PROBLEM-SOLUTION TEXTS: PROCEDURES AND PROCESSES

General-specific texts
 descriptive and expository
 useful when producing data commentaries or writing introductions to research papers

Problem-to-solution texts
 more argumentative and evaluative
 useful when writing critiques and introductions, discussion of process descriptions (steps required to provide a
solution to some problem) 

Structure of Problem-Solution Texts

1. Situation
2. Problem
3. Solution
4. Evaluation

LANGUAGE FOCUS: Midposition Adverbs

 Adverbs tend to occur within the verb in formal academic writing
Examples:  … are now published 
… have more recently been produced
… is somewhat underrepresented
… are published today in English 

PROCEDURES AND PROCESSES

 Problem-solution texts use the review approach to raise a question about the current state of knowledge and to
offer a possible or part answer.
 “Classic” problem-solution texts are usually more technical in nature and may describe procedures and processes. 

LANGUAGE FOCUS: Verbs and Agents in the Solution

 Inmost technical solutions, it is necessary to describe a process or a method.
 When you are describing a method, you will essentially be writing a process description. 

Passive Voice
 The passive voice plays an important role in process descriptions. 

Illustration:  How to prepare a flu vaccine

 
Flu virus strains – three most common identified
Three strains – grown separately and harvested
Harvested virus – purified and inactivated
Inactivated virus strains – blended with a carrier fluid and dispensed into vials

Converted into instructions:

 
Identify the three most common strains of flu virus.
Grow each of the strains separately and harvest.
Purify the harvested virus.
Inactivate the purified virus.
Blend the inactivated virus strains together with a carrier fluid and dispense into vials.

 
 Note that imperative forms are used to indicate the necessary steps. They form a set of instructions. 
 However, if we are interested not in providing guidance for actually doing a particular task but in explaining how
something is done – as in a process – we would more likely write:
First, the three most common strains of flu virus are identified. These strains are then separately grown and harvested. The
harvested virus is purified and inactivated. Finally, the inactive virus strains are blended together with a carrier fluid and
dispensed into vials.
 
 Notice that each sentence now refers to a particular stage in the process:
o The identification stage
o The preparation stage
o The dispensing stage 
Look at the effect when it’s converted into the active voice:
 
The technician identifies the virus strains in the lab. The technician separately grows and harvests the virus. The technician
purifies and inactivates the virus. The technician blends the inactive virus strains together with a carrier fluid and dispenses
them into vials.
 
The focus on the stage is lost and the emphasis shifts to the agent (the person doing the steps).
 
 Of course, there may be some occasions when the different agents are an important part of different steps in
the process.

Technician A identifies the virus strains in the lab. Technician B separately grows and harvests the virus. Technician C purifies
and inactivates the virus. Technician D blends the inactive virus strains together with a carrier fluid and dispenses them into
vials.
But this looks more like a job specification or duty roster than a process description. 

 If information of the agent is important – which is uncommon – it would be better to describe a process in the
following way:
First, the three most common strains of flu virus are identified by technician A. These strains are then separately grown and
harvested by technician B. The harvested virus is purified and inactivated by technician C. Finally, the inactive virus strains
are blended together with a carrier fluid and dispensed into vials by technician D.
 
 According to research studies, using by + a human agent is fairly uncommon in formal academic writing, except
when describing the history of the field. 
Examples:
 
The theory of transformational grammar was first developed by Noam Chomsky.
The Bayesian method has been used by statisticians for many years to aid decision making on the basis of limited
information.

 In fact, we are more likely to find by + process or by + a nonhuman agent.

Examples:
 
The chances of finding oil are estimated by seismic survey.
This enzyme is used by the cancer cells to replicate.
The increased mobility provided by this new joint allows wearers of the finger prosthesis to hold a cup, to pick up a piece of
paper, and in some cases to write again. 

FLOW OF IDEAS IN A PROCESS DESCRIPTION

 
 Concept of flow focuses on the use of connectors and summary words.
 Good flow of ideas can also be achieved by combining or linking verb phrases.

Example:
 
 These strains are then separately grown and harvested. The harvested virus is purified and inactivated. Finally, the inactive
virus strains are blended together with a carrier fluid and dispensed into vials. 
 
 Some care needs to be taken when putting verbs together because it can sometimes lead to an unfortunate
ambiguity
Examples:
 
The liquid is collected and kept for 24 hours.
The sample is collected and stored in a sterile container.
In consumer research, individuals are selected and interviewed by telephone.

 In addition to linked passives, good flow is also achieved through use of several time adverbials that help establish
the sequence of events – once, first, next, then, and finally.

Participles
 
 Flow of ideas can be maintained by taking the –ed participle in the passive construction and using it as an
adjective.

First, the three most common strains of flu virus are identified. These strains are then separately grown and harvested. The
harvested virus is purified and inactivated. Finally, the now inactivated virus strains are blended together with a carrier
fluid and dispensed into vials.
 
 By changing harvest and inactivate into their adjectival forms, the writer establishes a strong connection between
the sentences and indicates a newly acquired characteristic of the virus. As a result of the steps in the process, the virus can
be described as harvested, inactivated, or even purified. 
Active Voice in Process Descriptions
 
 We have emphasized the use of passive voice in process descriptions as they concentrate on processes that involve
human action. However, there are many natural processes that take place outside of direct human intervention. In such
cases, active voice is often used, or there may be a mix between active and passive, depending on the process. 
 If a process description employs verbs that indicate a change of state, such as expand, rise, cool, and form, active
voice will also be used.

Examples:
 
The sun rises in east and sets in the west.
Most metals expand and contract with variations in temperature.
The beam fractures when the load upon it becomes too great.
Tropical storms can form only in areas of high humidity and temperature. First, the warm sea heats the air above its
surface. The warm, moist air then rises above the sea, creating a center of low pressure.

Causes and Effects

 
 In order to help reader understand a problem and/or a solution, there may be a need to use expressions to
highlight causes and effects.
 Examples:
An increase in demand is likely to cause a rise in prices.
Increases in demand usually lead to price increases.
Increases in price are often caused by increases in demand. 

LANGUAGE FOCUS: -ing Clauses of Result

 
 As an alternative to using sentence connectors such as therefore and as a result, causal relationships can also be
expressed by –ing clauses of result.
The magma flows into the pores of the rocks; as a result, the rocks rupture.
 The magma flows into the pores of the rocks, thus causing them to rupture. 
 
A current is sent through the material. As a result, the electrons are polarized.
A current is sent through the material, polarizing the electrons.

 Sometimes writers also use a preliminary subordinate clause to set the scene for the process. 
When the ABS controller senses that a wheel is about to lock up, it automatically changes the pressure in the brake
lines of the car. As a result, maximum brake performance is achieved.

When the ABS controller senses that a wheel is about to lock up, it automatically changes the pressure in the car’s
brake lines to prevent the lockup, (thus) resulting in maximum brake performance.

Subordinate clause                     When the ABS controller

(optional)                                    senses that a wheel is about to lock up, 

Main clause                                 it automatically changes the pressure in the brake lines of 
the car  to prevent the lockup,

(thus/thereby) –ing                    (thus) resulting in maximum brake performance. 

clause

 This structure is particularly useful in problem-solution texts, because it can be used to express the next step in the
process, a resulting problem, or a resulting solution.
Process:                      Prices rise, thus leading to a drop in demand.

Problem:                     Prices rise, thus increasing the chance of hyperinflation.

Solution:                     Prices rise, thus increasing earnings that can then be reinvented 
in the enterprise.

LANGUAGE FOCUS: Indirect Questions

 Formulating questions (problems) and evaluating the answers to those questions (evaluations)

Example:

It is not clear, however, whether such high percentages for English provide an accurate picture of languages chosen for
publication by researchers around the world.
 
Until such time, nonnative speakers of English will remain uncertain about how effective their publications are in their own
languages.
 
In both examples, the writer used indirect questions rather than direct questions.
 
Indirect questions follow the standard word order (the subject followed by the verb). They do not require that the subject
and the verb be inverted, as in a direct question. Indirect questions also end with a period rather than a question mark.
 
Example:
 
Direct question:                             What time is it?
Indirect question:                          He asked what time it is/was.
  

The main difficulty in using indirect questions involves remembering that the subject and verb should not be inverted in an
indirect question. Both research and experience suggest that not inverting is relatively late. 

 Presumably, the use of a “question word” may automatically trigger the inversion.  As a result, even native
speakers may incorrectly produce
It is unclear what will be the price of oil next year.
It is unclear what will the price of oil be next year.
 
rather than correctly produce
 
It is unclear what the price of oil will be next year.

Uses of Indirect Questions

 
 Can be used in explaining a purpose

A questionnaire was distributed in order to determine whether...

 
 Can be used to problematize issues, cases, phenomena, statements, and so on
o To introduce a problem
o To offer a critical evaluation of the solution 

 Indirect questions can be a way to introduce or discuss a problem, but direct questions may be possible.
However, is the data reliable?
But keep in mind that the use of direct questions should be limited in academic writing. 

 Another way to introduce a problem is to use an adversative sentence connector, such as however or
nevertheless.
However, this system/process/idea has its problems. 
 
Nevertheless, few solutions have been found to…
 
Despite this, little progress has been made in…
 
Nevertheless, the problem remains as to how…
 
However, there remains the issue of reliability.
 
Even so, this model has some serious limitations.
 
Even so, researchers still have to find a way to… 

INTRODUCING THE SOLUTION

Examples:
 
One interesting solution to this problem is now being tested in the village of Chungungo, a village of 300.
 
One approach currently under study involves transplanting healthy coral into a bleached reef.

Sample skeletal sentences

 
Solutions to this problem are now widely discussed. One remedy is to…
  
One method to address this difficulty is to…
 
There are two possible ways of handling this problem. The first… The second…
 
Several options are available to address this obstacle. However, the best one seems to be…
 
Recently, researchers have made significant progress in overcoming this difficulty by… 

SUMMARIZING AND PARAPHRASING

Purposes:
 summaries of meetings, lectures, and readings 
 personal use
 future reference
 preparation for an exam
 class discussion
 research paper
 thesis or dissertation

Three principal requirements

 should be focused on the relevant aspects of the source text or texts (no need to take information from every
section or paragraph of the source texts)
 should present the source material in an accurate fashion
 should condense the source material and be presented in the summary writer’s own words 

Preliminary steps in writing a summary

1. Skin the text, noting in your mind the subheadings. If there are no subheadings, try to divide the text into sections.
2. Consider why you have been assigned the text. Determine what type of text you are dealing with, that is, the genre
of the source text (e.g., a research paper) or perhaps that organization (problem-solution or general-specific). This can help
you identify important information and focus your reading strategies.
3. Read the text, highlighting important information or taking notes.
4. In your own words, write down the main points of each section. Try to write a one-sentence summary of each
section.
5. Write down the key support points for the main topic, but include the minor detail only if necessary.
6. Go through the process again, making changes as appropriate. 

Example:

Reason for Highlighting 

This is the topic of the passage.

 
The effect of the change in irrigation  patterns is significant. 

Practice Exercise:
 
Because Egyptians have historically preferred to live within or near the cultivated land area, agricultural expansion has also
had an impact on the environment and livelihood of the Nile population has increased from 2.5 million in the early 1800s to
9.7 million in the late 1800s, 18.8 million in the 1940s, 37 million in the mid-70s, 46 million in 1984, and nearly 67 million in
2002. The population could reach over 100 million by the beginning of 2050. In 1907, urban dwellers constituted only
 approximately 17% of Egypt’s population. By 2001, however, they were 45% of the total. Recent studies have indicated that
approximately 1-2% of Egypt’s arable land is lost annually to human encroachment.

Choose the best summary:

1. In the early 1800s the population of Egypt was 2.5 million. By the late 1800s it was 9.7 million. In the 40s the
population reached 18.8 million; by the mid-70s it had reached 37 million. In 1984 the population was 46 million. In 2002 it
was nearly 67 million. The population could reach over 100 million by 2050. One to Two percent of Egypt’s fertile land is
disappearing annually as a result of the growth.
2. In the 1800s Egypt’s population increased from 2.5 million to 9.7 million. In the 1900s it grew again, from 18.8
million in the 1940s to 46 million in 1984, reaching 67 million in 2002. By mid-century, the population will be almost double
that in 1984. A result of this population growth is an annual 1-2% less of agricultural land.
3. The Egyptian population has increased from 2.5 million in the early 1800s to 67 million in 2002. It could grow to
approximately 100 million by mid-century. Along with this population growth, Egypt has also experienced a 1-2% loss in the
amount of fertile land.
4. The Egyptian population has dramatically increased since the 1800s and is expected to continue to increase. A
small percentage of agricultural land is lost each year because of the growth in population.
5. The Egyptian population in 2002 was approximately 30 times that in the early 1800s. By mid-century, it could grow
to 100 million. Egypt is also losing agricultural land as a result of the population increase.

Sample Exercise:
 
Selling Cities: Promoting New Images for Meetings Tourism
 
A preliminary summary of the passage should probably include the definition along with some discussion of the advantages
and disadvantages of meetings tourism. 
 
In the next step, these elements can be strung together to form the basis of a formal summary. Of course, special care has
to be taken to ensure a logical flow of ideas. 

Draft Summary
 
This is perhaps a reasonable beginning. The writer has retained the important parts of the text. Most of the sentences are
short, as we would expect in a summary. However, this summary has three weaknesses.

1. It is probably a bit too long. The original contains 560 words, and the summary contains 335. It could be condensed
further without any loss of meaning.
2. For the most part, too much of the text is written in the words of the original, although no whole sections were
borrowed. It may very well be an example of plagiarism—work copied from a source without proper attribution. 
3. The draft does not display a high level of understanding of the source passage. While it does show that the writer
can pull out important information, it does not convince the reader that the summary writer understands the information
and how it is interrelated.
A summary could be improved through a paraphrase of the original. 
 
A paraphrase is a restatement (in your own words) of the ideas in the original. The most common strategy used to
accomplish this involves replacing words in the source with synonyms and perhaps changing the grammar. 
 
Example:
 
The meetings tourism market has been vigorously pursued by many former industrial cities in Europe and the U.S. as part of
their strategies of post-industrial urban regeneration.
 
A full paraphrase of this could be
 
Many cities in the U.S. and Europe that once relied on the heavy industry are now trying to revitalize themselves by
developing a meeting tourism industry.
 
Note that the language has been completely changed, although the sense of the original is fully maintained.
 
A paraphrase approach to summarizing can be somewhat successful, but if you do this sentence by sentence, you run the
risk of not demonstrating your full understanding of the passage.  You might miss an opportunity to highlight key points. 
 Another possible danger is that the resulting summary may not be original enough and could be considered plagiarism by
some.
 
Some students attempt to paraphrase by following a simple synonym substitution approach. However, this approach
definitely has risks. 
 
For example:
 
The meetings tourism industry has been energetically sought by several historically industrial cities in Europe and the U.S.
as one element of their plan of post-industrial metropolitan rebuilding.
 
This paraphrase is somewhat difficult to understand. For one, seek does not have the same meaning as pursue. While an
industry can be pursued in English. It generally cannot be sought. For another historically does not give the sense that these
cities are no longer industrial cities. Finally, the phrase metropolitan rebuilding requires some effort to understand because
the common term in this context is urban, as in the original.  
 
If you feel that your paraphrasing ability is not so strong, you can copy some material and place it in quotation marks;
however, a better but more difficult strategy would be to carefully consider the elements you have identified as important,
put the original away, and write down what you have understood.  This may allow you to condense the ideas in the source
even further. 
 
When you write a formal summary of someone else’s ideas, you should keep in mind the following guidelines:
 Always try to use your own words, except technical terms.
 Include enough support and detail so that the presentation is clear.
 Do not try to paraphrase specialized vocabulary or technical terms.
 Focus on the content of the original.
 Make sure the summary reads smoothly. Use enough transition devices and supporting detail. You do not want a
collection of sentences that do not flow. 
Since many of the summaries you write will be woven into your own original text, it is very important to identify at least
the source author; if not the title as well. 
 
Example:
 
According to Andrew meetings tourism can be have enormous effect on the economy of a city.
 
However, Andrew appears to be the first name of the first author of the “Selling Cities” article. When you refer to other
authors, you should not use the given name alone. Family names alone are generally used.  
 
Better:
 
According to Bradley et al. (2009), meetings tourism can be have enormous effect on the economy of a city.

Language Focus: Identifying the Source in a Summary

 
Most summaries will have a sentence near the beginning that contains two elements: the source and a main idea. Notice
the use of the present tense in the examples:
 
According to Boskin (2004)  main idea)  
 
Young and Song’s 2004 paper on fluoridation discusses   (main idea)
 
Bernstein (2004) states that           main idea)          claims
                                argues                                    
maintains
 
Barinaga (2004) suggests that       main idea)                    asserts
                  hypothesizes                   
states                   
concludes
 
In Tyson’s article “Mapping Dark Matter with Gravitational Lenses,”     (main idea)  
 
Notice how the reporting verbs in the following examples could allow the writer of the summary to convey his or her
attitude:
  
Campbell (2004) presumes that all parents are equally capable of helping their children with schoolwork.
 
The authors speculate that people who scrap their old cars will immediately buy another, new(er) car.
 
Notice also how the addition of an adverb (in midposition, of course) can even more clearly reveal your stance, which you
may want to do when writing in order to critique.
 
The authors wrongly assume that patients will adhere to the treatment protocol.

Language Focus: Nominal that-Clauses

 
In formal academic English, many reporting verbs are followed by a that-clause containing both a subject and a verb. 
 
That-clauses have a variety of functions. 
 
As direct object of the verb states
 
Benfield and Howard (2000) state that many medical journals are now published in English because of a desire to attract
greater readership and to attract better, more international manuscripts.
 
In spoken English that in clauses which function as direct objects is often omitted, as in the following example. Notice also
that in this spoken English the choice of verb is less formal.
 
Benfield and Howard (2000) said many medical journals are published in English now because they want to attract
greater readership and to attract better, more international manuscripts.
 
Notice that if you were to use mention instead of one of the other verbs suggested, you would greatly change the
importance of the information following.
 
Benfield and Howard (2000) mention that many medical journals are now published in English because of a desire to attract
greater readership and to attract better, more international manuscripts.
 
Mention is used for information that was most likely given without detail or support. The example sentence using
mention makes it seem as if the reason journals are now published in English is a minor point in the article.  So avoid using
mention in summaries.

Which of the following is best?

 

1. Author Steven Goodman in “Transformation of the Nile River Basin” states that how the region has changed as a
result of continuous irrigation.
2. “Transformation of the Nile River Basin” by Steven Goodman claims that changes in irrigation have led to an
increase in population.
3. According to “Transformation of the Nile River Basin” Steven Goodman suggests that the Nile River basin has
been changed. 
4. Goodman in “Transformation of the Nile River Basin” mentions that irrigation has had an impact on the
environment and the population.
5. In Goodman’s “Transformation of the Nile River Basin” the Nile River basin has been transformed by the
introduction of perennial irrigation.
If you are summarizing another author’s work as part of a longer paper, you may make a reference to your source
material following APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), IEEE (Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers), or another style, depending on your field of study. The APA and MLA systems refer
to a source similarly, by author and date.
 
The following references are in APA style:
 
Goodman (1989) has found a correlation between the increase in agricultural fertility and the shift away from traditional
crops.
 
A correlation between the increase in agricultural fertility and the shift away from traditional crops has been identified
(Goodman, 1989).
 
In his study of the Nile River basin, Goodman (1989) established a correlation between the increase in agricultural
fertility and the shift away from traditional crops. Goodman also noticed . . .
  

Language  Focus: Summary Reminder Phrases

 
In a longer summary, you may want to remind you reader that you are summarizing.
 
The author goes on to say that . . .
The article further states that . . .
(Author’s surname here) also states/maintains/argues that . . .
(Author’s surname here) also believes that . . .
(Author’s surname here) concludes that . . .
In the second half of the paper, (author’s surname here) presents . . .
 
In fact, if your summary is quite long, you may want to mention the source author’s name at different points in your
summary—the beginning, the middle, and/or the end. When you do mention the author in the middle or end of the
summary, be sure to use the surname only.
 
Goodman goes on to say . . .
Bradley et al. also believes that . . .
The author further argues that . . .
 
Some of the following sentence connectors may be useful in introducing additional information:  additionally, in addition to,
also, furthermore, further, moreover

Comparative Summaries
 
 They can be assignments on their own, part of a longer paper, or a response to an examination question. 
 Comparative summaries can be more challenging to write than simple summaries, because they require you to
analyze and use information from two or more sources rather than just one. In a comparative summary, you often need to
infer and make explicit the relationships among your sources.

Language Focus: Showing Similarities and Differences

 
To show similarity 
According to Fuhrman (2003), mothers generally believed that by the age of six most children should have their own money
to spend.  Similarly, Goy (2002) found that most fathers discussed the terms of receiving an allowance with their six-year-
old children.
 
According to Fuhrman (2003), mothers generally believed that by the age of six most children should have their own money
to spend. Likewise, Goy (2002) found that most fathers discussed the terms of receiving an allowance with their six-year-old
children.
 
Mothers thought their daughters should spend their own money on makeup, hair care products, and nail polish. In the
same fashion, mothers also felt that their sons should spend their own money on less essential items such as baseball
cards. 
 
As in Fuhrman’s study, in our study middle-class children generally thought that they should have to do some household
chores in exchange for their allowance.
Like the middle-class children in Fuhrman’s study, middle-class children in our study generally thought that they should
have to do some household chores in exchange for their allowance.
 
Fuhrman found that most middle-class children thought that they should have to do some household chores in exchange
for their allowance. The same was true for middle-class children in our sample.
 
To show contrast 
 
Over 75% of Britons feel children should receive money on special occasions. In contrast, only 20% of Germans think this is
appropriate.
 
Unlike Germans, Britons feel no restrictions should be imposed on how children spend their money.
 
In contrast to Germans, who believe that parents should have some say over children spending their pocket money, Britons
feel no restrictions should be imposed on a child’s spending.
 
According to Fuhrman, Germans believe that parents should have some say over how children spend their pocket money.
Britons, on the other hand, feel no restrictions should be imposed. 
 
MacKenzie (2003) argues that our petroleum reserves will not make it through the next half century; however, Day (2003)
believes that reserves will double in the next half century and will last another 100 years.
 
Whereas MacKenzie (2003) argues that our petroleum reserves will not make it through the next half century, Day (2003)
believes that reserves will double in the next half century and will last another 100 years.
 
While MacKenzie (2003) argues that our petroleum reserves will not make it through the next half century, Day (2003)
believes that reserves will double in the next half century and will last another 100 years. 

Verbal Expressions of Similarity

To show similarity 
to be similar to                     The conclusion that 
to resemble                           emerges from this              
to resemble                           study is similar to that Lee et al. (2003)
to be comparable to
to correspond to

To show contrast
to differ from                         The conclusion in this study to contrast with
differs from that in                Barber et al. (2002)
To be different from