)𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2
= � � 2𝑧 − 𝑦𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = � � 2 − 𝑦𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
0 0 0 0
 11

1 1 1
𝑦2 1 3 3 3
= � 2𝑦 − 𝑑𝑥 = � 2 − 𝑑𝑥 = � 𝑑𝑥 = |𝑥|10 =
2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0

Hence

3
� 𝐹⃗ . 𝑛�𝑑𝑉 =
2
𝑅
 12

Module No. 56

Further Example 1 of Divergence Theorem

Problem Statement
Prove the identity

� ∇𝜑𝑑𝑉 = � 𝜑𝑛�𝑑𝑆
𝑉 𝑆

Proof
In the divergence theorem, let 𝐴⃗ = 𝜑С
�⃗ where ���⃗
С a constant vector is. Then

�⃗)𝑑𝑉 = � 𝜑С
� ∇. (𝜑С �⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆
𝑉 𝑆

�⃗� = (∇𝜑). �С⃗) = �С⃗. ∇𝜑 and 𝜑С

Since ∇. �𝜑С �⃗. 𝑛� = �С⃗. (𝜑𝑛�)

Substituting these values in above integral, we get

� �С⃗. ∇𝜑𝑑𝑉 = � �⃗
С. (𝜑𝑛�)𝑑𝑆
𝑉 𝑆

Taking �С⃗ outside the integrals,

�⃗. � ∇𝜑𝑑𝑉 = �С⃗. �(𝜑𝑛�)𝑑𝑆

С
𝑉 𝑆

and since С is an arbitrary constant vector,

� ∇𝜑𝑑𝑉 = �(𝜑𝑛�)𝑑𝑆
𝑉 𝑆

Hence the result.

 13

Module No. 57

Further Example 2 of Divergence Theorem

A fluid of density 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) moves with velocity 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡). If there are no sources or sinks,
prove that
𝜕𝜌
∇. 𝐽 + =0
𝜕𝑡
Solution
Consider an arbitrary surface enclosing a volume V of the fluid. At any time the mass of fluid
within V is

𝑀 = � 𝜌𝑑𝑉
𝑉

The time rate of increase of this mass is

𝜕𝑀 𝜕 𝜕𝜌
= � 𝜌𝑑𝑉 = � 𝑑𝑉
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝑉 𝑉

Let A = velocity ν at any point of a moving fluid

Volume of fluid crossing 𝑑𝑆 in 𝛥𝑡 seconds = volume contained in cylinder of base 𝑑𝑆 and slant
height 𝜈𝛥𝑡
= (𝜈𝛥𝑡). 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = 𝑣. 𝑛� 𝑑𝑆 𝛥𝑡
Then, volume per second of fluid crossing 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑣. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆
The relation of mass of fluid per unit time leaving V is

� 𝜌𝑣. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆
𝑆

and the time rate of increase in mass is

− � 𝜌𝑣. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � ∇. 𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑉

𝑆 𝑉

by the divergence theorem. Then

 14

𝜕𝜌
� 𝑑𝑉 = − � ∇. 𝜌𝑣𝑑�
𝜕𝑡
𝑉 𝑉

𝜕𝜌
� + ∇. (𝜌𝑣)𝑑𝑉 = 0
𝜕𝑡
𝑉
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
Suppose that ∭𝑉 𝜕𝑡
+ ∇. (𝜌𝑣)𝑑𝑉 = 0 for all the region V. If we suppose that 𝜕𝑡
+ ∇. (𝜌𝑣)𝑑𝑉 >
𝜕𝜌
0 at a point Ρ, then from the continuity of the derivatives it follows that 𝜕𝑡
+ ∇. (𝜌𝑣)𝑑𝑉 > 0 in

some region A surrounding Ρ. If Γ is the boundary of A then

𝜕𝜌
∭𝑉 𝜕𝑡
+ ∇. (𝜌𝑣)𝑑𝑉 > 0 which contradicts the assumption that the line integral is zero around
𝜕𝜌
every closed curve. Similarly the assumption 𝜕𝑡
+ ∇. (𝜌𝑣)𝑑𝑉 < 0 leads to a contradiction. Hence
𝜕𝜌
the integrand 𝜕𝑡
+ ∇. (𝜌𝑣)𝑑𝑉 must be equal to zer0.

Hence from the continuity of the derivatives it follows that

𝜕𝜌
∇. 𝐽 + =0
𝜕𝑡
Where 𝐽 = 𝜌𝑣.
The equation is called the continuity equation. If ρ is a constant, the fluid is incompressible and
∇. 𝑣 = 0, i.e. ν is solenoidal.
The continuity equation also arises in electromagnetic theory, where ρ is the charge density and
𝐽 = 𝜌𝑣 is the current density.
 15

Module No. 58

Further Example 3 of Divergence Theorem

Problem Statement
Prove the relation:

�⃗ 𝑑𝑉 = � 𝑛� × 𝐵
�∇× 𝐵 �⃗ 𝑑𝑆
𝑉 𝑆

�⃗ is any vector field.

where 𝐵

Proof
Since the divergence theorem,

� ∇. 𝐴⃗𝑑𝑉 = � 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆

𝑉 𝑆

let 𝐴⃗ = �В⃗ х �С⃗ where �С⃗ is a constant vector. Then

�⃗ × �С⃗ )𝑑𝑉 = �(В

� ∇. (В �⃗ ). 𝑛�𝑑𝑆
�⃗ × С
𝑉 𝑆

Since
�⃗ × �С⃗ � = �С⃗. �∇ × �В⃗� and �В
∇. �В �⃗ �. 𝑛� = �В⃗ . �С
�⃗ × С �⃗ × 𝑛�� = �С
�⃗ × 𝑛��. �В⃗ = �С⃗. (𝑛� × �В⃗),

Then the above integral will become

�⃗. �∇ × В
�С �⃗�𝑑𝑉 = � �С⃗. (𝑛� × �В⃗)𝑑𝑆
𝑉 𝑆

Taking �⃗
С outside the integral,

�С⃗. ��∇ × �В⃗�𝑑𝑉 = �С⃗. �(𝑛� × �В⃗)𝑑𝑆

𝑉 𝑆

�⃗ Is an arbitrary constant vector,

and since С
 16

�⃗ 𝑑𝑉 = � 𝑛� × 𝐵
�∇× 𝐵 �⃗ 𝑑𝑆
𝑉 𝑆

Hence the result.

 17

Module No. 59

Stokes’ Theorem
In words we can state Stokes’ theorem as the line integral of the tangential component of a
vector function 𝐴⃗ taken around a simple closed curve C is equal to the surface integral of the
normal component of the curl of 𝐴⃗ taken over any surface S having C as its boundary.

Statement
It states that if S is an open, two sided surface bounded by a simple closed curve C, then if 𝐴⃗ has
continuous first partial derivatives

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ��∇ × 𝐴⃗�. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆

𝐶 𝑆

Where C is traversed in the positive direction.

Proof
If 𝐴⃗ is expressed as 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴1 𝚤̂ + 𝐴2 𝚥̂ + 𝐴3 𝑘�, then the divergence theorem can be written as

� ∇ × �𝐴1 𝚤̂ + 𝐴2 𝚥̂ + 𝐴3 𝑘��𝑑𝑆 = � 𝐴1 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐴2 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐴3 𝑑𝑧
𝑆 𝐶

We will prove this theorem for a surface S which has the property that its projection on the xy,
yz and zx planes are regions bounded by simple closed curves as shown in figure.
 18

[1]
Assume S to have representation 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = ℎ(𝑥, 𝑧), where 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ are
continuous and differentiable functions.
Consider first

� [∇ × (𝐴1 𝚤̂)] . 𝑛�𝑑𝑆

𝑆

Since,
𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕� 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴1
∇ × (𝐴1 𝚤̂) = �� �=� 𝚥̂ − 𝑘��
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦𝑧 𝜕𝑦
𝐴1 0 0
Therefore,
𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴1
[∇ × (𝐴1 𝚤̂)]. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � 𝑛�. 𝚥̂ − 𝑛�. 𝑘�� 𝑑𝑆 (1)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦
If 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)is taken the equation of S, then the position vector to any point of S is
𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂ + 𝑧𝑘� = 𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂ + 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑘�
so that
𝜕𝑟⃗ 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑓
= 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� = 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑟⃗
But 𝜕𝑦 is a vector tangent to S and thus perpendicular to 𝑛�, so that

𝜕𝑟⃗ 𝜕𝑧
𝑛�. = 𝑛�. 𝚥̂ + 𝑛�. 𝑘� = 0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
or we can write
 19

𝜕𝑧
𝑛�. 𝚥̂ = − 𝑛�. 𝑘�
𝜕𝑦
Substituting this value in equation (1), we obtain
𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝐴1
[∇ × (𝐴1 𝚤̂)]. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = �− 𝑛�. 𝑘� − 𝑛�. 𝑘�� 𝑑𝑆
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝐴1
= −� + � 𝑛�. 𝑘�𝑑𝑆 (2)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
Now on S, 𝐴1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = �𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)� = 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦) (3)
𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐹
Hence equation + = 𝜕𝑦 and (2) becomes
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹
[∇ × (𝐴1 𝚤̂)]. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = − 𝑛�. 𝑘�𝑑𝑆 = − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
Then

𝜕𝐹
� [∇ × (𝐴1 𝚤̂)] . 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑆 𝜕𝑦
𝑅

where R is the projection of S on the xy-plane.

By the Green’s theorem in the plane, the last integral equals ∮Γ 𝐹𝑑𝑥 where Γ is the boundary of
R. From equation (3), since at each point (𝑥, 𝑦) of Γ the value of F is the same as the value of
𝐴1 at each point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) of C, and since dx is the same for both curves, we must have

� 𝐹𝑑𝑥 = � 𝐴1 𝑑𝑥
Γ 𝐶

or

� [∇ × (𝐴1 𝚤̂)] . 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � 𝐴1 𝑑𝑥 (4)

𝑆
𝐶

Similarly, by projections on the other coordinate planes, we have

� [∇ × (𝐴2 𝚥̂)] . 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � 𝐴2 𝑑𝑦 (5)

𝑆
𝐶

� �∇ × �𝐴3 𝑘��� . 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � 𝐴3 𝑑𝑧 (6)

𝑆
𝐶

Addition of equation (4), (5) and (6) gives us the required results and completes the theorem.
 20

The theorem is also valid for surfaces S which may not satisfy the restrictions imposed above.
For assume that S can be subdivided into surfaces 𝑆1, 𝑆2, 𝑆3, … … . . 𝑆𝑘 with boundaries
𝐶1, 𝐶2, 𝐶3, … … . . 𝐶𝑘 which do satisfy the restrictions. Then Stokes' theorem holds for each such
surface. Adding these surface integrals, the total surface integral over S is obtained. Adding the
corresponding line integrals over 𝐶1, 𝐶2, 𝐶3, … … . . 𝐶𝑘 , the line integral over С is obtained.
 21

Module No. 60

Stokes’ Theorem in Rectangular Form

Let 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴1 𝚤̂ + 𝐴2 𝚥̂ + 𝐴3 𝑘� and 𝑛� = 𝑛1 𝚤̂ + 𝑛2 𝚥̂ + 𝑛3 𝑘� be the outward drawn unit normal to the
surface S. If 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 are the angles which the unit normal 𝑛� makes with the positive directions
of 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 axes respectively, then
𝑛1 = 𝑛�. 𝚤̂ = cos 𝛼 , 𝑛2 = 𝑛�. 𝚥̂ = cos 𝛽 and 𝑛3 = 𝑛�. 𝑘� = cos 𝛾.
The quantities cos 𝛼 , cos 𝛽, and cos 𝛾 are the direction cosine of 𝑛�. Then
𝑛� = cos 𝛼 𝚤̂ + cos 𝛽 𝚥̂ + cos 𝛾 𝑘�
Thus
𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕�
∇ × 𝐴⃗ = �� �
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴1
=� − � 𝚤̂ + � − � 𝚥̂ + � − � 𝑘�
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
and
�∇ × 𝐴⃗�. 𝑛�
𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴1
= �� − � 𝚤̂ + � − � 𝚥̂ + � − � 𝑘� � . (cos 𝛼 𝚤̂
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
+ cos 𝛽 𝚥̂ + cos 𝛾 𝑘�)
𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴1 �𝐴3 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴1
=� − � cos 𝛼 + � − � cos 𝛽 + � − � cos 𝛾
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Also
𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = �𝐴1 𝚤̂ + 𝐴2 𝚥̂ + 𝐴3 𝑘� �. (𝑑𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝚥̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘�)
= 𝐴1 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐴2 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐴3 𝑑𝑧
and the stokes theorem becomes
 22

� 𝐴1 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐴2 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐴3 𝑑𝑧
𝐶

𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴1

= � �� − � cos 𝛼 + � − � cos 𝛽 + � − � cos 𝛾� 𝑑𝑆
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑆
 23

Module No. 61

Verification of Stokes’ Theorem by an

Example
Problem Statement
Verify Stokes' theorem for 𝐴⃗ = (2𝑥 — 𝑦)𝚤̂ — 𝑦𝑧 2 𝚥̂ — 𝑦 2 𝑧𝑘�, where S is the upper half surface
of the sphere 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 1 and С is its boundary.

Solution
The stokes’ theorem is

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ��∇ × 𝐴⃗�. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆

𝐶 𝑆

we will verify the above statement using given vector function 𝐴⃗.

[1]

Let we solve first ∮𝐶 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗

The boundary С of S is a circle in the xy plane of radius one and center at the origin. Let 𝑥 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 ,𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡, 𝑧 = 0, 0 < 𝑡 < 2𝜋 be parametric equations of C.(since 𝑟 = 1)

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = � (2𝑥 — 𝑦)𝚤̂ — 𝑦𝑧 2 𝚥̂ — 𝑦 2 𝑧𝑘�). (𝑑𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝚥̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘�)

𝐶 𝐶
 24

= � (2𝑥 — 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 − 𝑦𝑧 2 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦 2 𝑧𝑑𝑧

𝐶

Substitute𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 ,𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡, 𝑧 = 0, 0 < 𝑡 < 2𝜋, we get

2𝜋

� (2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡)(−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝜃=0
2𝜋 2𝜋
1 + cos2 𝑡
= � (−2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = � (− sin 2 𝑡) + ( )𝑑𝑡
2
𝜃=0 𝜃=0

cos2 𝑡 𝑡 sin 2 𝑡 2𝜋 1 1
=� + − � = +𝜋− =𝜋
2 2 4 0 2 2

Now, ∬𝑆 �∇ × 𝐴⃗�. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆

𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 �
∇ × 𝐴⃗ = �� �
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
2𝑥 — 𝑦 — 𝑦𝑧 2 — 𝑦2𝑧
𝜕(— 𝑦 2 𝑧) 𝜕(— 𝑦𝑧 2 ) 𝜕(— 𝑦 2 𝑧) 𝜕(2𝑥 — 𝑦) 𝜕(— 𝑦𝑧 2 ) 𝜕(2𝑥 — 𝑦)
=� − � 𝚤̂ − � − � 𝚥̂ + ( − )𝑘�
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
= (−2𝑦𝑧 + 2𝑦𝑧)𝚤̂ − (0 − 0)𝚥̂ + (0 + 1)𝑘� = 𝑘�
Then

��∇ × 𝐴⃗�. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � 𝑘�. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

𝑆 𝑆 𝑅

(Since 𝑘�. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆)

1 √1−𝑥 2 1

= 4� � 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 4 � �1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
0 0 0

Let 𝑥 = sin 𝑡 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = cos 𝑡𝑑𝑡, 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝜋�2 . Then

𝜋�
2

��∇ × 𝐴⃗�. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = 4 � �1 − sin2 𝑡 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑆 0
𝜋� 𝜋�
2 2
4
= 4 � cos2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = � (1 + cos 2𝑡)𝑑𝑡
2
0 0
 25

𝜋
sin 2 𝑡 �2
= �𝑡 + �
2 0
= 2�𝜋�2� = 𝜋
and stokes’ theorem is verified.
 26

Module No. 62

Another Example: Stokes’ Theorem

Problem Statement
Prove

�⃗ = �(𝑛� × ∇) × 𝐵
� 𝑑𝑟⃗ × 𝐵 �⃗ 𝑑𝑆
𝐶 𝑆

Proof
Stokes ‘theorem is

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ��∇ × 𝐴⃗�. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆

𝐶 𝑆

In Stokes' theorem, let 𝐴⃗ = 𝐵

�⃗ × 𝐶⃗ where �С⃗ a constant vector is. Then

�⃗ × 𝐶⃗). 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ��∇ × (𝐵

� (𝐵 �⃗ × 𝐶⃗ )�. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆
𝐶 𝑆

�⃗ × 𝐶⃗) = ���𝐶⃗. ∇�𝐵

� 𝑑𝑟⃗. (𝐵 �⃗ − 𝐶⃗(∇. 𝐵
�⃗ )�. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆
𝐶 𝑆

� 𝐶⃗. (𝑑𝑟⃗ × 𝐵
�⃗ ) = ���𝐶⃗. ∇�𝐵
�⃗�. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 − ��𝐶⃗(∇. 𝐵
�⃗ )�. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆
𝐶 𝑆 𝑆

𝐶⃗. � (𝑑𝑟⃗ × 𝐵
�⃗ ) = � 𝐶⃗. �∇(𝐵
�⃗ . 𝑛��𝑑𝑆 − � 𝐶⃗. �𝑛�(∇. 𝐵
�⃗ )�𝑑𝑆
𝐶 𝑆 𝑆

𝐶⃗. � (𝑑𝑟⃗ × 𝐵
�⃗ ) = 𝐶⃗. ��∇�𝐵
�⃗ . 𝑛�� − 𝑛�(∇. 𝐵
�⃗ )�𝑑𝑆
𝐶 𝑆

𝐶⃗ . � �𝑑𝑟⃗ × 𝐵
�⃗ � = 𝐶⃗. �(𝑛� × ∇) × 𝐵
�⃗ 𝑑𝑆
𝐶 𝑆

Since С is an arbitrary constant vector, therefore

 27

�⃗ = �(𝑛� × ∇) × 𝐵
� 𝑑𝑟⃗ × 𝐵 �⃗ 𝑑𝑆
𝐶 𝑆

Hence the result.

 28

Module No. 63

Related Theorem: Stokes’ Theorem

Theorem Statement
Prove that a necessary and sufficient condition that∫𝑐 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 0 for every closed curve С is that

∇ × 𝐴⃗ = 0 identically.

Proof
Sufficiently. Suppose ∇ × 𝐴⃗ = 0. Then by the stokes’ theorem

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ��∇ × 𝐴⃗�. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆

𝐶 𝑆

Since ∇ × 𝐴⃗ = 0, therefore ∬𝑆 �∇ × 𝐴⃗�. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = 0

Hence

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 0
𝐶

Necessity. Suppose ∮𝐶 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 0 around every closed path C, and assume ∇ × 𝐴⃗ = 0 at some

point P. Then assuming ∇ × 𝐴⃗ is continuous there will be a region with Ρ as an interior point,
where ∇ × 𝐴⃗ = 0. Let S be a surface contained in this region whose normal 𝑛� at each point has
the same direction as∇ × 𝐴⃗, i.e. ∇ × 𝐴⃗ = 𝛼𝑛� where α is a positive constant. Let С be the
boundary of S. Then by Stokes' theorem

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ��∇ × 𝐴⃗�. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � 𝛼𝑛�. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 > 0

𝐶 𝑆 𝑆

which contradicts the hypothesis that ∮𝐶 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 0 and shows that ∇ × 𝐴⃗ = 0.
Hence the theorem.
 29

Module No. 64

Related Theorem: Stokes’ Theorem

Problem Statement
Prove that

� 𝜑𝑑𝑟⃗ = � 𝑑𝑆⃗ × ∇𝜑
𝐶 𝑆
Solution
By Stokes’ theorem, we have

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ��∇ × 𝐴⃗�. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆

𝐶 𝑆
Let 𝐴⃗ = 𝜑𝐶⃗ where 𝐶⃗ is a constant non-zero vector, then

� 𝜑𝐶⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ��∇ × (𝜑𝐶⃗)�. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆

𝐶 𝑆
or

� 𝐶⃗. 𝜑𝑑𝑟⃗ = ��∇𝜑 × 𝐶⃗�. 𝑑𝑆⃗

𝐶 𝑆
since ∇ × 𝐶⃗ = �⃗
0

� 𝐶⃗. 𝜑𝑑𝑟⃗ = � ∇𝜑. 𝐶⃗ × 𝑑𝑆⃗ = � 𝐶⃗ × 𝑑𝑆⃗. ∇𝜑 = � 𝐶⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗ × ∇𝜑

𝐶 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆
or

𝐶⃗. � 𝜑𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝐶⃗. � 𝑑𝑆⃗ × ∇𝜑

𝐶 𝑆
Since 𝐶⃗ is an arbitrary constant vector, therefore

� 𝜑𝑑𝑟⃗ = � 𝑑𝑆⃗ × ∇𝜑
𝐶 𝑆
Hence the result.
 30

Module No. 65

Further Example 2 of Stokes’ Theorem

Problem Statement
If
𝐴⃗ = 2𝑦𝑧𝚤̂ − (𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2)𝚥̂ + (𝑥 2 + 𝑧)𝑘�
then using Stokes’ theorem, evaluate

��∇ × 𝐴⃗�. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆

𝑆
over the surface of intersection of the cylinders 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 , 𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑎2 which is included in
first octant.

Solution

By Stokes’ theorem, we have

��∇ × 𝐴⃗�. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗

𝑆 𝐶

[1]

= � (2𝑦𝑧𝚤̂ − (𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2)𝚥̂ + (𝑥 2 + 𝑧)𝑘�). (𝑑𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝚥̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘� )

𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐴

= � (2𝑦𝑧𝑑𝑥 − (𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2)𝑑𝑦 + (𝑥 2 + 𝑧)𝑑𝑧) (1)

𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐴
For 𝐴𝐵, 𝑧 = 0 therefore 𝑑𝑧 = 0 and the integral (1) over the part of the curves becomes
𝑎

� −( 𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2)𝑑𝑦 = � −�𝑎2 − 𝑦 2 + 3𝑦 − 2)𝑑𝑦

𝐴𝐵 0
Let 𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃, 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃𝑑𝜃, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋�2 , then
 31

𝜋�
2

� −( 𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2)𝑑𝑦 = � −( 𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 3𝑎 sin 𝜃 − 2)𝑎 cos 𝜃𝑑𝜃

𝐴𝐵 0
𝜋�
2
𝑎2
= � − � (1 + cos 2𝜃) + 3𝑎2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 − 2𝑎 cos 𝜃 � 𝑑𝜃
2
0
𝜋
𝑎2 sin 2𝜃 3 2
= − � �𝜃 + � + 𝑎2 sin2 𝜃 − 2𝑎 sin 𝜃�
2 2 2 0
2
𝑎 𝜋 3 2 −𝑎2 𝜋 3 2
= − � � � + 𝑎 − 2𝑎� = − 𝑎 + 2𝑎
2 2 2 4 2
For 𝐵𝐶, 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 𝑎 therefore 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦 = 0 and integral (1) over this part of the curve becomes
𝑎
𝑎2
� 𝑧𝑑𝑧 = � 𝑧𝑑𝑧 =
2
𝐵𝐶 0
For 𝐶𝐷, 𝑥 = 0, 𝑧 = 𝑎 therefore 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑧 = 0 and the integral (1) over this part of the curve
becomes
0
3𝑎2
� −(3𝑦 − 2)𝑑𝑦 = � −(3𝑦 − 2)𝑑𝑦 = − 2𝑎
2
𝐶𝐷 𝑎
For 𝐷𝐴, 𝑦 = 0 therefore 𝑑𝑦 = 0 and the integral (1) over this part of the curve becomes
0

� (𝑥 2 + 2)𝑑𝑧 = �(𝑎2 − 𝑧 2 + 𝑧)𝑑𝑧

𝐷𝐴 𝑎
0
𝑧3 𝑧2
2
= �𝑎 𝑧 − + �
3 2 𝑎
2 𝑎2
= − 𝑎3 −
3 2
Thus from equation (1), we get
−𝑎2 𝜋 3 2 𝑎2 3𝑎2 2 3 𝑎2
��∇ × 𝐴⃗�. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = − 𝑎 + 2𝑎 + + − 2𝑎 − 𝑎 −
4 2 2 2 3 2
𝑎2
=− (3𝜋 + 8𝑎)
12
required solution.
 32

Module No. 66

Further Example 3 of Stokes’ Theorem

Problem Statement
If

1 𝜕
� 𝐸�⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = − � 𝐻. 𝑑𝑆
𝐶 𝜕𝑡
𝐶 𝑆

where S is any surface bounded by the curve C, show that

�⃗
1 𝜕𝐻
∇ × 𝐸�⃗ = − .
𝐶 𝜕𝑡
Solution
As we know the Stokes’ theorem

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ��∇ × 𝐴⃗�. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆

𝐶 𝑆

by the Stokes’ theorem

� 𝐸�⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ��∇ × 𝐸�⃗ �. 𝑑𝑆⃗

𝐶 𝑆

therefore

�⃗
1 𝜕𝐻
��∇ × 𝐸�⃗ �. 𝑑𝑆⃗ = − � . 𝑑𝑆⃗
𝐶 𝜕𝑡
𝑆 𝑆

or

�⃗
1 𝜕𝐻
� �∇ × 𝐸�⃗ + � . 𝑑𝑆⃗ = 0
𝐶 𝜕𝑡
𝑆

This implies
�⃗
1 𝜕𝐻
∇ × 𝐸�⃗ + =0
𝐶 𝜕𝑡
or
 33

�⃗
1 𝜕𝐻
∇ × 𝐸�⃗ = −
𝐶 𝜕𝑡
is required result.
 34

Module No. 67

Simply and Multiply Connected Regions

Simply Connected Region
A simple closed curve is a closed curve which does not intersects itself anywhere. For example
the curve in the figure (i) is a simple closed curve

while the curve the curve in figure (ii) is not a simple closed curve.

A region R which is said to be simply connected if any simple closed curve lying in R can be
continuously shrunk to a point. For example, the interior of a rectangle as shown in figure (iii) is
an example of simply connected region.
 35

Multiply Connected Regions

A region R which is not simply connected is called multiply connected. For example, the region
R exterior to C2 and interior to C1 is not simply connected because a circle drawn within R and
enclosing C2 cannot shrunk to a point without crossing C2 as shown in figure (iv).

In other words, we can say that the regions which have holes are called multiply connected.
 36

Module No. 68

Green’s Theorem in the Plane

We will consider the vector function of just 𝑥 and 𝑦 and derive a relationship between a line
integral around a closed curve and a double integral over the part of the plane enclosed by the
curve.

Theorem Statement

If R is simply-connected region of the xy-plane bounded by a closed curve C and if M and N are
continuous functions of x and y having continuous derivatives in R, then

𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
� 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = � � − � 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐶 𝑅

where C is described in the positive (counter-clockwise) direction.

Proof
We prove the theorem for a closed curve C which has the property that any straight line parallel
to the coordinate axes cuts C in at most two points as shown in figure.

[1]
Let the equation of the curves AEB and AFB be 𝑦 = 𝑓1 (𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑓2 (𝑥) respectively. If R is
the region bounded by C, we have
 37

𝑏 𝑓2 (𝑥)
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑀
� 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = � � � 𝑑𝑦� 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝑅 𝑥=𝑎 𝑦=𝑓1 (𝑥)
𝑏
𝑦=𝑓 (𝑥)
= �|𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)|𝑦=𝑓12(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
𝑏

= ��𝑀�𝑥, 𝑓2 (𝑥)� − 𝑀�𝑥, 𝑓1 (𝑥)��𝑑𝑥

𝑎
𝑏 𝑏

= − � 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑓1 )𝑑𝑥 − � 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑓2 )𝑑𝑥

𝑎 𝑎

= − � 𝑀𝑑𝑥
𝐶

Then,

𝜕𝑀
� 𝑀𝑑𝑥 = − � 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 (1)
𝜕𝑦
𝐶 𝑅

Similarly let the equation of the curves EAF and EBF be 𝑥 = 𝑔1 (𝑦) and 𝑥 = 𝑔2 (𝑦) respectively.
Then
𝑓 𝑔2 (𝑦)
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑁
� 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = � � � 𝑑𝑥 � 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝑅 𝑦=𝑒 𝑥=𝑔1 (𝑦)
𝑓
𝑥=𝑔 (𝑦)
= �|𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)|𝑥=𝑔12(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
𝑒
𝑏

= ��𝑁�𝑥, 𝑔2 (𝑥)� − 𝑁�𝑥, 𝑔1 (𝑥)��𝑑𝑦

𝑎
𝑏 𝑏

= � 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑔1 )𝑑𝑦 + � 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑔2 )𝑑𝑦

𝑎 𝑎

= � 𝑁𝑑𝑦
𝐶

Then,
 38

𝜕𝑁
� 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = � 𝑁𝑑𝑦 (2)
𝜕𝑥
𝑅 𝐶

Adding equation (1) and (2), we get

𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
� 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = � � − � 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐶 𝑅

Hence the theorem.

 39

Module No. 69

Related Example: Green’s Theorem

Problem Statement
Verify Green's theorem in the plane for

� (𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦
𝐶

where С is the closed curve of the region bounded by у = 𝑥 and у = 𝑥 2 .

Solution
The plane curves у = 𝑥 and у = 𝑥 2 intersect at (0,0) and (1,1). Let 𝐶1 be the curve у = 𝑥 2 and
𝐶2 the curve у = 𝑥 and let the closed curve C be formed from 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 .
The positive direction in traversing С is as shown in the adjacent diagram.

[1]
As we know the Green’s theorem

𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
� 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = � � − � 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐶 𝑅

By comparing the given relation with Green’s theorem, we get

𝑀 = xy + y 2 and 𝑁 = 𝑥 2 , using these values , we must show Green’s theorem.
 40

Now

� 𝑀 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁 𝑑𝑦 = � (𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦
𝐶 𝐶
2
Along the curve 𝐶1 : у = 𝑥 , 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑑𝑥, while x varies from 0 to 1. The line Integral (1) equals to
1

� 𝑀 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁 𝑑𝑦 = �(3𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 )𝑑𝑥
𝐶1 0
1
3 𝑥5 3 1 19
= � 𝑥4 + � = + = (2)
4 5 0 4 5 20
Along the curve 𝐶2 : у = 𝑥, 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥, while x varies from 1 to 0. The line Integral (1) equals to
0 0

� 𝑀 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁 𝑑𝑦 = � 2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = � 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝐶2 1 1

= |𝑥 3 |10 = −1
Thus from equation (1) and (2), we have

19 1
� (𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 = −1=−
20 20
𝐶

Now we will calculate the relation

𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
�� − � 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑅

since
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
= 𝑥 + 2𝑦, and = 2𝑥
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
then

𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
�� − � 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = �(2𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2𝑦)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑅 𝑅
1 𝑥 1

= � � (𝑥 − 2𝑦)𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = �(𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 )𝑑𝑥

𝑥=0 𝑦=𝑥 2 0

integrating and applying limit, we get

 41

1 1 1
= − =−
5 4 20
so the theorem is verified.
 42

Module No. 70

Green's Theorem in the Plane in Vector

Notation
First Vector Form (or tangential form) of Green’s Theorem
We have Green’s theorem

𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
� 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = � � − � 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 (1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐶 𝑅

Now
𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = (𝑀𝚤̂ + 𝑁𝚥̂). (𝑑𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝚥̂) = 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗
where
𝐴⃗ = 𝑀𝚤̂ + 𝑁𝚥̂ and 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝑑𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝚥̂.
Also, if 𝐴⃗ = 𝑀𝚤̂ + 𝑁𝚥̂, then
𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕� 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
∇ × 𝐴⃗ = � =− 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + � − � 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑀 𝑁 0
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
so that (∇ × 𝐴⃗). 𝑘� = 𝜕𝑥
− 𝜕𝑦

Then from equation (1) Green’s theorem in the plane can be written

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = �(∇ × 𝐴⃗). 𝑘�𝑑𝑅

𝐶

where 𝑑𝑅 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
A generalization of this surface to S in space having C as boundary leads quite naturally to
Stokes’ theorem. This form of Green’s theorem is sometimes called Stokes’ theorem in the
plane.
The Green’s theorem in plane is a special case of Stokes theorem.
 43

Second Vector Form (or normal form) of Green’s Theorem

As we derive in first vector form of Green’s theorem
𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝐴⃗. 𝑇�𝑑𝑠

𝑑𝑟⃗
where 𝑇� = 𝑑𝑠
=unit tangent vector to C as shown in figure.

If 𝑛� is the outward drawn unit normal to C, then 𝑇� = 𝑘� × 𝑛�. so that

𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = 𝐴⃗. 𝑇�𝑑𝑠 = 𝐴⃗. �𝑘� × 𝑛��𝑑𝑠 = �𝐴⃗ × 𝑘��. 𝑛�𝑑𝑠

Since 𝐴⃗ = 𝑀𝚤̂ + 𝑁𝚥̂, therefore

�⃗ = 𝐴⃗ × 𝑘� = (𝑀𝚤̂ + 𝑁𝚥̂) × 𝑘� = 𝑁𝚤̂ − 𝑀𝚥̂
𝐵
and
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
�⃗ =
∇. 𝐵 −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
then the equation (1) becomes

�⃗ . 𝑛� 𝑑𝑠 = � ∇. 𝐵
�𝐵 �⃗ 𝑑𝑅
𝐶 𝑺

where 𝑑𝑅 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
these are the required vector notations of Green’s theorem.
 44

Module No. 71

Green's Theorem in the Plane as Special case

of Stokes' Theorem
Green’s theorem can be expressed in the plane vector notations which are also named the
tangential form or normal forms of Green’s theorem.
The tangential form of Green’s theorem is also called the first vector form of Green’s theorem.
This generalize form of Green’s theorem in plane also called Stokes’ theorem in the plane. Thus
we can say that Green’ theorem is a special case of Stokes’ theorem when applied to a region in
the xy-plane.
 45

Module No. 72

Gauss' Divergence Theorem as

Generalization of Green's Theorem
As we derive in first vector form of Green’s theorem
𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝐴⃗. 𝑇�𝑑𝑠

𝑑𝑟⃗
where 𝑇� = 𝑑𝑠
=unit tangent vector to C as shown in figure.

If 𝑛� is the outward drawn unit normal to C, then 𝑇� = 𝑘� × 𝑛�. so that

𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = 𝐴⃗. 𝑇�𝑑𝑠 = 𝐴⃗. �𝑘� × 𝑛��𝑑𝑠 = �𝐴⃗ × 𝑘��. 𝑛�𝑑𝑠

Since 𝐴⃗ = 𝑀𝚤̂ + 𝑁𝚥̂, therefore

�⃗ = 𝐴⃗ × 𝑘� = (𝑀𝚤̂ + 𝑁𝚥̂) × 𝑘� = 𝑁𝚤̂ − 𝑀𝚥̂
𝐵
and
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
�⃗ =
∇. 𝐵 −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
then the equation (1) becomes

�⃗ . 𝑛� 𝑑𝑠 = � ∇. 𝐵
�𝐵 �⃗ 𝑑𝑅
𝐶 𝑺
 46

where 𝑑𝑅 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
these are the required vector notations of Green’s theorem.
The generalization of Green’s theorem as Gauss’s divergence theorem is also called the second
vector form (normal form) of Green’s theorem.
Generalization of this to the case where the differential arc length ds of a closed curve С is
replaced by the differential of surface area dS of a closed surface S, and the corresponding plane
region R enclosed by С is replaced by the volume V enclosed by S, leads to Gauss' divergence
theorem or Green's theorem in space.

�⃗ . 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � ∇. 𝐵
�𝐵 �⃗ 𝑑𝑉
𝑆 𝑅
 47

Module No. 73

Green’s First Identity

Theorem Statement

If 𝜑 and 𝜓 are scalar point functions with continuous second order derivatives in a region R
bounded by a closed surface S, then

�[𝜑∇2 𝜓 + (∇𝜑)(∇𝜓)] 𝑑𝑉 = �(𝜑∇𝜓) . 𝑑𝑆⃗

𝑅 𝑆

Proof

Since divergence theorem is

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � ∇. 𝐴⃗𝑑𝑉

𝑆 𝑅

Now substitute 𝐴⃗ = 𝜑∇𝜓 in the divergence theorem, we obtain

� ∇. (𝜑∇𝜓)𝑑𝑉 = �(𝜑∇𝜓). 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = �(𝜑∇𝜓) 𝑑𝑆⃗ (1)

𝑅 𝑆 𝑆

But
∇. (𝜑∇𝜓) = (∇𝜑). (∇𝜓) + 𝜑(∇. ∇𝜓) = 𝜑∇2 𝜓 + (∇𝜑)(∇𝜓)
thus the equation (1) becomes

�[𝜑∇2 𝜓 + (∇𝜑)(∇𝜓)] 𝑑𝑉 = �(𝜑∇𝜓) 𝑑𝑆⃗

𝑅 𝑆

Hence the theorem.

Alternative Forms of Green’s first Identity
We know that
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜑
∇𝜓. 𝑛� = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∇𝜑. 𝑛� =
𝜕𝑛 𝜕𝑛
 48

Thus
𝜕𝜓
∇𝜓. 𝑑𝑆⃗ = ∇𝜓. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = 𝑑𝑆
𝜕𝑛
and
𝜕𝜑
∇𝜑. 𝑑𝑆⃗ = ∇𝜑. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = 𝑑𝑆
𝜕𝑛
Hence the Green’s first Identity can be written as

𝜕𝜓
�[𝜑∇2 𝜓 + (∇𝜑)(∇𝜓)] 𝑑𝑉 = � 𝜑 𝑑𝑆
𝜕𝑛
𝑅 𝑆
 49

Module No. 74

Green’s Second Identity

If 𝜑 and 𝜓 are scalar point functions with continuous second order derivatives in a region R
bounded by a closed surface S, then

�[𝜑∇2 𝜓 − 𝜓∇2 𝜑] 𝑑𝑉 = �(𝜑∇𝜓 − 𝜓∇𝜑) . 𝑑𝑆⃗

𝑅 𝑆

Proof
We have Green’s first identity

�[𝜑∇2 𝜓 + (∇𝜑)(∇𝜓)] 𝑑𝑉 = �(𝜑∇𝜓) . 𝑑𝑆⃗ (1)

𝑅 𝑆

Interchanging 𝜑 and 𝜓 in equation (1), we obtain

�[𝜓∇2 𝜑 + (∇𝜓)(∇𝜑)] 𝑑𝑉 = �(𝜓∇𝜑) . 𝑑𝑆⃗ (2)

𝑅 𝑆

Subtracting equation (2) from (1), we have

�[𝜓∇2 𝜑 + (∇𝜓)(∇𝜑)] − [𝜑∇2 𝜓 + (∇𝜑)(∇𝜓)] 𝑑𝑉 = �(𝜓∇𝜑) − (𝜑∇𝜓) . 𝑑𝑆⃗

𝑅 𝑆

�[𝜑∇2 𝜓 − 𝜓∇2 𝜑] 𝑑𝑉 = �(𝜑∇𝜓 − 𝜓∇𝜑) . 𝑑𝑆⃗

𝑅 𝑆

which is called Green’s second identity or symmetrical theorem.

Alternative Forms of Green’s Second Identity

We know that
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜑
∇𝜓. 𝑛� = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∇𝜑. 𝑛� =
𝜕𝑛 𝜕𝑛
Thus
𝜕𝜓
∇𝜓. 𝑑𝑆⃗ = ∇𝜓. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = 𝑑𝑆
𝜕𝑛
 50

and
𝜕𝜑
∇𝜑. 𝑑𝑆⃗ = ∇𝜑. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = 𝑑𝑆
𝜕𝑛
Hence the Green’s Second Identity can be written as

𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜑
�[𝜑∇2 𝜓 − 𝜓∇2 𝜑] 𝑑𝑉 = �(𝜑 − 𝜓 ) 𝑑𝑆
𝜕𝑛 𝜕𝑛
𝑅 𝑆
 51

Module No. 75

Related Example: Green’s Theorem

Problem Statement
Evaluate
(2,1)

� (10𝑥 4 − 2𝑥𝑦 3 )𝑑𝑥 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦

(0,0)

along the path 𝑥 4 − 6𝑥𝑦 3 = 4𝑦 2 .

Solution
A direct evaluation is difficult. By comparing it with Green’s Theorem, we get
(2,1)

� 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = � (10𝑥 4 − 2𝑥𝑦 3 )𝑑𝑥 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦

𝐶 (0,0)

here 𝑀 = 10𝑥 4 − 2𝑥𝑦 3 and 𝑁 = −3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 and

𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
= −6𝑥 2 𝑦 =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
it follows that the integral is independent of the path. Then we can use any path, for example the
path consisting of straight line segments from (0,0) to (2,0) and then from (2,0) to (2,1).
Along the straight line path from (0,0) to (2,0), 𝑦 = 0, 𝑑𝑦 = 0 and the integral equals
2
10 5
� 10𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 = 2(32) = 64
5
𝑥=0

Along the straight line path from (2,0)to (2,1), 𝑥 = 2, 𝑑𝑥 = 0 and the integral equals
1
𝑦3
� −12𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = −12 � � = −4(1) = −4
3
𝑦=0

Then the value of the line integral

(2,1)

� (10𝑥 4 − 2𝑥𝑦 3 )𝑑𝑥 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = 64 − 4 = 60

(0,0)
 52

is the required solution.

 53

Module No. 76

Selected Problem 1: Green’s Theorem

Problem Statement
Prove that

� 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = 0

𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = 0 around every closed curve С in a simply-connected region if and only
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
everywhere in the region.

Proof
Assume that Μ and N are continuous and have continuous partial derivatives everywhere in the
region R bounded by C, so that Green's theorem is applicable.
Then

𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
� 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = � � − � 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐶 𝑅

Sufficient: If
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
in R, then Clearly

� 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = 0

Necessity: suppose

� 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = 0
 54

𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
for all curves C. If 𝜕𝑥
− 𝜕𝑦
> 0 at a point Ρ, then from the continuity of the derivatives it
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
follows that 𝜕𝑥
− 𝜕𝑦
> 0 in some region A surrounding Ρ. If 𝛤 is the boundary of A then

𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
� 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = � � − � 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 > 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐶 𝑅

which contradicts the assumption that the line integral is zero around every closed curve.
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
Similarly the assumption 𝜕𝑥 − 𝜕𝑦
< 0 leads to a contradiction. Thus 𝜕𝑥
− 𝜕𝑦
= 0 at all points on

R.
 55

Module No. 77

Selected Problem 2: Green’s Theorem

Problem Statement

Show that the area bounded by a simple closed curve С is given by

1
� 𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥
2
𝐶

Proof

Since Green’s theorem is

𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
� 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = � � − � 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐶 𝑅

Put 𝑀 = −𝑦 and 𝑁 = 𝑥 in Green’s theorem, we get

𝜕(𝑥) 𝜕(−𝑦)
� 𝑥𝑑𝑡 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥 = � � − � 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 2 � 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 2A
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐶 𝑅 𝑅

� 𝑥𝑑𝑡 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 2A
𝐶

or

1
Area = A = � 𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥
2
𝐶
 56

Hence the result.

Now we will illustrate this formula through an example
Example Statement
Find the area of the ellipse 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, у = 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Solution
By making use of above result,

1
Area = A = � 𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥
2
𝐶
2𝜋
1
= � (𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)(𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 𝑑𝜃 − (𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)(−𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑑𝜃
2
0

2𝜋 2𝜋
1 1
= � 𝑎𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑑𝜃 = � 𝑎𝑏 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)𝑑𝜃
2 2
0 0
2𝜋
1
= 𝑎𝑏. � 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑎𝑏𝜋
2
0

is the required area.

 57

Module No. 78

Selected Problem 3: Green’s Theorem

Problem Statement

Evaluate

� (𝑦 − sin 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑦

𝐶

where С is the triangle of the adjoining figure:

i. Directly,
ii. By using Green's theorem in the plane.

Solution
i. Along О𝐴, у = 0, 𝑑𝑦 = 0 and the integral equals
𝜋� 𝜋�
2 2
𝜋�
2
� (0 − sin 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + cos 𝑥 (0) = � |−sin 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = cos 𝑥 |0 = −1
0 0

Along 𝐴𝐵, 𝑥 = 𝜋�2 , 𝑑𝑥 = 0 and the integral equals to

1

�(𝑦 − 1)(0) + 0𝑑𝑦 = 0

0
 58

2𝑥 2
Along 𝐵𝑂, у = 𝜋
, 𝑑𝑦 = 𝜋
𝑑𝑥 and the integral equals
0 0
2𝑥 2 𝑥2 2
�( − sin 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = � + cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥�
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝑥=𝜋
𝜋� �2
2
𝜋 2
=1− −
4 𝜋
𝜋 2 𝜋 2
Then the integral along С = −1 + 0 + 1 − 4 − 𝜋 = − 4 − 𝜋

Hence

𝜋 2
� (𝑦 − sin 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = − −
4 𝜋
𝐶

ii. Since the green’s theorem is

𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
� 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = � � − � 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 (1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐶 𝑅

by comparing with the given integral, we get

� 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = � (𝑦 − sin 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑦

𝐶 𝐶

𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
𝑀 = 𝑦 − sin 𝑥, 𝑁 = cos 𝑥 , =1 = − sin 𝑥
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
then the equation (1) becomes

= � (𝑦 − sin 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = �(−sin 𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

𝐶 𝑅
𝜋� 2𝑥
2⎡ 𝜋 ⎤
= � ⎢ � (−sin 𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑦⎥ 𝑑𝑥
⎢ ⎥
𝑥=0 𝑦=0
⎣ ⎦
𝜋�
2
2𝑥
= � |−ysin 𝑥 − 𝑦|0𝜋 𝑑𝑥
𝑥=0
𝜋�
2
2𝑥 2𝑥
� �− sin 𝑥 − � 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝜋
𝑥=0
 59

𝑥=𝜋�2
2 𝜋2
�− (−𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥) − �
𝜋 2 𝑥=0
𝜋 2
=− −
4 𝜋
in agreement with part (i).