MNC526 : Elements of Mining Technology

Chapter 4 : Underground Coal Mining

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Classification of UG Coal Mining Methods:
1.  Bord and Pillar
2.  Room and Pillar mining,
3.  Longwall mining:
•  Advancing Longwall
•  Retreating Longwall
4.  Top Coal Caving/Sublevel Caving,
5.  Highwall mining and
6.  Other thick Seam mining methods e.g.
•  Blasting Gallery Method and
•  Multi-Slicing techniques
-  Ascending Order of multi-slicing
-  Descending Order of multi-slicing

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Some Important Terminology in Underground Coal Mining:
Every Coal Mine is defined as Gassy as per Coal Mines Regulation 2017.
However, Degree of gassiness has been defined as under:
(12A) “gassy seam of the first degree” means a coal seam or part
thereof lying within the precincts of a mine not being an open cast
working whether or not inflammable gas is actually detected in the
general body of the air at any place in its workings below ground,
or when the percentage of the inflammable gas if and when
detected, in such general body of air does not exceed 0.1 and the
rate of emission of such gas does not exceed 1m3/Tonne of coal
produced;
(12B) “gassy seams of the second degree” means coal seams or
part thereof lying within the precincts of a mine not being an open
cast working in which the percentage of inflammable gas in the
general body of air at any place in the workings of the seam is
more than 0.1 or the rate of emission of inflammable gas per tonne
of coal produced exceeds 1m3/Tonne but does not exceed 10m3/
Tonne ;
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 (12C) “gassy seams of the third degree” means of coal seam or
part thereof lying within the precincts of a mine not being an open
cast workings in which the rate of emission of inflammable gas per
tonne of coal produced exceeds ten cubic metres.
Some terminology as per Indian Electricity Rule1956:
“Flameproof enclosure” means an enclosure for electrical
machinery or apparatus that will withstand, when the covers or
other access doors are properly secured, an internal explosion of
the inflammable gas or vapour which may enter or originate inside
the enclosure, without suffering damage and without
communicating the internal flammation (or explosion) to the
external inflammable gas or vapour in which it is designed to be
used, through any joints or other structural openings in closure.

Intrinsically Safe as applied to an apparatus or associated circuits
shall denote that any sparking that may occur in normal working is
incapable of causing explosion of inflammable gases or vapour.
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Cycle of Operation/Unit Operations in Conventional(Cyclic)
Mining:
Mining Process UNDERGROUND

Drilling Coal drill

| |
Blasting Permitted explosives
Supporting | |
Ventilation Loading Manual/ SDL/ LHD/Scraper
Pumping
| |
Hauling Manual/ SDL/ LHD/Scraper
| |
Transporting Tubs, Conveyors, etc
| |
Processing/Washing Coal washeries… 5
Drilling operation in the coal face

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Coal Drill: TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS:
MODEL: RANA MAKE CD2
Flameproof Electric Drill
Machine

ELECTRICAL: 125V, 50Hz, 3
Phase AC
POWER: 1.1 KW/1.5HP

CHUCK FREE SPEED: SYNCHRONOUS SPEED OF
MOTOR 3000 rpm
NORMAL GEAR BOX:
450 – 500 rpm

SLOW SPEED GEAR BOX:
300 rpm Drill Bit:
WEIGHT:
(Drag Bit)
22 Kg (100% steel fabricated)

TORQUE : 68 Nm

DRILL BIT:
Helical drill rod with bit diameter
of 35 – 42mm
Coal Cutting Machine:

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Universal Drilling Machine
SIDE DUMP LOADER

Capacity – 1.0 Cu.M

Production – 120 Tonnes/day
For seams of 1 in 5 gradient and flatter
Thickness of 2.0 m to 3.5 m

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Side Dump Loader
Load Haul Dumper

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LOAD HAUL DUMPER

Capacity – 2/2.7 Cu.M

Production – 150/200 Tonnes/day
For seams of 1 in 6 gradient and flatter
Thickness of 2.0 m to 4.0 m
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Bord & Pillar Mining- Development Stage:
Coal Extraction in two phases
-  Development – Formation of pillars
-  Depillaring – Extraction of pillars formed
Development:
•  Approach Coal seam through a Pair of Shafts/Shafts and
Inclines both/Inclines/Adits/Adits and inclines or shafts both
duly supported & supplemented with ventilation shaft/Incline
equipped with Ventilation Fan,
•  Winder/Haulage Machines/Belt Conveyors are installed &
other allied arrangements made for transportation of
Manpower & Coal,
•  Driving series of roadways in the seam parallel to each other
and connected by cross headings so as to form pillars,
•  These pillars formed are extracted later on partially or fully,
as permitted by geological and other conditions,
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Bord & Pillar Mining during development - Important
Parameters:
(As per statutory provision i.e. Regulation 111 of Coal Mines Regulation 2017)
1.  Dimension of pillars: Square pillars of length/ breadth between
12m to 48m during development . If the pillars are rectangular or
rhombus shaped then square formed within these pillar should
of the above dimension,
2.  Height of pillar normally equal to seam thickness but not 3m in
height during development
3.  Gallery height not more than 3m during development
4.  Gallery width not more than 4.8m during development
5.  Pillars should be normally square or rectangular in shape.
6.  Galleries to ensure stability during the period between
development and depillaring

Centre to centre distance between adjacent pillars shall not be less
than that specified corresponding to the depth of workings from surface and
width of galleries as given in the Table:

 Table
Depth of seam from surface Where the width Where the Where the width Where the
of the galleries width of the of the galleries width of the
does not exceed galleries does does not exceed galleries does
3.0 meters not exceed 3.6 4.2 meters not exceed 4.8
meters meters
The distance between centres of adjacent pillars shall not be less than
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Meters Meters Meters Meters
Not exceeding 60 meters 12.0 15.0 18.0 19.5
Exceeding 60 but not 13.5 16.5 19.5 21.0
exceeding 90 meters
Exceeding 90 but not 16.5 19.5 22.5 25.5
exceeding 150 meters
Exceeding 150 but not 22.5 25.5 30.5 34.5
exceeding 240 meters
Exceeding 240 but not 28.5 34.5 39.5 45.0
exceeding 360 meters
Exceeding 360 meters 39.0 42.0 45.0 48.0
Panel Size:
A panel is the basic unit or a district in Bord and Pillar coal mining
that is defined as the area/part of the mine to be worked and
ventilated at a time. A panel is
•  Initially developed with facilities like ventilation, transportation
of coal & manpower
•  Finally depillared during retreat with facilities like ventilation,
transportation of coal & manpower
As such Size of the Panel is decided mainly on following safety
considerations.
1.  Incubation Period of Coal: time taken by loose coal in the area where
most of the coal has already been extracted i.e. goaf catches fire by self
oxidation due to low ignition temperature of coal. So size of the panel
should be such that all the extractable coal must be extracted during
incubation period before left out loose coal in the extracted area/goaf
catches fire. After extraction of all the extractable coal the panel should
be sealed off so that even if there is heating in the extracted area it does
spread in other parts of the mine.
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2.  Rate of Extraction: This depends on production requirement and the
panel size should match with the rate of extraction.
3.  Strata control consideration
Excessive stress accumulated on the pillars against goaved out area
destabilizes the pillars under extraction. So the panel should have
optimal size so that there is no excessive strata stress in the panel &
whatever abutment pressure is encountered can be managed with roof
support done in the panel.
While deciding Panel size above aspects should be
factored in and should be ascertained scientifically

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Applicability Conditions For Bord & Pillar Mining :
The natural and geological conditions of the mineral deposit which are
optimal or well suited for Bord and Pillar mining are the following:
• Coal strength: Moderate to hard,
• Rock strength:
-  Roof: moderate to strong, Cavable Roof, Hard parting,
-  Floor: moderate to hard, should not deteriorate with water
•  Deposit shape: tabular, Uniform & to some extent with variable seam
thickness,
•  Deposit dip: low (<150), preferably flat but can be applied to steeper
gradient in manual mining/semi mechanised
• Deposit size: large area extent, not thick ( < 4.5m)
• Coal grade: moderate to high
• Depth: shallow to moderate(<450m)
•  Gassiness: Moderate Gassy(Degree I & Degree II) but non fiery

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Limitations OF B&P Mining: -
•  In B&P Mining there is poor recovery i.e. only 20-25% during
development and even after depillaring overall recovery is
moderate i.e. up to 60% only
•  Extensive development required for coal deposit because of
multiple openings
•  In fiery coal, spontaneous heating is early creating impediment in
final extraction & hence continuous monitoring of fire becomes
necessary
•  In extreme situations of fire no control can be exercised because
of too many openings
•  Ground stress and support loads increase with depth
•  Caving and subsidence occur with substantial pillar extraction
•  Potential health and safety hazards exists because of many
openings

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Cycle of Operation/Unit Operations in Continuous Mining:

Mining Process UNDERGROUND

Drilling
ROAD HEADERS
| CONTINUOUS MINERS
Blasting
|
Loading
|
Hauling
|
Transporting
|
Processing/Washing
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Panel System of Development in Bord & Pillar Mining:

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Bord & Pillar Development with Continuous Miner:
Bord & Pillar Development with Continuous Miner:
•  The standard layout consists of a five road development, with the
main conveyor and feeder breaker positioned in the central
roadway.
•  This provides working areas to carry out all the development
functions.
•  One heading for the CM deployed for cutting,
•  One heading ready for cutting,
•  One heading for Crushing, Belt Conveyor & ventilation,
•  One heading for cleaning by LHD,
•  One heading for supporting by Quadbolter/Twinbolter
 Continuous Miner

Rate of drivage –50 meters/day

Production –1500 Tonnes/day
For seams of 1 in 5 gradient and flatter
Thickness of 3.0 m to 4.0 m

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SHUTTLE CAR: The function of a shuttle car is to transport the coal
that is cut/sheared by continuous miner from the face to the place
where feeder breaker is installed. Capacity of a 10SC32 shuttle is
10.19 tons and the fill factor is about 0.85.

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Feeder Breaker : Caterpilar Make

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 Mechanised Roof Bolter
Mechanized Roof Bolter:

Bolting -240 bolts/day

For seams of 1 in 5 gradient and flatter
Thickness of 2.0 m to 5.0 m

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QUAD BOLTER

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TWIN BOLTER

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Variants of Depillaring:
–  Full extraction: maximum extraction height is up to 6m in single
pass
•  Caving method
•  Stowing method
–  Partial Extraction

Characteristics of Depillaring by Caving Method:
•  Coal in pillars is extracted and roof is allowed to break and collapse
into the voids or the de-coaled area, known as goaf.
•  As roof strata above the coal seam breaks, the ground surface
develops cracks and subsides
•  Extent of damage depends upon depth, thickness of the seam
extracted, Extent of working underground, the nature of strata,
thickness of the subsoil and effect of drag by faults.

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Depillaring in Bord & Pillar Mining with Diagonal Line of Extraction

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Caveability:
A roof is said to be ideally
cavable when the roof rock
caves in & fills up the goaf
immediately after withdrawal
of roof support. This depends
on
•  tensile strength of roof
rock
•  Rock density
•  Presence of discontinuity,
joints & its geometry in
roof rock

Principles of Pillar extraction techniques by Caving:
•  Roof exposure at one time should be minimal. In the Indian coalfields, where caving
is practiced, 60-90 m2 exposure is normally allowed. But in stowing districts the
exposure may be increases up to 90-100 m2.
•  The size of the panel should be such that depillaring can be completed within the
incubation period.
•  Inertisation may help in extending the panel extraction time and controlling
spontaneous combustion hazard
•  The extraction line should be arranged in such a manner so that it facilitate roof
control. In normal practice diagonal line of face is practiced for better caveability
•  Diagonal line of face provides protection as the working places are supported by
solid pillars and also when the roof caves, there is less risk of goaf flushing into the
working faces.
•  Single lift extraction is possible if seam height is limited to 4.8m or less & caving
method can be suitable. If the thickness of the seam is more than 4.8 m, the
extraction is done in multi lifts and in that case hydraulic sand stowing is normally
practiced.
•  Whatever be the method of extraction, the working area is systematically
supported by roof bolts/props and to be supplemented with steel cogs at goaf
edges, at wider places & at junctions
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Depillaring by caving method:
Advantages:
–  Most popular method
–  Does not require stowing
–  Quicker method of exploitation
–  Cheaper compared to stowing
Dis-advantages:
•  Cause subsidence and may damage to surface and surface structures
•  %-age of extraction may not be very high
•  Stability of work place critical hence constant monitoring/vigil is vital
•  Chance of spontaneous combustion and heating while extraction
•  Significant Fire and explosion hazard
•  To have inertisation facility for successful extraction
•  Requires post mining monitoring, subsidence / environment
•  Very critical for geologically disturbed area

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Depillaring by Stowing:
When coal is extracted and the void is packed with sand or other non
carbonaceous waste material
Applicability:
•  When Surface subsidence is not allowed i.e. to protect surface
features like Railway, Road, HV lines, Oil/Gas pipelines, Rivers,
Water bodies, Other Important surface structures
•  Where the owner does not have surface rights and there is
likelihood of surface subsidence i.e. Reserve/Protected Forest
•  Cavability of roof is very poor
•  High in-situ gas content
Types of Stowing:
•  Hydraulic stowing
•  Sand
•  Ash pond
•  Mill tailings
•  Pneumatic stowing 38
Stowing Arrangement
in a Coal Mine

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 Longwall Mining:
•  Mass Production Technology with continuous production, improved
Productivity,
•  Potential for automation and digitization,
•  Improved personnel health and safety because crew always work
under protective/supported roof,
•  Panel layout is simple and conducive to good ventilation,
•  Better conservation as Longwall system with full caving leaves lesser
coal/residual pillars than other mining methods,
•  Surface subsidence is relatively uniform and complete.
•  It is one of the cheapest method of underground coal Mining.
Types:
-  Longwall Advancing (with caving or with stowing)
-  Longwall Retreat (with caving).
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Longwall Mining

29 November 2011 41 3

Longwall Retreating

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Longwall Retreating:
 Longwall Retreating Method
•  In retreat longwall mining, two sets of entries are driven between 100 to
300m apart. When the entries have been driven a predetermined length(1-3
km), they are connected and a rectangular longwall block is outlined.
•  The longwall equipment is then installed in the face & gate roads. As mining
continues into the panel, back to the original/trunk entries, the entries
behind the face line are allowed to collapse to form part of the goaf.
•  The gate entries are known as main gate and tail gate. Generally the main
gate contains the belt conveyor and the tail gate is used for facilitating
power supply and serves logistics etc. to the longwall face.
•  Longwall block is surrounded by roadways before the longwall starts so
knowledge of strata conditions is much better
•  Gas drainage of adjacent blocks can be carried out during development only
•  Ventilation can be strengthened gas control can also be better using
additional roadways;
•  Retreat longwall gate-roads are allowed to collapse behind the retreating
face unlike Advancing longwall gate-roads which typically require extensive
maintenance of the roadways during the life of the longwall block.
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Longwall Advancing:

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 Longwall Advancing Method
•  In longwall advancing, the face is set up at a short distance from the main
development headings after leaving a barrier pillar.
•  The gate entries of the longwall face are formed as the longwall face
advances and coal is mined.
•  The gate roadways are thus formed adjacent to the goaf. Thus gate roads
need to be protected from the goaf by a line of packs,
•  The gate entries are known as main gate and tail gate. Generally the main
gate contains the belt conveyor and the tail gate serves for facilitating power
supply and logistics to the longwall face.
•  The gate roads servicing an advancing longwall panel are single entries and
each coal panel is separate from the adjacent workings with a solid barrier
pillar called barrier pillar or chain pillar.
•  Width of Barrier/Chain Pillar is dependent upon the depth of the working.
•  Production can commence earlier as the mine does not have to wait for the
gate roads to be fully developed as in longwall retreating method
•  It provides an opportunity for disposal of stone which has to be excavated
into gate side packs.
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Applicability of Longwall Mining:
•  Coal strength: any coal which should be cuttable by continuous
cutting picks fitted in Shearer or Continuous Miner.
•  Coal under excessive roof pressure should crush rather than yield
•  Preferable Roof Rock strength: weak to moderate, must break
and cave; ideally, thin-bedded in intermediate roof;
•  floor must be firm & non-plastic
•  Deposit shape: tabular, Uniform, large extent;
•  Thickness: Thin(1-1.5m) to Thick up to 6m.
•  Deposit dip: low (<120), preferably flat, uniform but these days
Longwall equipment is available for steeper deposits also
•  Coal grade: moderate
•  Depth: moderate to deeper (150-1200 m)

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Advantages of Longwall Mining:
•  High production rate; mass production technology
•  Requires less manpower, hence, high underground productivity (U.S.
average face productivity as high as 97 tonnes/per employee- shift)
•  Low mining cost, least of the underground methods
•  Non cyclic or nearly continuous mining technology
•  Suitable for total mechanization, remote control, automation &
digitization
•  Fairly high recovery (70–90%), nearly 100% extraction is possible if entry
chain pillars are also recovered
•  Low dilution (10-20%)
•  Concentrated operations, facilitating better transport of coal, smooth
supply of material, improved ventilation
•  Applicable to deeper seams even under bad roof conditions
•  Very high standard of safety, especially with regard to roof-fall accidents
•  Subsidence on the surface is uniform which can be predicted in advance
hence, can be managed faster by mechanical means
•  Methane drainage is easily possible from bleeder roadways 48
Limitations of Longwall Mining:
•  Caving and subsidence occur over wide areas and controllable to
some extent
•  Method very inflexible and rigid in execution; no selectivity except in
varying height of extraction to some extent
•  Mining rate uniform to avoid roof support and subsidence problem
•  High Capital cost
•  Reliance on single production face hence any interruption may be
very costly
•  High Longwall move costs
•  Dust generation is high so mitigation of dust is a must
•  Heating in goaf may create temperature humidity problems and
spontaneous combustion
 MECHANISED DRIVAGE MACHINES

Rate of drivage –6 meters/day

Production –150 Tonnes/day
For seams of 1 in 4 gradient and flatter
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Thickness of 2.0 m to 4.0 m
ROAD HEADER:

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Armoured Flexible conveyor(AFC)
Double Ended Ranging Drum Shearer(DERD):

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 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SL500_01.jpg
Mechanized cutting machine on a longwall coal-mining face: 54
SHEARER WORKING AT LONGWALL FACE.
Shield Support: Two-leg shields are most suitable for weak immediate
roof while four-leg shields and chock shields are excellent for medium and
strong roofs.
•  It is mounted on a single solid base with a solid, cantilevered roof
canopy allowing the vertical/inclined hydraulic cylinders to be a little
further from the face for providing adequate support to the freshly
exposed roof.
•  The back side of the vertical/inclined hydraulic cylinders are also
covered to provide a solid cover/shield from the goaf in the extracted
area.
•  A horizontal cylinder in these chocks can be attached with the base to
the AFC for pushing the AFC forward after extraction of strips of coal as
face advances. As well this hydraulic cylinder is used for dragging the
support unit forward towards AFC as the face advances.
•  The chocks are interconnected with hydraulic hoses and connected
back to a pumping arrangement in the gate road by a hydraulic fluid
reticulation system. The hydraulic fluid is mostly water with a low
concentration of soluble oil, partly to assist in lubrication but mostly to
inhibit corrosion. 55
 Shield Supports

4 Legged Shield Support 2 Legged Shield Support

In US longwall mining, shield supports(2 leg type) are predominantly

(67%) used for roof control, while four-leg shields and chock- shields
account for 32% with only one panel employing six leg shields.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/
5/5d/Schildausbau.jpg/220px-Schildausbau.jpg

Figure shows Hydraulic chocks 57

POWERED ROOF SUPPORT AT LONGWALL FACE

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