KINGS

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SUBJECT: CE 2252 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

UNIT: I
ENERGY METHODS
1. Define: Strain Energy
When an elastic body is under the action of external forces the body deforms and work
is done by these forces. If a strained, perfectly elastic body is allowed to recover slowly
to its unstrained state. It is capable of giving back all the work done by these external
forces. This work done in straining such a body may be regarded as energy stored in a
body and is called strain energy or resilience.

2. Define: Proof Resilience.

The maximum energy stored in the body within the elastic limit is called Proof
Resilience.

3. Write the formula to calculate the strain energy due to axial loads ( tension).

Where,
P = Applied tensile load.
L = Length of the member
A = Area of the member
E = Young’s modulus.

4. Write the formula to calculate the strain energy due to bending.

Where,
M = Bending moment due to applied loads.
E = Young’s modulus
I = Moment of inertia

5. Write the formula to calculate the strain energy due to torsion

Where,
T = Applied Torsion
G = Shear modulus or Modulus of rigidity
J = Polar moment of inertia

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6. Write the formula to calculate the strain energy due to pure shear

Where,
V= Shear load
G = Shear modulus or Modulus of rigidity
A = Area of cross section.
K = Constant depends upon shape of cross section.

7. Write down the formula to calculate the strain energy due to pure shear, if shear stress
is given.

τ = Shear stress
G = Shear modulus or Modulus of rigidity
V = Volume of the material.

8. Write down the formula to calculate the strain energy , if the moment value is given

Where,
M = Bending moment
L = Length of the beam
E = Young’s modulus
I = Moment of inertia

9. Write down the formula to calculate the strain energy , if the torsion moment value is
given.

Where,
T = Applied Torsion
L = Length of the beam
G = Shear modulus or Modulus of rigidity
J = Polar moment of inertia

10. Write down the formula to calculate the strain energy, if the applied tension load is
given.

Where,
P = Applied tensile load.
L = Length of the member
A = Area of the member

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E = Young’s modulus.

11. Write the Castigliano’s first theorem.

In any beam or truss subjected to any load system, the deflection at any point is given
by the partial differential coefficient of the total strain energy stored with respect to force
acting at a point

Where,
U= Strain Energy stored
P = Load

12. What are uses of Castigliano’s first theorem?

1. To determine the deflection of complicated structure.
2. To determine the deflection of curved beams springs.

13. Define: Maxwell Reciprocal Theorem.

In any beam or truss the deflection at any point ‘A’ due to a load ‘W’ at any other point
‘C’ is the same as the deflection at ‘C’ due to the same load ‘W’ applied at ‘A’.

14. Define: Unit load method.

The external load is removed and the unit load is applied at the point, where the
deflection or rotation is to found.

15. Give the procedure for unit load method.

1. Find the forces P1, P2, ……. in all the members due to external loads.
2. Remove the external loads and apply the unit vertical point load at the joint if
the vertical deflection is required and find the stress.
3. Apply the equation for vertical and horizontal deflection.

16. Compare the unit load method and Castigliano’s first theorem
In the unit load method, one has to analyze the frame twice to find the load and
deflection. While in the latter method, only one analysis is needed.

17. Find the strain energy per unit volume, the shear stress for a material is given as 50
N/mm ². Take G= 80000 N/mm ².

= 50 ² / (2 x 80000)
= 0.015625 N/mm ². per unit volume.
18. Find the strain energy per unit volume, the tensile stress for a material is given as 150
N/mm ². Take E = 2 x10 N/mm ².

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= (150) ² / (2 x (2x10 ²)
= 0.05625 N/mm ². per unit volume.

19. Define: Modulus of resilience.

The proof resilience of a body per unit volume. (ie) The maximum energy stored in the
body within the elastic limit per unit volume.

20. Define: Trussed Beam.

A beam strengthened by providing ties and struts is known as Trussed Beams.

21. Deflection of beams

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 UNIT : II

STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

1. Explain with examples the statically indeterminate structures.

If the forces on the members of a structure cannot be determined by using conditions of
Equilibrium
it is called statically indeterminate structure.
Example: Fixed beam, continuous beam.

2. Differentiate the statically determinate structures and statically indeterminate

structures?

3. Define: Continuous beam.

A Continuous beam is one, which is supported on more than two supports. For usual
loading on the beam hogging (- ive ) moments causing convexity upwards at the supports
and sagging ( + ve ) moments causing concavity upwards occur at mid span.

4. What are the advantages of Continuous beam over simply supported beam?
1. The maximum bending moment in case of continuous beam is much less than in case
of simply supported beam of same span carrying same loads.
2. In case of continuous beam, the average bending moment is lesser and hence lighter
materials of construction can be used to resist the bending moment.

5. Write down the general form of Clapeyron’s three moment equations for the
continuous beam.

Where ,
Ma = Hogging bending moment at A
Mb = Hogging bending moment at B
Mc = Hogging bending moment at C
l1 = length of span between supports A, B
l2 = length of span between supports B, C
= CG of bending moment diagram from support A
= CG of bending moment diagram from support C

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 A1 = Area of bending moment diagram between supports A, B
A2 = Area of bending moment diagram between supports B, C

6. Write down the Clapeyron’s three moment equations for the continuous beam with
sinking at the supports.

Where,
Ma = Hogging bending moment at A
Mb = Hogging bending moment at B
Mc = Hogging bending moment at C
l1 = length of span between supports A,B
l2 = length of span between supports B, C
x1 = CG of bending moment diagram from support A
x2 = CG of bending moment diagram from support C
A1 = Area of bending moment diagram between supports A,B
A2 = Area of bending moment diagram between supports B, C
= Sinking at support A with compare to sinking at support B
= Sinking at support C with compare to sinking at support B

7. Write down the Clapeyron’s three moment equations for the fixed beam

Where,
Ma = Hogging bending moment at A
Mb = Hogging bending moment at B
l = length of span between supports A, B
x = CG of bending moment diagram from support A
A = Area of bending moment diagram between supports A, B

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8. Write down the Clapeyron’s three moment equations for the continuous beam carrying
UDL on

Where,
Ma = Hogging bending moment at A
Mb = Hogging bending moment at B
Mc = Hogging bending moment at C
l1 = length of span between supports A, B
l2 = length of span between supports B, C

9. Give the values of values for different type of

loading.

10. Give the procedure for analyzing the continuous beams with fixed ends using three
moment equations?
The three moment equations, for the fixed end of the beam, can be modified by
imagining a span of length l 0 and moment of inertia, beyond the support the and applying
the theorem of three moments as usual.

11. Define Flexural Rigidity of Beams.

The product of young’ s modulus (E) and moment of inertia (I) is called Flexural
Rigidity (EI) of Beams. The unit is N mm 2.

12. What is a fixed beam?

A beam whose both ends are fixed is known as a fixed beam. Fixed beam is also called as
built-in or encaster beam. Incase of fixed beam both its ends are rigidly fixed and the
slope and deflection at the fixed ends are zero.

13. What are the advantages of fixed beams?

(i) For the same loading, the maximum deflection of a fixed beam is less than that of a
simply supported beam.
(ii) For the same loading, the fixed beam is subjected to lesser maximum bending
moment.
(iii) The slope at both ends of a fixed beam is zero.
(iv) The beam is more stable and stronger.

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14. What are the disadvantages of a fixed beam?
(i) Large stresses are set up by temperature changes.
(ii) Special care has to be taken in aligning supports accurately at the same lavel.
(iii) Large stresses are set if a little sinking of one support takes place.
(iv) Frequent fluctuations in loadingrender the degree of fixity at the ends very uncertain.

15. Write the formula for deflection of a fixed beam with point load at centre.
δ = - wl3 / 192 EI
This defection is ¼ times the deflection of a simply supported beam.

16. Write the formula for deflection of a fixed beam with uniformly distributed load..
δ = - wl4 / 384 EI
This defection is 5 times the deflection of a simply supported beam.

17. Write the formula for deflection of a fixed beam with eccentric point load..
δ = - wa3b3 / 3 EI l3
18. What are the fixed end moments for a fixed beam with the given loading conditions.

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 UNIT : III
COLUMN

1. Define: Column and strut.

A column is a long vertical slender bar or vertical member, subjected to an axial
compressive load and fixed rigidly at both ends.
A strut is a slender bar or a member in any position other than vertical, subjected to a
compressive load and fixed rigidly or hinged or pin jointed at one or both the ends.

2. What are the types of column failure?

1. Crushing failure:
The column will reach a stage, when it will be subjected to the ultimate crushing
stress, beyond this the column will fail by crushing The load corresponding to the
crushing stress is called crushing load. This type of failure occurs in short column.
2. Buckling failure:
This kind of failure is due to lateral deflection of the column. The load at which
the column just buckles is called buckling load or crippling load or critical load. This type
of failure occurs in long column.

3. What is slenderness ratio (buckling factor)? What is its relevance in column?

It is the ratio of effective length of column to the least radius of gyration of the cross
sectional ends of the column.
Slenderness ratio = l eff / r
l eff = effective length of column
r = least radius of gyration
Slenderness ratio is used to differentiate the type of column. Strength of the column
depends upon the slenderness ratio, it is increased the compressive strength of the column
decrease as the tendency to buckle is increased.

4. What are the factors affect the strength column?

1.Slenderness ratio
Strength of the column depends upon the slenderness ratio, it is increased the
compressive strength of the column decrease as the tendency to buckle is increased.
2. End conditions: Strength of the column depends upon the end conditions also.

5. Differentiate short and long column

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6. What are the assumptions followed in Euler’s equation?
1. The material of the column is homogeneous, isotropic and elastic.
2. The section of the column is uniform throughout.
3. The column is initially straight and load axially.
4. The effect of the direct axial stress is neglected.
5. The column fails by buckling only.

7. What are the limitations of the Euler’s formula?

1. It is not valid for mild steel column. The slenderness ratio of mild steel column is
less than 80.
2. It does not take the direct stress. But in excess of load it can withstand under direct
compression only.

8. Write the Euler’s formula for different end conditions.

L = Length of the column

9. Define: Equivalent length of the column.

The distance between adjacent points of inflection is called equivalent length of the
column. A point of inflection is found at every column end, that is free to rotate and
every point where there is a change of the axis. ie, there is no moment in the inflection
points. (Or)
The equivalent length of the given column with given end conditions, is the length of an
equivalent column of the same material and cross section with hinged ends , and having
the value of the crippling load equal to that of the given column.

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10. What are the uses of south well plot? (Column curve).
The relation between the buckling load and slenderness ratio of various column is
known as south well plot.

The south well plot is clearly shows the decreases in buckling load increases in
slenderness ratio.
It gives the exact value of slenderness ratio of column subjected to a particular amount
of buckling load.
11. Give Rankine’s formula and its advantages.

Where,
P R = Rankine’s critical load
f C = yield stress
A = cross sectional area
a = Rankine’s constant
l eff = effective length
r = radius of gyration
In case of short column or strut, Euler’s load will be very large. Therefore, Euler’s
formula is not valid for short column. To avoid this limitation, Rankine’s formula is
designed. The Rankine’s formula is applicable for both long and short column.

12. Write Euler’s formula for maximum stress for a initially bent column?

Where,
P = axial load
A = cross section area
PE = Euler’s load
a = constant
Z = section modulus

13. Write Euler’s formula for maximum stress for a eccentrically loaded column?

Where,
P = axial load
A = cross section area
PE = Euler’ s load
e = eccentricity
Z = section modulus
EI = flexural rigidity

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14. What is beam column? Give examples.
Column having transverse load in addition to the axial compressive load are termed as
beam column.
Eg: Engine shaft, Wing of an aircraft.

15. Define buckling factor and buckling load.

Buckling factor : It is the ratio between the equivalent length of the column to the
minimum radius of gyration
Buckling load : The maximum limiting load at which the column tends to have lateral
displacement or tends to buckle is called buckling or crippling load. The buckling takes
place about the axis having minimum radius of gyration, or least moment of inertia.

16. Define safe load.

It is the load to which a column is actually subjected to and is well below the buckling
load.
It is obtained by dividing the buckling load by a suitable factor of safety (F.O.S).
Safe load = Buckling load / Factor of safety

17. Write the general expressions for the maximum bending moment, if the deflection
curve equation is given.
BM = - EI (d 2y / dx 2)

18. Define thick cylinders.

Thick cylinders are the cylindrical vessels, containing fluid under pressure and whose
wall thickness is not small. (t ≥ d/20)

19. State the assumptions made in Lame’s theory.

i) The material is homogeneous and isotropic.
ii) Plane sections perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the cylinder remain
plane after the application of internal pressure.
iii) The material is stressed within the elastic limit.
iv) All the fibres of the material are to expand or contract independently without
being constrained by the adjacent fibres.

20. Write Lame’s equation to find out stresses in a thick cylinder.

Radial stress = σr = (b/ r2) - a
Circumferential or hoop stress = σc = (b/ r2) + a
21. State the variation of hoop stress in a thick cylinder.
The hoop stress is maximum at the inner circumference and minimum at the outer
circumference of a thick cylinder.

22. How can you reduce hoop stress in a thick cylinder?

The hoop stress in thick cylinders are reduced by shrinking one cylinder over another
cylinder.

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 UNIT : IV
THEORIES OF FAILURE
1. What are the types of failures?
1. Brittle failure:
Failure of a material represents direct separation of particles from each other,
accompanied by considerable deformation.
2. Ductile failure:
Slipping of particles accompanied, by considerable plastic deformations.

2. List out different theories of failure

1. Maximum Principal Stress Theory. (Rankine’s theory)
2. Maximum Principal Strain Theory. (St. Venant’s theory)
3. Maximum Shear Stress Theory. (Tresca’s theory or Guest’s theory)
4. Maximum Shear Strain Theory. (Von –Mises- Hencky theory or Distortion energy
theory)
5. Maximum Strain Energy Theory. (Beltrami Theory or Haigh’s theory)

3. Define: Maximum Principal Stress Theory. (Rankine’s theory)

According to this theory, the failure of the material is assumed to take place when the
value of the maximum Principal Stress(σ 1) reaches a value to that of the elastic limit
stress( f y) of the material σ 1= f y.
4. Define: Maximum Principal Strain Theory. (St. Venant’s theory)
According to this theory, the failure of the material is assumed to take place when the
value of the maximum Principal Stain (e 1) reaches a value to that of the elastic limit
strain( f y / E) of the material.
e 1= f y/ E
In 3D

In 2D σ3=0;

5. Define: Maximum Shear Stress Theory. (Tresca’s theory)

According to this theory, the failure of the material is assumed to take place when the
maximum shear stress equal determined from the simple tensile test.

6. Define : Maximum Shear Strain Theory (Von –Mises- Hencky theory or Distortion
energy theory)
According to this theory, the failure of the material is assumed to take place when the
maximum shear strain exceeds the shear strain determined from the simple tensile test.
In 3D shear strain energy due to distortion

Shear strain energy due to Simple tension

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In 2D

7. Define: Maximum Strain Energy Theory (Beltrami Theory)

According to this theory, the failure of the material is assumed to take place when the
maximum strain energy exceeds the strain energy determined from the simple tensile test.

8. What are the theories used for ductile failures?

1. Maximum Principal Strain Theory. (St. Venant’s theory)
2. Maximum Shear Stress Theory. (Tresca’s theory)
3. Maximum Shear Strain Theory. (Von –Mises- Hencky theory or Distortion energy
theory)

9. Write the limitations of Maximum Principal Stress Theory. (Rankine’s theory)

1. This theory disregards the effect of other principal stresses and effect of shearing
stresses on other planes through the element.
2. Material in tension test piece slips along 450 to the axis of the test piece, where
normal stress is neither maximum nor minimum, but the shear stress is maximum.
3. Failure is not a brittle, but it is a cleavage failure.

10. Write the limitations of Maximum Shear Stress Theory. (Tresca’s theory).
This theory does not give the accurate results for the state of stress of pure shear in
which the maximum amount of shear is developed (in torsion test).

11. Write the limitations of Maximum Shear Strain Theory.(Von –Mises- Hencky theory
or Distortion energy theory).
It cannot be applied for the materials under hydrostatic pressure.

12. Write the limitations of Maximum Strain Energy Theory. (Beltrami Theory).
This theory does not apply to brittle materials for which elastic limit in tension and in
compression are quite different.

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13. Write the failure theories and its relationship between tension and shear.

.
14. Write the volumetric strain per unit volume.
f y 2 / 2E

15. Define: Octahedral Stresses

A plane, which is equally inclined to the three axes of reference, is called octahedral
plane. The normal and shearing stress acting on this plane are called octahedral stresses.

16. Define: Plasticity ellipse.

The graphical surface of a Maximum Shear Strain Theory (Von –Mises- Hencky theory
or Distortion energy theory) is a straight circular cylinder. The equation in 2D is

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 UNIT : V
ADVANCED TOPICS IN BENDING

1. What are the assumptions made in the analysis of curved bars?

1.Plane sections remain plane during bending.
2.The material obeys Hooke’ s law.
3.Radial strain is negligible.
4.The fibres are free to expand or contract without any constraining effect from
the adjacent fibres.

2. Write the formula for stress using Winkler-Bach theory?

where
σ = Bendind stress (i.e., σb )
M = Bending moment with which the bar is subjected
R = Radius of curvature of curved bar or it is the distance of axis of curvature from
centroidal axis.
A = Area of cross-section
h2 = is a constant for a cross-section

3. Define unsymmetrical bending.

If the plane of loading or that of bending, does not lie in (or parallel to) a plane that
contains the principal centroidal axisof the cross-section, the bending is called
unsymmetrical bending.

4. What are the reasons for unsymmetrical bending?

1. The section is symmetrical but the load line is inclined to both the principal axes.
2. The section itself is unsymmetrical and the load line is along the centroidal axis.

5. How will you calculate the stress due to unsymmetrical bending?

6. How will you calculate the distance of neutral axis from centroidal axis.
y0 = - R x h2 / R + h2
-ve sign shows that neutral axis is below the centroidal axis.

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7. How will you calculate the angle of inclination of neutral axis with respect to principal
axis?

8. Write the formula for deflection of a beam causing unsymmetrical bending.

Where K = a constant depending upon the end conditions of the beam and the position of
the load along the beam
l = length of the beam
θ = angle of inclination of load W with respect to VV principal axis

9. How will you calculate the resultant stress in a curved bar subjected to direct stress and
bending stress.
σr = σo + σb
Where
σo = Direct stress = P/A
σb = Bending stress

10. How eill you calculate the resultant stress in a chain link.
σr = σo + σb
where
σo = Direct stress = (P/2A) x sin θ
σb = Bending stress

11. What is shear centre or angle of twist?

The shear centre for any transverse section of the beam is the point of intersection of
the bending axis and the plane of the transverse section.

12. Who postulated the theory of curved beam?

Winkler-Bach postulated the theory of curved beam.

13. What is the shape of distribution of bending stress in a curved beam?

The distribution of bending stress is hyperbolic in a curved beam.

14. Where does the neutral axis lie in a curved beam?

The neutral axis does not coincide with the geometric axis.
15. What is the nature of stress in the inside section of a crane hook?
Tensile stress

16. Where does the maximum stress in a ring under tension occur?
The maximum stress in a ring under tension occurs along the line of action of
load.

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17. What is the most suitable section for a crane?
Trapezoidal section.

18. What is pure bending of a beam?

When the loads pass through the bending axis of a beam, then there shall be pure
bending of the beam.

19. How will you determine the product of inertia?

The product of inertia is determined with respect to a set of axes which are perpendicular
to each other.
The product of inertia is obtained by multiplying each elementary area dA by its
coordinates x and y and integrated over the area A.
IXY = ∫ xy dA

20. Define principal moment of inertia.

The perpendicular axis about which the product of inertia is zero are called
“principal axes” and the moments of inertia with respect to these axes are called as
principalmoments of inertia.
The maximum moment of inertia is known as Major principal moment of inertia
andthe minimum moment of inertia is known as Minor principal moment of inertia.

PART – B

1. Calculate the strain energy stored in a cantilever beam of 4m span, carrying a point
load 10 KN at free end. Take EI = 25000 KNm2.

2. State and prove Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem.

3. State and prove Castigliano’s theorem.

4. Find the deflection at the mid span of a simply supported beam carrying an uniformly
distributed load of 2KN/m over the entire span using principle of virtual work. Take span
=5m; EI = 20000 KNm2.

5. A plane truss is shown in Fig. Find the horizontal deflection of joint B by virtual work
method.
Area of cross section = 20000mm2 (comp. members)
Area of cross section = 10000mm2 (tension members)
E = 200 KN/mm2
6. A fixed beam of span 6m is loaded with point loads of 150 KN at distance 2m from
each support, Draw the bending moment and shear force diagrams. Find also the
maximum deflection. Take E= 2x108 KN/m2 and I = 8X108 mm4

7. A continuous beam ABC of uniform cross section with span AB and BC as 4m each is
fixed at A and simply supported at B and C. The beam is carrying a UDL of 6KN/m
throughout its length. Find the support moments and the reactions. Also draw the bending
moment and shear force diagrams.

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8. A fixed beam of span 8m carries an UDL of 2 KN/m over a length of from the left
support and a concentrated load of 10 Kn at a distance of 6m from the left support. Find
the fixed end moments and draw the B.M and S.F diagrams.

9. A propped cantilever of span 6m having the prop at the end is subjected to two
concentrated loads of 15 KN and 30 KN at one third points respectively from left fixed
end support. Draw SFD and BMD with salient points.

10. Using Euler’s theory, find the buckling load for fixed-free column

11. Using Euler’s theory, find the buckling load for fixed-fixed column

12. Using Euler’s theory, find the buckling load for hinged-hinged column

13. Using Euler’s theory, find the buckling load for fixed-hinged column.

14. Find the ratio of buckling strength of a solid column to that of a hollow column of the
same material and having the same cross sectional area. The internal diameter of the
hollow column is half of its external diameter. Both the columns are hinged and the same
length.

15. Determine the principal stresses and principal directions for the following 3D- stress
field.
963
[σ] =652
324

16. In a two dimensional stress system, the direct stresses on two mutually perpendicular
planes are and 120 N/mm2. In addition these planes carry a shear stress of 40 N/mm2.
Find the value of at which the shear stain energy is least. If failure occurs at this value of
the shear strain energy, estimate the elastic limit of the material in simple tension.
Take the factor of safety on elastic limit as 3.

17. Find the centroidal principal moments of inertia of a equal angle section 80mm x
80mm x 10mm.

18.A curved bar of rectangular cross section 60mm wide x 75mm deep in the plane of
bending initially unstressed, is subjected to a bending moment of 2.25 KNm which tends
to straighten the bar. The mean radius of curvature is 150mm. Find: (i) position of neutral
axis (ii) the greatest bending stress.

19. A bolt is under an axial thrust of 9.6 KN together with a transverse force of 4.8 KN.
Calculate the diameter of the bolt according to failure theories.

20. The inside and outside diameters of a cast iron cylinder are 240mm and 150mm
respectively. If the ultimate strength of cast iron is 180 MN/m2, find the internal pressure
which could cause rupture according to failure theories.

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21. Calculate the safe compressive load on a hollow cast iron column (one end fixed and
other end hinged) of 150mm external diameter, 100mm internal diameter and 10mm
length. Use Euler’s formula with a factor of safety of 5 and E = 95 GN/m2.

22. Calculate the thickness of a metal necessary for a cylindrical shell of internal
diameter 160mm to withstand an internal pressure of 25 MN/m2, if maximum tensile
stress is 125 MN/m2.

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