Name : Pankaj kumar

Roll no. : 23001008043

Branch : ECE
Subject : Electronic Devices

Formula sheet

1.Eg = Eg° - βt
 Eg: The energy bandgap at temperature T.
 Eg°: The energy bandgap at absolute zero temperature (0 K).

 β: A constant that describes how much the bandgap decreases

with increasing temperature.

 T: Absolute temperature in Kelvin.

1. Physical Background: The energy bandgap of a semiconductor

is influenced by temperature. As the temperature increases, the
lattice vibrations increase, leading to changes in the band
structure and a reduction in the bandgap energy. This
phenomenon is typically characterized by a linear
approximation over a moderate temperature range.
2. Temperature Dependence: The relationship between the
energy bandgap and temperature can be derived from
empirical observations and theoretical models. A commonly
used approximation is:
Eg(T) ≈ Eg(0) − βT
Here, Eg(0) represents the bandgap energy at absolute
zero, and β represents the slope of the bandgap as a
function of temperature.
3. Linear Approximation: The linear approximation is derived
from experimental data fitting, which suggests that the
bandgap decreases linearly with temperature in a certain range.
This is not strictly accurate at all temperatures but is a useful
 approximation for semiconductor applications within moderate
temperature ranges.
4. Fitting Parameters: The coefficient β can be determined
experimentally by fitting data of bandgap measurements at
various temperatures. This involves plotting Eg versus T and
finding the slope of the line that best fits the data points,
yielding the value of −β
5. Resulting Equation: The derived relationship is thus
represented as:
Eg = Eg° -Βt

2.V = µE
 v is the drift velocity of the charge carriers.
 μ is the mobility of the charge carriers (how easily they move
through the material in response to the electric field).
 E is the electric field applied to the material.
1. When an electric field E is applied across a semiconductor, it
exerts a force on the charge carriers (electrons or holes),
causing them to accelerate. However, due to frequent collisions
with atoms or impurities in the material, the carriers do not
accelerate indefinitely. Instead, they reach a constant average
velocity known as the drift velocity, v, which is proportional to
the applied electric field.
2. Force on a Charge Carrier: The force F experienced by a charge
carrier due to the applied electric field E is given by:
F = qE
Where:
 o q is the charge of the carrier (for electrons, q=−1.6×10 -19
C , for holes it is +1.6×10-19c)
3. Newton's Second Law: According to Newton’s second law, the
acceleration a of a particle is related to the force acting on it by
the equation:
F = ma
Where m is the mass of the charge carrier, and a is the
acceleration. Substituting the force F = qE:
qE = ma
Therefore, the acceleration is:
a = qE/ma
4. Scattering and Relaxation Time: In a semiconductor, charge
carriers frequently collide with atoms or impurities, which
cause them to scatter and lose momentum. These collisions
prevent continuous acceleration. The average time between
collisions is known as the mean free time or relaxation time, τ.
Over time, the carriers reach a constant drift velocity.
The relationship between drift velocity v, acceleration a, and
relaxation time τ is given by:
v = aτ
5. Substitute the Acceleration: Substituting a = qE/ma into v = at:
v = qEτ/m
6. Mobility Definition: The mobility μ of a charge carrier is
defined as the drift velocity per unit electric field:
μ= v/E
From the equation v=qEm/τ, mobility can be written as:
μ=qτ/m
 Therefore, mobility μ depends on the charge of the carrier q,
the mean free time τ, and the effective mass m of the carrier
in the material.
7. Final Drift Velocity Equation: Substituting the definition of
mobility into the drift velocity equation:
v = μE

3. I = AneVd
I = Current
A = Cross-sectional area of a material
n = charge carrier density
e = charge of a single electron
V = drift velocity
d = length of conductor
I = charge/time = Q/t
Q = (n*A*d)*e
t = d/Vd
I = Q/t = (n*A*d)*e*Vd/d
I = AneVd

4. J = nqv
J = current density (A/m2)
n = number density of charge carrier (m-3)
q = charge of each carrier (c)
v = drift velocity(m/s)
Electric current I is the total charge Q passing through a surface per unit
time. For a flow of charged particles, the current is:
I = ΔQ/Δt
 where ΔQ is the total charge passing through the area in time Δt
The total charge is the product of the number of particles N, and the
charge of each particle q:
ΔQ = Nq
To find N, the number of particles passing through the cross-sectional
area in time Δt, consider:
N = n⋅A⋅v⋅Δt
Substitute N into ΔQ :
ΔQ = (n⋅A⋅v⋅Δt)⋅q
Now substitute ΔQ into the expression for current I = ΔQ/Δt :
I = (n⋅A⋅v⋅Δt)⋅q/ Δt
Simplifying:
I = n⋅A⋅v⋅q
Current density is the current per unit area:
J = I/A
J = n.A.q.v/A
J = n.q.v

5.J = σE
 j is the current density (current per unit area),
 σ is the electrical conductivity of the material,
 E is the electric field.

Current density is defined as the amount of charge passing

through a unit area per unit time.
J = nqvd

The drift velocity vd is proportional to the applied electric field

E.
Vd = μE
Where μ is the mobility of the charge carrier
 Now substitute the expression for drift velocity Vd = μE into the
expression for current density:
J = nq(μE)
The product nqμ is defined as the conductivity σ ,which is a
material-specific constant that depends on the density of
charge carriers, their charge, and their mobility:
σ = nqμ
Thus, the current density becomes:
J = σE

2
6.Je = σeE
 je is the current density.
 σe is some nonlinear conductivity coefficient that depends on
the material.
 E is the electric field.

In standard conductors, the current density j is proportional to

the electric field E, and the proportionality constant is the
conductivity σ. However, in some materials, especially at high
fields or low temperatures, the response becomes nonlinear.
This means the induced current doesn’t scale linearly with the
electric field.
One possible expression for this is that the current density is

Je ∝ E2
proportional to the square of the electric field:

This could happen due to High-field conduction in

semiconductors, where mobility depends on E.
To account for this, we introduce a material-specific
coefficient, σ , to capture the proportionality:
Je = σeE2
Where σ is no longer the linear conductivity but a modified
coefficient accounting for the nonlinear behavior.
 7.n = p = ni
In an intrinsic semiconductor, the material is pure, with no
intentional doping. The concentration of electrons in the
conduction band n and the concentration of holes in the
valence band p are equal. This is because electrons excited
from the valence band into the conduction band leave behind
an equal number of holes.
Thus, in an intrinsic semiconductor:
n = p = ni
Where:
 ni the intrinsic carrier concentration, which represents the
number of electrons or holes in the semiconductor at thermal
equilibrium.
 In an extrinsic semiconductor, either n or p can be increased by
adding impurities (doping). If the material is doped with:
 Donors (n-type), the electron concentration n increases, and
hole concentration p decreases.
 Acceptors (p-type), the hole concentration p increases, and
electron concentration n decreases.
However, the product of the electron concentration n and hole
concentration p remains constant at thermal equilibrium and is
given by:
n*p = ni2
np = ni2
This equation holds regardless of whether the material is
intrinsic or extrinsic.
8.np = ni2
 n: Electron concentration
 p: Hole concentration
 ni : Intrinsic carrier concentration

By the law of mass action:

n⋅p = ni2
The electron concentration in the conduction band is given by:
n = Nc . e(-Ec-Ef)/kT
Where:
o Nc is the effective density of states in the conduction band

o Ec is the energy level of the conduction band edge

o Ef is the Fermi energy,

o k is the Boltzmann constant,

o T is the absolute temperature.

Similarly, the hole concentration in the valence band is given

p = Nv ⋅ e(-Ef-Ev)/kT
by:

Where:
o Nv is the effective density of states in the valence band,
o Ev is the energy level of the valence band edge.

n ⋅ p = Nc ⋅ e-(Ec-Ef)/KT .Nv . e-(Ef-Ev)/KT

Now, multiply n and p:

n . p = Nc . Nv . e-(Ec-Ev)/kT
ni2 = Nc . Nv . e-Eg/kT
Where Eg = Ec – Ev is the bandgap energy of the
semiconductor.

n ⋅ p = ni2
Thus, the relation between n, p, and ni is:
9.Nd + p = Na + n
 Holes (p): These are the positively charged carriers in the
valence band.
 Ionized Donors (Nd+): When a donor atom donates an electron
to the conduction band, it becomes positively charged
(ionized).
Hence, the total positive charge is given by:
Total Positive Charge = Nd+ + p
Since all donor atoms are typically ionized at room
temperature, we can assume Nd+ ≈ Nd , where Nd is the donor
concentration.
 Electrons (n): These are the negatively charged carriers in the
conduction band.
 Ionized Acceptors (Na-): When an acceptor atom captures an
electron from the valence band, it becomes negatively charged
(ionized).
Hence, the total negative charge is given by:
Total Negative Charge = Na- + n
Since all acceptor atoms are typically ionized at room
temperature, we can assume Na- ≈ Na , where Na is the
acceptor concentration.
In thermal equilibrium, the total positive charge must equal
the total negative charge, since the semiconductor must be
electrically neutral.
This leads to the charge neutrality condition:
Nd+ + p = Na- + n
Given that Nd+ ≈ Nd and Na- ≈ Na , the equation simplifies to:
Nd + p = N a + n
 10.J = ( nµn + pµp )qE
Force on a charge in an electric field:
The force F on a charge q due to an electric field E is:
F = qE
This force causes charge carriers to accelerate, but due to
frequent collisions with atoms in the semiconductor lattice,
they reach a constant average velocity, called the drift velocity
(Vd).

The drift velocity , Vd of a charge carrier is proportional to the

applied electric field E. The proportionality constant is called
the mobility (μ) of the charge carrier.
For electrons:
Vd , n = μnE
For holes:
Vd ,p = μpE
Where:
 µn is the mobility of electrons.
 µp is the mobility of holes.
The current density J is the amount of current flowing per unit
area in the semiconductor. The total current density is the sum
of the contributions from electrons and holes.
The electron current density Jn is given by the product of the
electron charge, concentration, and drift velocity:
Jn = -qnVd,n
The negative sign arises because electrons have a negative
charge (−q).
Substitute the drift velocity Vd,n = µnE:
Jn = qnµnE
Hole Contribution:
 The hole current density Jp is given by the product of the hole
charge, concentration, and drift velocity:
Jp = qpVd,p
Since holes carry a positive charge (+q), there is no negative
sign here.
Substitute the drift velocity Vd,p = µpE
Jp = qpµpE

4. Total Current Density:

The total current density J is the sum of the electron and hole
contributions:
J = J n + Jp
Substitute the expressions for Jn and Jp :
J = -qnµnE + qpµpE
J = qE( pµp - nµn )
For cases where the equation is expressed in absolute values,
the total current density is often presented as :
J = qE(pµp + nµn)

2 3 -E /KT
11.ni = AT e g
The intrinsic carrier concentration ni is the product of the
electron concentration n and hole concentration p in an
intrinsic semiconductor, where n=p=ni . It can be written as:
ni2 = n.p
The concentration of electrons in the conduction band, n, is
given by:
n = Nc . e-(Ec-Ef)/kT
Where:
 Nc : Effective density of states in the conduction band.
 Ec : Energy at the bottom of the conduction band.
 Ef : Fermi energy level.
  T : Temperature.
 k : Boltzmann constant.
The concentration of holes in the valence band, p, is given by:
p = Nv . e-(Ef-Ev)/kT
Where:
 Nv : Effective density of states in the valence band.
 Ev : Energy at the top of the valence band.
Multiply the electron concentration n and the hole
concentration p:
ni2 = Nc . Nv . e-(Ec-Ev)/kT
Ec – Ev = Eg , where Eg is the energy bandgap of the
semiconductor. So the equation becomes:
ni2 = Nc . Nv . e -Eg/kT
The effective density of states Nc in the conduction band and
Nv in the valence band depend on the temperature.
Specifically:
Nc = CcT3/2
Nv = CvT3/2
Where Cc and Cv are constants that depend on the effective
masses of electrons and holes in the semiconductor.
Therefore, the product NcNv is:
Nc Nv = (CcT3/2)(CvT3/2) = CT3
Where C is a constant that combines Cv and Cc .
Substituting NcNv = CT3 into the equation for ni2 , we get:
ni2 = CT3 e-Eg/kT
The constant C is replaced with a general proportionality
constant A to account for material-specific properties, giving:
ni2 = AT3e-Eg/kT
Where:
 A is a material-specific constant.
 T3 shows the temperature dependence of the density of states
in both the conduction and valence bands.
  E-Eg/kT reflects the temperature dependence of carrier
generation across the bandgap.

12.Eg(T)si = 1.21- 3.60 * 10-4T

Eg(si) = 1.1 ev /300K
In semiconductors, the energy bandgap Eg decreases as the
temperature increases. This happens because the vibrations of
the crystal lattice (phonons) cause the energy levels to shift,
effectively reducing the energy required to excite an electron
from the valence band to the conduction band.
A commonly used empirical relationship for the temperature
dependence of the energy bandgap in semiconductors like silicon
is given by the following expression :
Eg(T) = Eg(0) – αT2/T + β
Where:
 Eg(T) is the bandgap energy at temperature T,
 Eg(0) is the bandgap at absolute zero temperature (0 K),
 α and β are material-dependent constants,
 T is the temperature in Kelvin (K).
For silicon, typical values for α and β are:
 α ≈ 4.73 * 10-4 eV/K
 β ≈ 636 K,
 Eg(0) ≈ 1.17 eV.
At higher temperatures (above a few hundred Kelvin), the quadratic
term in the equation αT2/ T+ β can be simplified or linearized as an
approximation. Given that the temperature T is much larger than β,
we can ignore the denominator's temperature dependence to get a
linear approximation.
For T≫β, the equation can be approximated by:
Eg(T) ≈ Eg(0) − αT
This gives us an approximately linear relationship between the
bandgap energy and temperature. For silicon, this leads to the
form:
Eg(T) = 1.21 − 3.60 × 10-4T
Where:
 1.21 eV is the approximate bandgap energy of silicon at 0 K,
 3.60 × 10-4 eV/K is a linear coefficient that describes how the
bandgap decreases with temperature.
To check whether this relationship holds for the known value of
the bandgap at room temperature (300 K), we substitute
T = 300 K into the equation:
Eg(300K) = 1.21 − 3.60 × 10-4 * 300
Eg(300K) = 1.21 − 0.108
Eg(300K) ≈ 1.102 eV

13.Eg(T)Ge = 0.785 – 2.23 * 10-4 T

Eg(Ge) = 0.72 eV/300K
 14.dp/dt = G + p/τp
 dp/dt is the rate of change of the hole concentration over time.
 G is the generation rate of electron-hole pairs (due to external
factors like light or thermal excitation).
 p is the hole concentration.
 Τp is the carrier lifetime for holes, representing the average
time a hole exists before recombination.
This equation governs the behavior of holes in a
semiconductor subjected to generation and recombination
processes.
To derive the equation , we need to consider the generation
and recombination processes affecting the hole concentration
over time.
 When energy is supplied to a semiconductor (e.g., via light or
thermal excitation), electron-hole pairs are generated.
 Let G be the generation rate of holes, which is the number of
holes generated per unit time per unit volume. G is usually a
constant for steady generation.
The generation term alone would cause the hole concentration
to increase at a rate proportional to G:
dp/dt = G
Without any other processes, the number of holes would
continue increasing as long as generation occurs.
 The recombination rate is inversely proportional to the hole
lifetime τp , which is the average time a hole exists before
recombination. Thus, the recombination rate is p/τp , where p is
the hole concentration.
The rate of recombination reduces the hole concentration at a
rate proportional to p/τp:
dp/dt = − p/τp
 This term alone would cause the number of holes to decrease
as they recombine.
In a real semiconductor, both generation and recombination
processes occur simultaneously. Thus, the total rate of change
of the hole concentration is the difference between the
generation and recombination rates.
The generation rate G increases the hole concentration, while
the recombination rate p/τp decreases the hole concentration.
Thus, the total rate of change of the hole concentration is
given by:
dp/dt = G − p/τp
In the steady-state condition (i.e., after a long time when the
system reaches equilibrium), the rate of change of hole
concentration is zero (dp/dt = 0).
At steady-state:
G = pss/τp
Where pss is the steady-state hole concentration. This equation
shows that in equilibrium, the generation rate exactly balances
the recombination rate.
To solve for p(t) as a function of time, we need to solve the
first-order linear differential equation:
dp/dt = G − p/τp
The general solution is:
p(t) = Gτp + Ce-t/τp
where c is determined by initial condition, p(0).

15. Jp = -qDpdp/dx
 p: Diffusion current density for holes (A/m²).
 q: Elementary charge (q=1.6×10-19c)
 Dp : Diffusion coefficient for holes (m²/s), which describes how
easily holes diffuse in the semiconductor.
 p(x): Hole concentration as a function of position xxx.
 dp/dx : Gradient of the hole concentration with respect to
position (change in hole concentration across distance).

The equation Jp = −qDpdp/dx can be derived from Fick's First

Law of Diffusion, which states that the flux Jflux of particles (in
this case, holes) is proportional to the concentration gradient:
Jflux = −Dp dp/dx
Here, Jflux is the particle flux, which represents the number of
particles (holes) moving through a unit area per unit time. The
diffusion coefficient Dp determines how fast the particles
spread due to diffusion, and the gradient dp/dx represents the
rate of change of hole concentration with position.
The negative sign reflects the fact that particles diffuse down
the concentration gradient, from high concentration to low
concentration.
Now, we need to relate the particle flux to the electric current
density Jp
The diffusion current density Jp (in amperes per square meter)
is related to the particle flux by the charge carried by each
particle. Since each hole carries a charge qqq, the current

Jp = q . Jflux = q(−Dp dp/dx)

density due to holes is given by:

This gives us the diffusion current density for holes:

Jp = −q Dp dp/dx
 Jp is the diffusion current density due to holes.
 q is the charge of a hole (same as the elementary charge, but
positive for holes).
 Dp is the diffusion coefficient for holes.
 dp/dx is the spatial gradient of the hole concentration,
describing how the hole concentration changes with position.
16.Einstein Relationship:
Dp/µp = Dn/µn = VT
VT = KT/q = T/11600
 Dp and Dn are the diffusion coefficients for holes and electrons,
respectively.
 μp and μn are the mobilities for holes and electrons,
respectively.
 VT is the thermal voltage, which is related to temperature.
The second part of the equation defines the thermal voltage:
VT = kT/q = T/11600
Where:
 K is the Boltzmann constant k =1.38×10-23 J/K
 T is the absolute temperature in kelvins (K).
 q is the elementary charge q = 1.6×10-19 c
In a semiconductor, the diffusion coefficient D and mobility μ are
related by the Einstein relation:
D = μkT/q
This relation holds for both electrons and holes:
 For electrons: Dn = μnkT/q
 For holes: Dp = μpkT/q
The diffusion coefficient (D) describes how particles spread out due
to random thermal motion, while the mobility (μ) describes how
easily particles move in response to an electric field. The Einstein
relation shows that these two quantities are proportional to each
other, with the constant of proportionality being the thermal voltage
VT.
From the Einstein relation for both electrons and holes:
Dn = μnkT/q and Dp = μp kT/q
Dividing both sides of these equations by μ n and μp , respectively,
gives the diffusion-to-mobility ratio for both electrons and holes:
Dn/μn = kT/q and Dp/μp = kT/q
Thus:
Dp/μp = Dn/μn = kT/q = VT
This shows that the ratio of the diffusion coefficient to the mobility is
equal to the thermal voltage VT .
The thermal voltage VT is given by:
VT = kT/q
Where:
 k is the Boltzmann constant.
 T is the temperature in kelvins.
 q is the elementary charge.
The thermal voltage represents the potential energy associated with
the random thermal motion of charge carriers (electrons and holes)
at a given temperature.
At room temperature (approximately T = 300 K, the thermal voltage
is approximately:
VT = k⋅300/q ≈ 1.38×10-23 × 300 / 1.6×10-19 ≈ 0.0259 V ≈ 26 mV
The thermal voltage can also be expressed in terms of temperature
T(in kelvins) as:
VT = T/11600
This is a simplified formula, where the constant 11600 arises from
the following calculation:
k/q ≈ 8.617×10-5 eV/K
Since we are working with thermal energy, T in kelvins is converted to
electron volts by dividing by the constant 11600, which is derived
from the relation:
1/8.617×10-5 ≈ 11600
Thus:
VT = kT/q ≈ T/11600 V
At room temperature (T ≈ 300 K):
VT = 300/11600 ≈ 0.0259 V

17.Jp = qµpPE - qDpdp/dx

Jn = qµnNe + qDndn/dx
For Holes (Jp):
Jp = qμppE − qDpdp/dx
Where:
 Jp : Total current density due to holes.
 q: Charge of a hole (positive, q=1.6×10-19 C).
 μp : Mobility of holes (how easily holes move in response to an
electric field).
 p: Hole concentration (number of holes per unit volume).
 E: Electric field.
  Dp : Diffusion coefficient for holes (determines how quickly
holes spread out due to concentration gradients).
 dp/dx: Gradient of hole concentration with respect to position x
For Electrons (Jn):
Jn = qμnnE + qDndn/dx
Where:
 Jn : Total current density due to electrons.
 µn : Mobility of electrons (how easily electrons move in
response to an electric field).
 n: Electron concentration (number of electrons per unit
volume).
 Dn : Diffusion coefficient for electrons.
 dn/dx: Gradient of electron concentration with respect to
position x.
 The electric field E exerts force on the electrons, and the
negative charge of electrons (−q) is accounted for by the sign
difference in comparison to holes.
The drift current is caused by the movement of charge carriers due
to an applied electric field E. The drift current density Jdrift is
proportional to:
 The mobility of the carriers (μ).
 The charge carrier concentration (number of holes or
electrons).
 The electric field E.
(a) For Holes (Jdrift,p):
The drift current density for holes is given by:
 Jdrift = qμppE
Where:
 q is the positive charge of the hole.
 µp is the hole mobility.
 p is the hole concentration.
 E is the electric field.
Holes move in the direction of the electric field, generating a positive
current.
(b) For Electrons (Jdrift,n):
The drift current density for electrons is given by:
Jdrift,n = −qμnnE
However, because electrons have a negative charge (−q), the
negative sign is removed by rewriting the equation as:
Jdrift,n = qμnnE
Electrons move in the opposite direction of the electric field, but the
current they produce is in the same direction as the electric field due
to their negative charge.
The diffusion current is caused by the movement of charge carriers
due to a concentration gradient (i.e., carriers diffuse from regions of
higher concentration to regions of lower concentration).
The diffusion current density Jdiffusion is proportional to:
 The diffusion coefficient D.
 The concentration gradient dp/dx or dn/dx.
(a) For Holes (Jdiffusion,p):
The diffusion current density for holes is given by:
 Jdiffusion,p = −qDp dp/dx
Where:
 q is the charge of the hole.
 Dp is the diffusion coefficient for holes.
 Dp/dx is the gradient of hole concentration (the rate of change
of hole concentration with position).
The negative sign reflects the fact that holes diffuse from high
concentration to low concentration.
(b) For Electrons (Jdiffusion,n):
The diffusion current density for electrons is given by:
Jdiffusion,n = qDndn/dx
Where:
 q is the magnitude of the electron charge (positive, even
though electrons are negatively charged).
 Dn is the diffusion coefficient for electrons.
 Dx/dn is the gradient of electron concentration.
For electrons, diffusion also occurs from high to low concentration,
but since the electron carries a negative charge, there is no
additional negative sign in the equation.
The total current density is the sum of the drift and diffusion
components:
(a) For Holes (Jp):
Jp = Jdrift,p + Jdiffusion,p
Jp = qμppE – qDpdp/dx
(b) For Electrons (Jn):
 Jn = Jdrift,n + Jdiffusion,n
Jn = qμnnE + qDndn/dx

18. Contuinty Equation

dp/dx = P0 – P/τP – 1/q (dJp/dx)
The continuity equation is a fundamental equation that describes
the conservation of charge in a semiconductor. It relates the rate of
change of charge carrier concentration (in this case, holes) to the
current density and generation-recombination processes.
For holes, the continuity equation is written as:
∂p/∂t = Gp – Rp −1 /q(dJp /dx)
Where:
 ∂p/∂t is the rate of change of the hole concentration.
 Gp is the generation rate of holes (rate at which holes are
generated).
 Rp is the recombination rate of holes (rate at which holes are
lost due to recombination with electrons).
 dJp/dx is the spatial rate of change of the hole current density
(i.e., the divergence of the hole current).
 q is the elementary charge of a hole.
 In steady-state conditions, the hole concentration does not
change with time, so the time derivative of p is zero:
∂p/∂t = 0
Thus, the continuity equation simplifies to:
0 = Gp – Rp – 1/q(dJp /dx)
or equivalently:
Gp = Rp + 1/q(dJp /dx)
This means that the generation rate Gp is equal to the sum of the
recombination rate Rp and the rate at which the hole current density
changes with position.
In semiconductors, recombination typically follows a process where
the excess carrier concentration decays exponentially over time. The
recombination rate for holes can be modeled as:
Rp = p – p0 /τp
Where:
 p is the actual hole concentration.
 P0 is the equilibrium hole concentration (steady-state hole
concentration when no excess carriers are present).
 τp is the lifetime of holes, which represents the average time a
hole exists before recombining with an electron.
Thus, the recombination rate is proportional to the difference
between the actual hole concentration and the equilibrium hole
concentration, divided by the hole lifetime.
Now, substitute the expression for Rp into the continuity equation:
Gp = p – p0 /τp + 1/q(dJp /dx)
In steady state, the generation rate Gp can be considered constant,
and if we assume that no excess holes are being generated (or in the
case of simple recombination-diffusion problems), we can set Gp = 0
This simplifies the equation to:
−(p – p0 )/τp = 1/q(dJp /dx)
Multiplying both sides by q to eliminate the 1/q factor on the right-
hand side:
 q( p0 – p /τp) = dJp /dx)
At this point, we've established the relation between the
recombination rate and the current density divergence. Now, if
you're interested in the spatial variation of hole concentration dp/dx
, we assume that the hole concentration varies both due to
recombination and diffusion processes.
To generalize the equation, we include the term dp/dx which
accounts for the hole concentration gradient in the semiconductor.
Based on the above relation, we modify it as:
Dp/dx = p0 – p/τp − 1/q (dJp/dx)

19. Minority hole diffusion current:

Ipx = AqDpP(0)e-x/lp
 Ipx : Hole current density at position xxx.
 A: A constant that may depend on geometry or other factors.
 q: Charge of the hole (q=1.6×10-19 C).
 Dp: Diffusion coefficient for holes.
 P0: Equilibrium hole concentration.
 x: Position (distance) from the source of holes.
 lp: Hole diffusion length, defined as lp = √DPτP ,τP is the hole
lifetime.
The diffusion flux J of holes is proportional to the concentration
gradient:
J = −Dpdp/dx
Where J is the flux of holes (number of holes per unit area per unit
time), Dp is the diffusion coefficient, and dp/dx is the concentration
gradient of holes.
Under steady-state conditions, we can assume that the hole
concentration p at position x varies from its equilibrium value p0 . This
variation can be expressed as a function of position.
For a simple one-dimensional diffusion problem, if we assume that
the hole concentration decreases exponentially from p0 due to
diffusion, we can express p(x) as:
p(x) = p0 e-x/lp
Here, lp is the diffusion length for holes.
Now, substituting p(x):
J = −Dpd(p0e-x/lp)/dx
Calculating the derivative:
d(p0e-x/lp)/dx = −p0 e-x/lp /lp
Therefore:
J = −Dp (−p0e-x/lp/lp)
The hole current density Ipx can be expressed in terms of the
diffusion flux J:
Ipx = qj
Substituting J gives:
Ipx = qDpp0e-x/lp/lp
If we denote the constant A as:
A = qDp /lp
Thus, the final expression for the hole current density is:
Ipx = AqDpp0e-x/lp
This shows that the hole current density Ipx decreases exponentially
with distance xxx from the source of holes, scaled by the equilibrium
hole concentration p0 and the constants related to the charge and
diffusion properties of holes in the semiconductor.

20. V0 = VT ln NaNd/ni2
The thermal voltage VT is defined as:
VT = KT/qV
Where:
 k is the Boltzmann constant (1.38×10-23 J/K).
 T is the absolute temperature in kelvins.
 q is the elementary charge (1.6×10-19 C).
In a semiconductor, especially an n-type semiconductor, the charge
neutrality condition can be expressed as:
n + p = Nd
Where:
 n is the electron concentration.
 p is the hole concentration.
 Nd is the donor concentration.
For an intrinsic semiconductor, the product of electron and hole
concentrations is given by:
ni2 = np
In equilibrium, the relationship between n and p can be derived using
the intrinsic carrier concentration ni:
p = ni2/n
In an n-type semiconductor where nd (the electron concentration) is
much larger than the intrinsic concentration, we can approximate:
p ≈ n i2 / n d
The charge neutrality condition can be rearranged to express nd in
terms of ni:
nd + ni2/nd = ND
Solving this quadratic equation :
For high doping levels where ND is large, we can simplify to:
nd ≈ ND
When considering the relationship between V0 (the built-in potential)
and the concentrations, the equilibrium voltage can be defined using
the natural logarithm of the concentrations:
V0 = VTln(nd/ni2)

21. Properties of Si and Ge:

Property Ge Si
Atomic number 32 14

Atomic weight 72.6 28.1

Density, (g/cm3) 5.32 2.33
Dielectric constant 16 12
Atoms/cm3 4.4*1022 5.0 *1022
Eg° , eV , at 0 K 0.785 1.21
Eg, eV, at 300K 0.72 1.1
Ni at 300 K ,cm-3 2.5 * 1013 1.5 * 1010
Intrinsic resistivty at 45 230,00
300K ,Ω-cm
µn, cm2/v-s at 300K 3,800 1,300
µp, cm2/v-s at 300K 1,800 500
Dn,cm2/s 99 34
Dp,cm2/s 47 13