Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology

WEEK 2 - 9

CLO 2
Discuss the petroleum system: elements and
processes

TOPIC
1. Petroleum generation
 How oil forms: Natural hydrocarbons
 How oil forms: Generated hydrocarbons
 The origin of natural gas
2. Petroleum migration and accumulation
 Mechanism of migration, Trap and seal & Reservoir
 PETROLEUM GENERATION

NO SUBTOPIC PARTICULAR
1 PETROLEUM 1. Characteristic
2. Product
2 THEORY OF GENERATION 1. Abiogenic
2. Biogenic
3 HOW OIL FORMS 1. Natural hydrocarbon
2. Generated hydrocarbon
4 HOW GAS FORMS 1. Hydrocarbon gas
2. Non-hydrocarbon gas
 Introduction to Petroleum
Geochemistry

Oil & Gas Pool Chemistry

Physics ,
Geochemistry
Geophysics Drill petroleum Prospect Mathematics
Engineering
Physical
Fluid Mechanics Petroleum Geologist
Chemistry

Physical Geology, Historical geology, Structural Geology,

Paleontology, Stratigraphy, Surface Mapping

Mineralogy, Petrology, Sedimentation, Petrography,

Geomorphology, Sub-surface Mapping.
 PETROLEUM
A naturally-occurring liquid, gas, semi-solid or solid
mixture of hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbons
molecules.

The main forms of petroleum are:

1. Natural Gas which does not
condense at STP.
2. Condensate which is gaseous
in reservoir but condense to
form liquid at the surface.
3. Crude Oil as the liquid part of The simplest
hydrocarbon is
petroleum. Methane (CH4)
 Model of Petroleum
(Wiehe, I.A., 1999)

s s s
s a a a s
Petroleum is a colloidal s a R R R a s
solution of resins & s a R A A R a s
asphaltenes in aromatics s a R A A R a s
and saturates s a R R R a s
s a a a s
s s s

A – Asphaltene (solute), R – Resins (dispersant)

a – Aromatics (solvent), s – Saturates (non-solvent)
• Composition:-
1. Hydrogen and carbon (1.85 H:1 C)
2. Minor element (N, S, O compound; < 3%)
3. Heavy metal (vanadium, nickel)

Gas Oil Asphalt Coal Kerogen

Carbon 76 84.5 84 83 79

Hydrogen 24 13 10 5 6

Sulfur 0 1.5 3 1 5
Nitrogen 0 0.5 1 1 2

Oxygen 0 0.5 2 10 8

Elemental composition of fossil fuels and kerogen in sedimentary rock

• Properties:-

1. Molecular size variation

No Size of Compound Refinery product

molecule
1 Smallest Methane, CH4 : 16 mol. wt Light gasoline
2 Simple to Thousands of compound Light and heavy gasoline
complex
Kerosine
Diesel fuel/gas oil
Lubricating oil/heavy gas oil
3 Largest Asphaltenes : tens of Residuum
thousand mol. wt
2. Molecular type variation

 HYDROCARBON: Alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkenes, arenes.

 NON-HYDROCARBON: Asphaltic (N, S, O).

1) ALKANES (Cn H2n+2, n: 1-80)

• Paraffins/saturates/aliphatic
• Open chain molecules with single bonds between carbon atoms.
• Second most common compounds in crude oils.
• Normal paraffins: Methane, Ethane, propane, butane, pentane,
hexane, heptane.
• n-paraffins: branched-chain = isomers
– isobutane; 3-methyhexane
2) CYCLOALKANES (Cn H2n) H2C CH2
• Naphthenes/cycloparaffins/saturates
H2C CH2
• Alkane rings
• 50% found in crude oils: CH
– Methylcyclopentane CH
CH3 CH3
– Methylcyclohexane

CH3
3) ALKENES (Cn H2n-2) C CH2
H2C C
• Olefin H
• contain one or more double bonds.
• Uncommon in petroleum, found in starting material in
refinery process.
• Common in plants and animals: ethylene, squalene.
4) ARENES (CnH2n-6) C C
CH2 HC CH
• Aromatic/saturated hydrocarbon CH HC
2 C HC CH HC
• contain one more benzene ring CH 2 CH
C
• Pleasant-smelling compounds CH3
• < 15% in crude oil: Toluene, benzene, polycyclic aromatic
• High boiling point: large system of condensed rings.

5) Non-hydrocarbon: N-S-O compound

• Asphaltic
• Small amount in crude oil:
– Sulfur: thiols, sulfides, thiophenes
– Nitrogen: pyrrols, indoles
– Oxygen: chain/ ring acids
PETROLEUM PRODUCT
 PRODUCT REMARKS
LIGHT GASOLINE 1. HYDOCARBON GAS: DRY GAS, WET GAS
(C1 – C4) 2. NON-HYDROCARBON GAS: N2, CO2, H2S, He
3. Cleanest fossil fuel: LPG, LNG

HEAVY GASOLINE 1. 10-40% of crude oil

(C5 – C10) 2. Increase amount: cracking/polymerization

KEROSINE 1. Hydrocarbon: 10-40% of aromatics and

(C11 - C13) napthenes
2. Jet fuel and diesel fuel
3. Nonhydrocarbon: napthenic acid, phenols.
DIESEL FUEL/GAS OIL 1. Jet fuels, diesel fuels
(C14 – C18)
LUBRICANT / HEAVY GAS OIL 1. Normal paraffin waxes (C22-C40)
(C26 – C40) / (C20 - C50) 2. Asphaltic

RESIDUUM 1. Resin, asphaltenes, waxes, heavy oil

(> C40) 2. Most complex
3. Furnace oil and road construction.
 CONDENSATE 1. Collect in a separator
2. API gravity: > 55
3. Saturated hydrocarbon: butane,
pentane, hexanes
4. Found early in all oil-producing area
5. GOR: > 5000 cfg/b

Molecular Size Volume

Percent
Gasoline (C5 to C10) 27 Molecular Weight
Type Percentage
Kerosene (C11 to C13) 13
Paraffins 25
Diesel Fuel (C14 to C18) 12
Napthenes 50
Heavy Gas Oil (C19 to C25) 10 Aromatics 17
Lubricating Oil (C26 to C40) 20 Asphaltics 8
Total 100
Residuum ( >C40) 18
Total 100
PETROLEUM GENERATION

How oil forms: Natural hydrocarbons

How oil forms: Generated hydrocarbons
The origin of natural gas
PETROLEUM GEOCHEMISTRY & GEOLOGY

WHERE DOES PETROLEUM

COME FROM?
1. How does petroleum
generates?
2. How does petroleum
migrates?
3. How does petroleum
accumulates?
 PETROLEUM SYSTEM
A system that encompasses all those geological
elements and processes that are essential for a
commercial oil to occur in nature.
ELEMENT PROCESS
Source rock Generation
Migration path Migration
Trap Accumulation
Reservoir rock
Seal rock Preservation
 Petroleum System
Petroleum System Elements
Processes
1. Source rich in organic matter (material and rock)
2. Transform the organic material with heat and pressure to
into petroleum (Maturation)
Gas
3. Carrier beds that allow the generated
Cap petroleum to move
(Migration) Oil
4. Traps Entrapment Waterbelow Seal
and seal rock that keep the petroleum Rock
ground
(Accumulation) Reservoir
Rock
5. Adequate reservoir beds from which the petroleum can be
extracted (Accumulation & Preservation)
Migration
6. Proper timing of events 1-5
120° F

350° F
Generation
24803
 Petroleum Generation
1. Abiogenic Theory
The abiotic hypothesis is that the
full suite of hydrocarbons found in
petroleum can be generated in the
mantle by abiogenic processes and
these hydrocarbons can migrate out
of the mantle into the crust until
they escape to the surface or are
trapped by impermeable strata,
forming petroleum reservoirs.

2. Biogenic Theory
Petroleum is generated by effects
of heat and pressure on the organic
remains of living organic matter.
 Abiogenic Theory
Evidences Limitations
1. Meteorites and other extra- 1. Unpredictable.
terrestrial bodies have evidence
of presence of methane. 2. Does not accept biomarkers.

2. All the compounds of petroleum 3. Cannot explain presence of

can be prepared by inorganic porphyrins.
methods.
4. Cannot explain optical rotation.
3. Thermodynamically methane can
polymerize to higher homologue 5. Average carbon isotope
at high temperature & pressure composition of petroleum do
(mantle pressure & temperature). not support.
4. Oil is found in granitic rocks of
Vietnam
Unusual deposit: Oil is found in granitic rocks of Vietnam
 Biogenic Theory
Evidences Limitations
1. Both organic matter and petroleum 1. It is not possible to generate long
are made of dominantly Carbon and chain hydrocarbons by polymerization
Hydrogen. Further, both of them also at low temperature–low pressure
have nitrogen. natural conditions because there is a
2. Optical rotation of plane polarized constant Gf (Gibbs free energy
light is seen in some organic change) increase for every increase in
substances and petroleum. CH2 unit (2.2 kcal/mol).
3. Presence of porphyrins in petroleum.
2. The average concentration of hydrogen
4. Presence of bio-markers in petroleum. in proportion to carbon is less in
5. Odd-Even periodicity are well organic matter than in petroleum.
documented in petroleum paraffins
and living organisms suggesting 3. Presence of helium in some gases
organic origin of petroleum. cannot be explained by organic theory.
6. Palynological studies have also
suggested the organic origin of
petroleum.
Summary: The Origin of Petroleum

• In general the produced oil is generated from

the source rock in which the sediment has rich
in organic content those organic matter has
been undergo thermal maturation at a given
depth.

Organic-rich Thermally Matured

Source Rock Organic Matter Oil
 SOURCE ROCK
PETROLEUM SOURCE ROCK
Any rock that has the capacity to generate and expel enough
hydrocarbon to form an accumulation of commercial oil and gas.

POTENTIAL SOURCE ROCK

Too immature to generate petroleum in its natural setting but will
form significant quantities of petroleum when heated in the
laboratory or during deep burial (TOC > 0.5%; H/C > 0.5)

EFFECTIVE SOURCE ROCK

One (active/inactive) that has already formed and expelled
petroleum to a reservoir which the petroleum product is based on
maturation.
• Characteristics:
Fine grained sedimentary rock
with high TOC and H/C deposited
in an anoxic environment.

• Marcellus Shale is a
petroliferous black shale
• Shale: Shale breaks into thin pieces with deposited during the Devonian
sharp edges. It occurs in a wide range of in eastern USA. It is also
colors that include: red, brown, green, explored as a shale gas
gray, and black. It is the most common resource. This photo shows an
sedimentary rock and is found in outcrop of the Marcellus in New
sedimentary basins worldwide. York State.
• Kimmeridge oil shale burns with
Curling gasy flame well above the • Distilling Oil & water from
Burning rock & noxious fumes. Kimmeridge Oil Shale using gas
lighter.
 Living Organisms
1 2
Hydrocarbons & Lipids, Proteins &
Protohydrocarbons Carbohydrates Diagenesis
In organisms

Bacterial activity & Low temperature chemical reactions

500C Kerogen

Bitumen
High Temperature Reactions
Catagenesis
Petroleum
Light Oil & Gas Heavy Oil

Gas 2000C
Metagenesis
2500C
Methane Pyrobitumen
 DIAGENESIS
Biological, physical and chemical alteration of the organic
debris before pronounced effect of temperature.

• Temperature range up to 500C.

Immature
• Low-temperature reaction: Biomarkers
– Decarboxylation
– Deamination
– Polymerization Oil
– Reduction Window

• Some free bitumen released: n-paraffin,

isoprenoids, steranes, triterpanes,
NSO compound
Post mature
for oil
OM KEROGEN
 LIVING ORGANISMS
REFRACTORY OM LABILE OM
1. LIPIDS 1. PROTEIN
• Biological substances insoluble in • Polymer of amino acid
water but soluble in fat solvent. • 50% in animals and most of
• Origin: animal fats/oil nitrogen in living organisms.
• Vegetable oils/plant • Less resistant to degradation
• More resistant to degradation in process.
a reducing environment
• Most found in crude oil
2. CARBOHYDRATES
2. LIGNINS • Origin: sugar, starch, cellulose
• Major precursor of humic coals • Less resistant to degradation
• Origin: vascular land plant, process.
terrestrial.
 Summary: Sedimentary Organic
Matter
∞ (py. productivity, bathymetry)

Deposit with
Refractory OM
sediments
(Lignins & Lipids)

Death
Living Organism Organic Matter (OM)

Labile OM
(Carbohydrates & Proteins)

Decomposition Leaching
(Bacterial colonization) (Break down of cell material by
intracellular hydrolytic enzymes)

Lost organic
Slow Decomposition
Matter
Summary: Sedimentary Organic
Matter
Primary
Production of
Organic Matter

Recycled/
Carbon Flux
Dissolved

Preserved Degraded

KEROGEN/COAL
 Kerogen
Kerogen formation is the first step of organic transformation after
the sedimentation of dead organic matter. After deposition of
the organic rich sediments, it gradually changes to source rock
during which sediments are converted to rock and organic
matter is converted to kerogen.

Engler (1913) heated oleic acid and other organic material at

temperatures below 2500C and obtained paraffin, napthene and
aromatic hydrocarbons in entire petroleum range. Later, he
described the generation of petroleum from organic matter as a
two step process involving bitumen as an intermediate.

KEROGEN BITUMEN OIL + GAS + RESIDUE

 Kerogen
Crum-Brown (1912) first used the term to describe OM of a
Scottish Shale that produced waxy oil upon distillation.

White (1915) & Trager (1924) extended this definition to all

OM in rocks capable of oil generation.

Forsman & Hunt (1958) defined kerogen as dispersed OM of

ancient sediments insoluble in usual organic solvents.

This was later extended by Durand (1980) to all insoluble

sedimentary OM including pure organic deposits such as
humic and algal coals and various asphaltic substances as
well as insoluble OM in recent sediments & in soils.

Larskaya and Zhabrev (1964) were the first geochemists to

demonstrate that the generation of hydrocarbons from the
kerogen of shale increases exponentially with depth.
 Kerogen formation
Condensation reactions = COALIFICATION

Algaenan: Highly aliphatic, non-hydrolysable, insoluble macro-

molecular constituent have been identified in a number of
microalga cells and their selective preservation shown to play
major role in the formation of kerogen. All the algaenans so far
examined comprise a network of long polymethylenic chains,
except L race of Botryococcus braunii that contains C40 isoprenoid
chains with lycophane type skeleton.

Melanoidin: Millard (1912) described the condensation reaction of

an amino group and a reducing compound. It is believed that
proteins and lipids react to form kerogen.
 Kerogen Types
Type 1 Type 2 Type 3

Hydrogen rich Hydrogen poor

 Kerogen: TYPE I
TYPE PARTICULARS REMARKS
Type-I:
TYPE I DEPOSITIONAL • Lacustrine sapropel
• Contain alginite, amorphous
ENVIRONMENT organic
• Anoxic matter, cyanobacteria,
lakes
fresh water algae and land plant resins.
ORIGIN • Planktonic algal
• H/C > 1.25 & O/C < 0.15
• Amorphous OM
• Show great tendency to readily produce liquid hydrocarbons
• Cyanobacteria
• It derives principally from lacustrine algae and forms only in
• Freshwater algae
anoxic lakes and several other unusual environments
• Land plant resin
• Has few cyclic and aromatic structures.
• Formed COMPOUND • Cyclic
mainly from proteins andand aromatic structure
lipids.
• Mainly protein and lipids
• Coal maceral: Alginite (BOGHEAD)
H/C & O/C > 1.25, < 0.15
PRODUCT OIL-PRONE
 Kerogen: TYPE II/II-S
TYPE
Type-II: PARTICULARS REMARKS
TYPE II / DEPOSITIONAL
• Contain • Aquatic
alginite, amorphous organic matter,
II-S ENVIRONMENT • Marine sapropel
cyanobacteria,
ORIGIN
fresh water algae and land•plant
Herbanecous
resins.
• H/C < 1.25 & O/C 0.03 to •0.18
COMPOUND Fluorescing amorphous OM
• Coal maceral: Exinite,
• Show great tendency to produce a mix of oil & gas.
resinite, liptinite, suberinite,
• It derives principally from exinite, cutinite,
sporinite, cutinite resinite
(CANNEL)
and liptinite
H/C & O/C < 1.25, 0.03 – 0.18
PRODUCT MIXED OIL/GAS
 Kerogen: TYPE III
TYPE PARTICULARS REMARKS
Type-III:
TYPE III DEPOSITIONAL • Terrestrial
• H/C <ENVIRONMENT
1.0 & O/C 0.03• to 0.3 coal
Humic
• Material is wood or coal
ORIGIN • Non-Fluorescing amorphous
• Tends to produce gas• Woody cellulose
• Lignin
• Derived mainly from plant matter of cellulose
COMPOUND • Cyclic and aromatic structure
& lignin • mainly protein and lipids
• Coal maceral: Vitrinite (HUMIC)

H/C & O/C < 1.0, 0.03 – 0.3

PRODUCT GAS-PRONE
 Kerogen: TYPE IV
TYPE PARTICULARS REMARKS
Type-IV:
TYPE IV DEPOSITIONAL • Terrestrial
• H/C <0.5
ENVIRONMENT • Humic coal
• It is mostly
ORIGIN decomposed• organic
Coaly matter of
polycyclic • Non-Fluorescing
amorphous
aromatic hydrocarbons.
COMPOUND • Decompose OM of
polycyclic aromatic HC
• Coal maceral: Inertinite
H/C & O/C < 0.5
PRODUCT DEAD CARBON/NO
POTENTIAL
 Kerogen isolation
(Durand & Nicaise,1980)

Grounded
sample

• Remove
HCl CaCO3

• Remove
HF silicates

Zinc • Remove
Bromide pyrite

Dry at
100 °C
 SOURCE & QUANTITY OF OM
The quality of petroleum generated is determined mainly by
the amount of hydrogen in the organic matter in the
sediment.

• ANOXIC ENVIRONMENT: reducing environments: stagnant

lakes or silled basins
• LOW-TEMPERATURE biological and chemical reactions,
formed HC-like material
• OM deposited in sediments consists of: Carbohydrates,
Proteins, Lipids, Lignins and Chitin, Waxes, Resins, Pigments,
Fats & Oils.
 Oxic
> 1.0 ml/L

Suboxic
1.0 to 0.1 ml/L

Micro – Macro

Bioturbation
Anoxic

Burrowed

Coarse
< 0.1 ml/L

Sediment Laminated

3 to 20 1 to 3 0.05 to 1.0
% TOC

1.6 1.2 0.8

H/C of OM
OM Type I and II II and III III and IV
 BIOMARKER
MICRO-MICROFOSSILS: < 30nm in diameter
Fossils molecular that has specific carbon structure or skeleton from
specific group of plants, animals or bacteria.
Chemical compounds whose source organism
is known.

Geological understanding:
1. Organic Matter Input and Depositional environment
2. Correlation of Oil – Source or Oil – Oil
3. Maturation
4. Biodegradation

Process:
1. Enzymes-controlled condensation
2. Polymerization of isoprene
 Biomarkers in Geological
Understanding
Biomarker C-range Indication

CPI > 5 C9 – C21 Marine/Lacustrine algal Source

CPI < 1 C25-C37 Terrestrial plant wax

C12-C24 Bacterial Source

Pristane C19 Chlorophyll, Oxic/Sub-oxic env.

Phytane C20 Chlorophyll, anoxic env.

Botryococcane C34 Lacustrine, Brackish

Cadalene C15 Terrestrial plants

 Biomarkers in Geological
Understanding
Biomarker C-range Indication
Diterpenoids
(abietane, primarane) C19, C20 Higher plant resins

Tricyclic terpanes C19 – C45 Diagenetic product of

algal/bacterial lipids

Hopanes C27 – C40 Bacteria

Norhopanes C27 – C28 Anoxic marine

Oleananes C30 Late Cret. /Tert.

flowering plants
 Source Rock Parameters
• TOC : Total Organic Carbon – Quantity
• H/C : Hydrogen to Carbon (molar) – Quantity & Quality
• Pyrolysis Data: S1, S2, Tmax, HI, OI, PI – Quantity & Quality

• Vitrinite reflectance (Vro) - Quality

• Visual kerogen analysis - Quality TOC Vro
Pyrolysis
• GC: Whole oil, C15+, Saturates - Quality H/C Biomarker
Isotopes
• Py - GC - Quality Pyrolysis

• Biomarkers - Quality
Pyrolysis
• Isotopes - Quality Py-GC
GC, VKA
Biomarker
 Catagenesis
Thermal degradation of kerogen to petroleum that
involves reaction of organic matter at higher
temperature at a greater depth.

• Temperature range of 500C to 2000C.

• Engler (1913) heated mixture of oleic acid and other OM at a
temperature below 2500C and obtained petroleum. Later, he
described kerogen is first converted to bitumen as an
intermediate. Miknis et al. (1987) confirmed this proposition.

KEROGEN BITUMEN OIL + GAS + CONDENSATE +

RESIDUE
Oil Window : The depth interval in
which a petroleum source rock Immature
generates and expels most of its oil.
• Temperature: 600C (1400F) to 1600C
(3200F).
Oil
Window

Gas Window : The depth interval in

which a petroleum source rock
generates and expels most of its gas.
• Temperature: 1000C (2120F) to 2000C
Post mature
(3920F). for oil
 Metagenesis
Last stage of significant thermal alteration of OM with
small amounts of methane is formed and remaining
organic matter is converted to pyrobitumen.

• Temperature = 2000C to 2500C

• PROCESS:
1. Methane generation diminishes and graphitic structure
begins to form.
2. Atomic H/C of kerogen: < 0.4, typical in phyllite.
3. High temperature end of organic thermal alteration
overlaps with low temperature beginning of inorganic
thermal alteration (METAMORPHISM).
 Living Organisms
1 2
Hydrocarbons & Lipids, Proteins &
Protohydrocarbons Carbohydrates Diagenesis
In organisms

Bacterial activity & Low temperature chemical reactions

500C Kerogen

Bitumen
High Temperature Reactions
Catagenesis
Petroleum
Light Oil & Gas Heavy Oil

Gas 2000C
Metagenesis
2500C
Methane Pyrobitumen
Summary: Van Kravelen
Quantity TOC (wt %) S2 (mg
HC/g rock)
Very good > 2.0 > 10.0
Good 1. – 2.0 5.0 - 10.0
Fair 0.5 – 1.0 2.5 – 5.0
Poor < 0.5 < 2.5

Quanlity of petroleum
generation is decided
by the hydrogen
content of the kerogen.
PETROLEUM GENERATION

How oil forms: Natural hydrocarbons

How oil forms: Generated hydrocarbons
The origin of natural gas
 Natural gas
RESERVOIR GAS
Occur underground in the free gaseous state or as gas dissolved in
oil/water.

ASSOCIATED GAS
Occur with oil as free gas, gas dissolved in oil or liquefied gas
(condensate).

NON-ASSOCIATED GAS
Occur alone as free gas and as gas dissolved in water.
• Characteristic:-
1. Very mobile
2. Found widely distributed vertically and laterally than oil
3. Generated from source rock that are more widely distributed than
source rock of oil.
4. Ubiquitous in petroleum basin.

• Origin:-
1) HYDROCARBON GAS: BIOGENIC
1. Methanogenic bacteria
2. All types of kerogen
3. Coal
4. Oil in source and reservoir rock

2) NONHYDROCARBON GAS: BIOGENIC & INORGANIC

 1. Bacterial source

METHANOGENIC BACTERIA: all methane formed are

sourced from biogenic OM.

• PROCESS: ANOXIC
1. Microbial fermentation
2. Reduction CO2

• Occur in immature facies during diagenesis stage in surface

sediment
• Temperature: 20 - 80 °C
 2. Kerogen types
SAPROPELIC SOURCE (I, II) HUMIC SOURCE (III, IV)
1. HYDROCARBON GAS: DRY GAS.
• CH4 AND C2H6+ more than humic source, Peak 1. CH4 AND C2H6+ Less than
CH4: 150 humic source.
• Y? I, II generate gas during and after the
generation of oil in greater amount than III, IV.
• As going deeper/greater at depth, source of oil 2. NONHYDROCARBON GAS
from sapropelic eventually converted to gas.
• CO2, N2 >
2. HYDROCARBON GAS: WET GAS. • H2S <
• C2H6+: Peak at 120.
• Start to generate at 70-150
• CO2: peak at 100 C, oil-window
• Become dominant product. • N2: Peak 120 C, oil-window
• Stop to generate and expel in oil-window.

3. NONHYDROCARBON GAS
• CO2, N2 <
• H2S >. Y? Because the results come from the
early diagenetic influence of higher sulfaye
content • Figure 7-1
• And marine water (type II) contain high sulfur
content
 3. Coal Source

• HYDROCARBON GAS: CH4, C2H6+

• NONHYDROCARBON GAS: CO2, N2

• PROCESS:
1. 1/3 direct from the kerogen/coal itself
2. 2/3 Conversion of intermediate oil:

OM KEROGEN BITUMEN GAS + OIL GAS

 COAL RANK
• figure shows the stages of coal formation
• COAL: Formed by PEAT that originated from roots, wood, or bark of tree by bacterial and
chemical change.
• As we go deeper/at greater depth:
– Temperature increase and pressure increase
– H/C, O/C decrease, decrease in moisture
– 1/3: direct from coal; 2/3: from cracking of intermediate oil that have been trapped in the coal itself.

Peat (not a coal) – lignite (brown coal) – bituminous coal (soft coal) – anthracite (hard
coal)
Peat: partially decayed plant matter in swamps and bogs, low heat content
Lignite: low heat content, low sulfur content, limited supplies in most areas.
Bituminous coal: extensively used as a fuel because of its high heat content and large
supplies, normally has a high sulfur content.
Anthracite: highly desirable fuel because of its high heat content and low sulfur
content, supplies are limited in most areas.
– Product:
– CH4: formed as the highest amount of low-volatile bituminous with the generation temp at 80.
– CO2: found dominance in medium-volatile to anthracite and moderate amount in the crude oil
– N2: the lowest amount produced by coal, with starting temperature of generation at 80
 4. Condensate

Gas state in reservoir and condense to liquid at the

surface.
• ORIGIN:
1. Thermal decomposition of oil in the reservoir

KEROGEN OIL CONDENSATE GAS

2. Evaporative fractionation
3. Gas-stripping process in vertical migration
 NONHYDROCARBON GAS

1. CO2 2. H2S
• ORIGIN: • Deadliest gas
1. Thermal decomposition of • ORIGIN:
OM in kerogen in and above 1. Thermal decomposition of
the oil window. high-sulfur oils deeper than
2. Chemical reaction of the oil window.
kaolinite and carbonates at 2. Thermochemical reduction
temperature > 100 °C. of sulfate in pore waters
3. Volcanic activity towards accompanied by the
carbonates. oxidation of reservoired
hydrocarbon.
3. Thermal degradation of
kerogen and coal.
NONHYDROCARBON GAS
3. N2, H, He
• Formed independently in
petroleum.

• Origin of He:
• 3He: mantle origin; 4He:
radioactive element

• Origin of N2:
1. The oxidation of ammonia in the
pore water in sedimentary rock.
2. The atmosphere.
3. Mantle out gassing.
 Summary

CH4 N2
N2
C2H6+
CO2

CH4

H2S