Electrical Sciences

Dr. Sudeep Baudha

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department
BITS Pilani KK Birla Goa Campus
 Types of materials
• Conductors
– Conductivity 107-108 S/m at 300K Temp.

• Insulators
– Conductivity 10-4-10-14 S/m at 300K Temp.

• Semiconductors
– Conductivity 10-3-103 S/m at 300K Temp.
BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
 Semiconductors
• Free charge (electrons) are in continuous motion
due to thermal energy
• If no voltage is applied, random motion results in
zero average current across any cross section

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

 Semiconductors
• If voltage is applied to metal, then drift speed
u α E or u = μE
Where E= electric field, μ = mobility of charge particle
Also u = L/T or T= L/u

• Current i = Nq/T = Nqu/L

• Current density
J = i/A =Nqu/LA = (N/LA).q.μE = nqμE = σE
N = no. of free electrons, n=N/LA = free ele. Concentr.
nq = charge density (C/m3), σ = conductivity= nqμ= 1/ρ
ρ = resistivity (ohm-m)
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 Semiconductors
• Voltage across length L, V = EL
• Current i = JA = σEA = (σA/L).EL = (1/R). V
(Ohm’s law followed here)
J= current density , R= resistance

• Free electron density

Copper : n = 1028 /m3 , insulator : n = 107 /m3
Silicon : n = 1.5x 1016 , Ge : n = 2.5x 1019

• At low temperature Si behaves as insulator, but at

room temperature, hole-ele. pairs are generated
and behaves as semiconductor
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 Practice Problem
A length of copper wire with a cross – sectional area of 10-6 m2 carries a
current 0.4 A. The conductivity of copper at 20 degree is 5.78 x 107 mho/m
and free electron concentration is 8.43 x 1028 m-3
(q = 1.6 x 10-19)

Calculate
Drift speed
Mobility of free electrons
Electric Field Strength
Resistance of 1 meter length wire
Solution
Covalent bonds in Silicon

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

 Current in semiconductor (Si)

• Energy required to create hole-electron pair at room temperature

Si : 1.1eV
Ge : 0.72 eV
1 eV
BITS Pilani, = 1.6
K K Birla x 10-19 J
Goa Campus
 Current in semiconductor (Si)

Electron-hole pairs in a silicon crystal. Free electrons are being

generated continuously while some recombine with holes.
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Electron current in intrinsic semiconductor

• Electron current in intrinsic silicon is produced by the

movement of thermally generated free electrons.

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 Hole current in intrinsic semiconductor

• When a valence electron moves left to right to fill a hole while

leaving another hole behind, the hole has effectively moved from
right to left. Gray arrowsBITSindicate
Pilani, K K Birlaeffective
Goa Campus movement of a hole.
 Intrinsic Semiconductor: Hole & Electron
current
• Valance electron can fill the hole and produce
hole at different location
• Movement of valance electron can be think of
movement of holes in opposite direction : Hole
current (positive charge flow)
• In pure or intrinsic semiconductor
– No. of electrons = No. of holes (n = p = ni)
• Metal : free electron current (Unipolar)
• Semiconductor : electron & hole current (Bipolar)
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 Intrinsic Semiconductor: Hole &
Electron current
• Current density of semiconductor
J = nqμE = (nμn+pμp)qE = σE
Where n = free electron concentration
p = hole concentration
• For semiconductors, as temperature increases,
ni increases and as a result conductivity (σ) increases
• For copper (metal) as temperature increases,
mobility (μ) of free ele. Decreases and as a result
conductivity (σ) decreases
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 Doped semiconductors
• Doping : Conductivity of semiconductors can be
significantly increased by adding impurities in small
amount
• Donor impurity : Impurity with five valance electrons
(P or As) is added to Si or Ge
– One electron becomes free for each atom impurity
– Result is N-type semiconductor
– Electrons are majority carriers
• Acceptor impurity : Impurity with three valance
electrons (B or Ga) is added to Si or Ge
– Each impurity atom produces a hole
– Result is P-type semiconductor
– Holes are majority BITS
carriers
Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
Doped semiconductors
 Mass action law
• Regardless of the amount of doping for a
semiconductor, under thermal equillibrium
np=ni2
Where, n = free electron concentration
p = hole concentration
ni = intrinsic concentration
• For semiconductors with both N-type and P-type
impurity, using charge conservation (or neutrality)
ND + p = NA+n
Where NA = Concentration of Acceptor atoms (or - ions)
ND = Concentration of Donor atoms (or + ions)
BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
 Mass action law
• For N-type semiconductor (NA =0)
ND+p=n
but n>>p, therefore ND =n
Hole concentration p = ni2/n = ni2/ND
And conductivity σ = nqμn

• For P-type (ND = 0)

p=NA+n
but p>>n, therefore p=NA
Free electron concentration n = ni2/NA and σ = pqμp
BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
 Graded semiconductors
• Diffusion : Other than E-field, charge can also be
transported due to gradient of concentration (high
to low)
• Charge particle flux density :
𝑑𝑛
• ∅𝑛 = −𝐷𝑛 ( for electrons)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑝
• ∅𝑝 = −𝐷𝑝 ( for holes)
𝑑𝑥
D = diffusion constant , Minus sign is due to the direction of net
motion (high to low concentration)

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

 Graded semiconductors
• Diffusion current density
𝑑𝑛
𝐽𝑛 = −𝑞 ∅𝑛 = 𝑞𝐷𝑛
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑝
𝐽𝑝 = 𝑞 ∅𝑝 = −𝑞𝐷𝑝
𝑑𝑥
• Diffusion-mobility relation (Eienstein equation)
𝐷𝑛 𝐷𝑝 𝑘𝑇 𝑇
= = = (at room temperature)
𝜇𝑛 𝜇𝑝 𝑞 11600
𝑇
Where, 𝑉𝑇 = = volt-equivalent of temperature
11600
k = Boltzman constant = 1.38 x 10-23
q = charge on electron = 1.6 x 10-19 C
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 Graded semiconductors
• Total current density : When E-field is also present
with concentration gradient in a semiconductor
𝑑𝑛
𝐽𝑛 = 𝑛𝑞𝜇𝑛 𝐸 + 𝑞𝐷𝑛
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑝
𝐽𝑝 = 𝑝𝑞𝜇𝑝 𝐸 − 𝑞𝐷𝑝
𝑑𝑥
• Doped semiconductor with non-uniform hole
concentration is called “Graded semiconductor”.
• If a doped semiconductor does not have external
connection (No external voltage or field)
𝑑𝑝
0 = 𝑝𝑞𝜇𝑝 𝐸 − 𝑞𝐷𝑝
𝑑𝑥
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 Graded semiconductors
• Contd.
𝐷𝑝 𝑑𝑝 𝑉𝑇 𝑑𝑝
E= =
𝑝𝜇𝑝 𝑑𝑥 𝑝 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑉 𝑉𝑇 𝑑𝑝
or − =
𝑑𝑥 𝑝 𝑑𝑥
• Integrating from depth depth x1 to x2 (or
concentration p1 to p2) and voltage V1 to V2
𝑝1
• 𝑉21 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑇 ln( )
𝑝2
• 𝑝1 = 𝑝2 𝑒 (𝑉21/𝑉𝑇) and 𝑛1 = 𝑛2 𝑒 −(𝑉21 /𝑉𝑇)
• 𝑛1 𝑝1 = 𝑛2 𝑝2
BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
 Graded semiconductors
• Potential difference between planes x1 and x2
depends on hole concentration and not on the
distance between two planes
• Under thermal equilibrium the product “np” is
always constant and independent of position
and amount of doping
• For intrinsic semiconductor
• n=p=ni , using this np = ni2 (mass action law)

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 PN-junction
• Assumption : Step graded semiconductor, open
circuited, hole and electron concentration in P-
type and N-type is uniform respectively.
𝑛𝑖 2
pp = NA and 𝑛𝑝 =
𝑁𝐴
𝑛𝑖 2
nn = ND and 𝑝𝑛 =
𝑁𝐷

The basic silicon structure at the instant

of junction formation showing only the
majority and minority carriers BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
 PN-Junction
• The barrier potential or built-in voltage of PN-
junction
• Using hole concentration
V0 = VTln(p1/p2) = VTln(pp/pn) = VTln(NAND/ni2)
• Using electron concentration
V0 = VTln(n1/n2) = - VTln(NAND/ni2)
• Barrier potential does not cause external current,
but result in contact potential that negates V0
(when connection is made)
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 PN-Junction
• Electrons from N-side diffuse into P-side and holes from
P-side diffuse into N-side leaving behind positive and
negative ions respectively
• Exposed ions cause electric field (and barrier potential),
which stops further diffusion of holes and electrons in
equilibrium condition.
• 0.7 V for Si
• 0.3 V for Ge
• Depletion region is also
called “Space charge region”
And “Transition region”.
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 PN-Junction Diode : Forward Bias
• Forward bias: Holes (in P-type)
drift to right and electrons (in N-
type) drift to left causing a
narrowed Depletion region.
• Net result is current in right
direction sustained by continuous
thermal generation of majority
carriers
• If Vbias increases, depletion region
becomes narrow and current
increases. Current cannot
increases indefinitely, and is
limited by bulk resistance of
semiconductor

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

 PN-Junction Diode : Reverse Bias
• Reverse Bias: Majority carriers Holes
diffuse to right but drift to left;
Electrons diffuse to left but drift to
right
• Minority carriers holes (in N-type)
drift to left and electrons (in p-type)
drift to right
• Net result is widened depletion region and a small current due to
minority carriers (Reverse saturation current Is)
• Is depends on temperature
and not on the applied voltage
Vbias
• Large Vbias can “breakdown”
the junction & large current
will flow BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
 PN-Junction Diode behavior
𝑣
• Using 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 η
𝑉𝑇 − 1) , Where, VT = T/11600; η = 1 for Ge, 2 for Si
𝑣
• Forward bias current 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 η ) 𝑉𝑇

• Reverse Bias current 𝑖 = −𝐼𝑆

• V = -Vz is the breakdown
reverse voltage. When i<-IS
then essentially V = -Vz

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 Diode behavior
• For a given voltage Ge diode has more current
than Si diode
• Saturation current IS (approx.) doubles for every
100 rise in temperature
• At higher temperature (Tb>Ta), current increases
more rapidly
• To maintain same current (when temp.
increases), voltage to be lowered down
• A constant current can be maintained, if for each
10 temp. rise, voltage is lowered by 250mV.

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Diode Ckt

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Diode Ckt

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Thankyou

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus