2/35

Motor Torque,
Load Torque and
.... .
Selection of
Motors
'" i'

Contents . . . , :: ~.

i, .... /~':: : ~::~ii:i:ii~il:~:i!:

2.1I Motor speed-torque curve 2137 .... , ~ ~:!i~i :i:'~
i "i

. 'i.' ."
2.2 NEMA rotor designs 2137 .,.
i

.
."i
2.3 Special designs of rotors 2t38
2.3. I Double squirrel cage motors 2/38
2.3.2 Other designs of rotor cage 2t39
. ,.. 2.4 Effect of starting current on torque 2/40
2.4.1 NEMA recommendations on starting currents 2/4!r :~
'

" ..i ".' ' 2.5 Load torque or opposing torque 2141 .

2.6 Selection of motors 2/41 :.,

~.

. .
2.7 Time of start-up and its effect on motor
:
performanc e 2141
.:
' :".'i'"': .... 2.7.1 Motor heating during start.up 2/43
2.7.2 Heating daring a no,load start-up 2t44 9 . ', ',.....
2.7.3 Heating during an on-load start-up 2t44 ,,, ,,,

2.8 Thermal withstand time 2/44

2.8:i Heating phenomenon in a motor during
a stalled condition 2t45
2.,8.2 PlOtting thermal withstand characteristics
of the motor 2/46
List of formulae Used 2/48
Further reading 2/48

.: :....

i
 Motor torque, load torque and selection of motors 2/37

2.1 Motor speed-torque curve

Refer to Figure 2.1 where
Z s t "- starting torque or breakaway torque.
Tm = minimum, pull-in or pull-up torque. Tst -
Tpo = pull-out, breakdown or maximum torque, obtainable
over the entire speed range. In a good design this Tm-
should occur as close to the rated slip as possible
to ensure that the motor runs safely, even during
momentary overloads, load fluctuations exceeding
the load torque, or abrupt voltage fluctuations,
without harmful slip losses (equation (1.9)). In
some specially designed rotors, however, to achieve Tr" -Tr
a high starting torque sometimes the pull-out torque Tpo -" mst
Tpo may not be available on the speed-torque curve.
It is possible that in such cases the Tst may be the
highest torque developed by the motor in the entire
speed range (Figure 2.2).
Tr = rated or the full-load torque and should occur as
near to the synchronous speed as possible to reduce
slip losses. Speed~ N
S = rated slip at which occur the rated torque and
current. Figure 2.2 Tst too high to have Tpo on the speed-torque
curve

2.2 NEMA rotor designs

As a further step towards standardization and to achieve
more harmony in motor sizes and designs, for better NEMA,* in its publication MG-1 for Induction Motors,
interchangeability in the motors produced by different has prescribed four rotor designs, A, B, C, and D, covering
manufacturers, in the same country or by other countries, almost all sizes of LT motors, to possess a prescribed
minimum Tst, Tpo and pull-up torques. These torques are
generally as drawn in Figure 2.3 to meet all normal
industrial, agricultural or domestic needs. (Refer to the
said publication or IEC 60034-12 for values of these
torques. IEC 60034-12 has also provided similar
stipulations.)
However, motor manufacturers may adopt more flexible
designs with more reserve capacity and better speed-
Tpo torque characteristics to suit the requirements of a
particular sector. These are particularly for installations
where the distribution system may have wider voltage
fluctuations or the load itself may have varying load
T~ demands. It is possible that the same motor may have to
Tm drive more than one type of loads at different times. An
agricultural pump motor may be one such application

t
(b
where it may also have to drive a thrasher or a winnower
at different times. A motor with higher flexibility would
be more desirable for such applications.
P.
Manufacturers, depending upon market needs, may
adopt all or a few such designs or even have their own
designs, still conforming to such stipulations. Special
applications may, however, call for a custom-built motor
as noted later. As a standard practice all HT motors are
custom-built for each application and no rotor designs
Speed are prescribed for these.
"/'st: Starting torque
Trn : Pull-in or pull up torque
Tpo : Pull-out or breakdown torque (maximum torque)
Tr : Rated torque

Figure 2.1 Defininga motor torque *NEMA - National Electrical Manufacturers Association, USA.
2/38 Industrial Power Engineering and Applications Handbook

% Speed made of these two cages, having a low effective resistance,

0 20 40 60 80 100 being in parallel. In such designs, therefore, the speed-
280-i~ ~ torque curve can be achieved to take any desired shape
260 - by suitably choosing the resistances of the two cages,
the width of the slot opening and the depth of the inner
240
cage. The equivalent circuit diagram of a motor with a
220 single and a double cage rotor is illustrated in Figure 2.4
200 (a) and (b) respectively. To draw the speed-torque curve
for such a motor theoretically, consider the two cages
180
developing two different torques separately. The effective
~ 160 torque will be the summation of these two, as shown in
Figure 2.5.
|140
~120 -
Notes
100- 1 The inner and outer cages are separated by a narrow slit to
80-
\ \\1 facilitate linking of the main flux with the inner bars which are
quite deep.
60- 2 HT motors are also manufactured with double cage rotors. They
are designed especially to match a particular load requirement
40-
20-
0-
100 80 60 40
..41~ % Slip
20
1 0
when the load characteristics are known, or as in NEMA class
C, or as the manufacturer's own practice, when the starting
torque requirement exceeds 150% of the full-load torque (FLT).
The likely applications for a high starting torque may be induced-
draught fans, blowers, coal crushers, mill motors and coal
conveyor motors.
3 Generally, depending upon the type of load, different
Figure 2.3 Speed-torque characteristics of motors as per manufacturers may adopt to different design practices, such as
NEMA standard high Tst and low thermal withstand time or moderate Tst and
high thermal withstand time.

2.3 Special designs of rotors

R1 )('1
2.3.1 Double squirrel cage motors
If the torque requirement of a load is high, an ordinary
squirrel cage motor, even on a DOL* switching, may not S.ssX~
be suitable to meet the stringent starting requirements.
If, however, the resistance of the rotor circuit is increased
the starting torque can be improved as discussed in Section
1.2 (equation (1.3)). But high rotor resistance will mean m
I ~ R~
high running slip, causing greater rotor losses and heat
in the rotor circuit. The solution to this problem is found
in a double squirrel cage motor. In such motors the rotor
has two cages, one closer to the periphery of the rotor Figure 2.4(a) Equivalent circuit diagram of a single squirrel
and the other deeper and nearer to the core. cage motor
The one closer to the periphery has a high resistance
and the one nearer to the core a low one. To accomplish
a high rotor resistance, high-resistivity materials such as Ir R1 Xl
brass is generally used. The inner cage has a high leakage
~ Ine
reactance due to its depth, while the outer one has a high
resistance and a low reactance like an ordinary squirrel
S.ssX~, S.ssX~,
cage rotor.
During start-up the inner cage has a very high impedance
and thus, the larger portion Of the current passes through
the outer cage only. Because of high resistance and high t~ Irn
IZR loss in the rotor cii'cuit, it develops a high starting
torque and accomplishes an analogue to a slip-ring motor.
When the rotor reaches the rated speed, the reactances of
both the cages are almost negligible because of low slip
and the rotor current is carried into two parallel paths
1st cage 2nd cage

Figure 2.4(b) Equivalent circuit diagram of a double squirrel

*DOL- Direct On-line. cage motor
 Motor torque, load torque and selection of motors 2/39

Leakage Leakage
flux / flux \ _.,

i~ f
mst > Tpo
c=a+b I
\1 iI1,.~ _ I\
Ii II / / / / / A ~ Ii //\v~/j~j.~ \\
-~QUrnulative torque._.~..,.,.,~ \llI iiill.--/~,//,~~/~ - ', ' //////~ \ \.\
II,.
I t

l!i N
II
II
• g ehigh R ~
Ii li
IIii I
I
I
I
II
'1111'g - - - g - jI 'I i i
'1
Iii
?
(a) Deep bar (b) Taper bar (c) Double cage
In___he? cage low R (~
Figure 2.6 Differenttypes of rotor slots, making use of skin
effect
'i
Speed ~ Nr

Figure 2.5 Speed-torque characteristics of a double squirrel

cage motor

Performance
In such motors the pull-out torque is normally less than
(
the starting torque. This is because the pull-out torques
by the two cages occur at different speeds. Such motors
would possess a low power factor and efficiency compared
to an ordinary squirrel cage motor, because of the high Figure 2.7 Other designs of a few double cage slots
leakage reactance of inner cage and comparatively higher
12R losses. Such motors would have a slightly higher slip
than an ordinary squirrel cage motor due to higher rotor in inductive reactance (S.ssX2), which in an induction
resistance. motor varies with rotor frequency (i.e. speed). This effect
of change of resistance is termed the 'skin effect'. For
Limitations more details, see Section 28.7. To make use of this effect,
the slot, irrespective of its configuration, may be made
During start-up since only the outer cage is in the circuit deep to create higher eddy currents and correspondingly
with a very high current, the motor is heated up quickly higher eddy current losses, to add to the effective resistance
by every start and may not be suitable for frequent starts of the rotor during start-up and to diminish this with
and reversals. speed. (See also Section 2.4.) In this way the depth, in
There are several other designs available to achieve a deep bars, and depth and taper, in tapered bars, can be
considerably high staring torque and yet overcome the varied to achieve the desired performance. For the same
above limitation. It is possible by employing a deep cage, torque characteristics either of these types of cages can
tapered cage or special types of rotor materials such as be employed which, for one characteristic, will require
brass and selenium to increase the starting resistance of the same area of cross-section but the depth will vary
the rotor circuit, and hence the starting torque. These depending upon the type. The deep bars will be deeper
methods are discussed briefly below. than a taper bar. Moreover, the taper slot will have a
better grip for rotor conductors during a run than a deep
2.3.2 Other designs of rotor cage parallel bar and also better cooling properties.

Use o f skin effect Angle o f skew in squirrel cage rotors

The basic concept used in the design and selection of The movement of rotor teeth around the stator produces
other types of rotors to provide better starting a clogging effect, resulting into vibrations and noise. To
characteristics is the high rotor resistance during start- reduce this effect, the common practice is not to provide
up. Other than the double cage rotors, this can also be the rotor slots parallel to the shaft axis but at an angle.
achieved by making deep or taper rotor bars as shown in This practice is known as 'rotor bar skew'. A proper
Figure 2.6 (See also Figure 2.7). At different frequencies, skewing can also improve the starting torque and reduce
the rotor has different effective resistances, due to a change the starting current, in addition to the effects of space
2/40 Industrial Power Engineering and Applications Handbook

harmonics and slot losses. The angle of twist (skew) is a /st3 - I

matter of experience, by results obtained over the years.
The most common skew angles, for various combinations
of stator and rotor slots in practice, are given in Table 2.1. /st2

Table 2.1 Typical angles of skew for cage rotors

tstl
ii i i Illll, IIII I II I II II =11 i i i i,

Number Number Number Skew angle

of poles of stator of rotor (degrees)
slots slots
18 14 26
2

4
f 24
36
,[ 24
16
28
18
20
16
20
36 28 13 to 14 r "
6 36 33 11 to 14

Speed
Slip Nr

2.4 Effect of starting current on

Figure 2.8 Starting (locked rotor) currents corresponding to
torque different starting torques

Ignoring the friction and core losses, the torque developed

in synchronous watts, due to the skin effect, will also diminish the full-load
1-S power factor. (See the circle diagram, Figure 1.16,
Tr = 3 " 1 2 " R 2 " S corroborating this statement.) The Tst and/st are, therefore,
a matter of compromise to achieve a good Tpo, a better
or ~- 3. I~ "R2 power factor and a lower slip. Figure 2.9 shows for
S different starting torques the corresponding pull-out
torques and their occurrence of slip, maintaining the same
i.e. Tro~ I~ S9R2 (2.1) full-load slip.

Since the stator current is a function of the rotor current,

the motor torque is proportional to the square of the
stator current. Generalizing,
pol
Tst (Ist /2
-~r = ~ lr 9S (slip at start = 1) (2.2)

Stl
7"st2 =/,stl / ~ (for the same rotor resistance R2)
Tst2

Tstl
(2.3)
P.

Tst, (Ist] /2 R2
or T--~t2= ~ . - ~ - (for different rotor resistances)

(2.4)
Analysing equation (2.2), the higher the starting torque,
the higher will be the starting current for the same motor
parameters (Figure 2.8). An attempt to keep the starting
current low and yet achieve a higher starting torque may
be feasible, but only up to a certain extent, by suitably Speed
Slip
$3 S2 $1 L, N,
redesigning the rotor with a higher resistance (equation
(2.1)). However, the results of such an attempt may Tst3 > Tst 2 > Tstl
adversely affect the other performance of the motor. For /pol > /po2 > Tpo3
example, the Tpo will be reduced due to a higher rotor $3 > $2 > $1
resistance and may occur at a higher slip, even if the
full-load slip is the same. The increased slot leakage, Figure 2.9 Effect of starting torque on Tpo and slip
 Motor torque, load torque and selection of motors 2/41

2.4.1 N E M A r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s on starting currents 2.5 Load torque or opposing torque

With a view to achieve yet more standardization in motor
design, N E M A Standard MG-1 has also r e c o m m e n d e d For smaller loads, say up to 20/30 kW, it m a y not be
the m a x i m u m locked rotor current of single-speed three- essential to pre-check the load curve with that of the
phase motors for the various rotor designs A, B, C, and motor. But one should ensure that working conditions or
D, for various r e c o m m e n d e d torque values. These have the load d e m a n d are not so stringent that they may cause
been derived for a 415 V a.c. system and are shown in a lock-up of rotor during pick-up due to a very low applied
Table 2.2. voltage or accelerating torque, or a prolonged starting
time as a consequence or due to a very large inertia of
Table 2.2 Recommended maximum locked rotor currents for rotating masses etc. For critical applications and for larger
various rotor designs m o t o r s it is e s s e n t i a l to c h e c k the s p e e d - t o r q u e
requirement of the load with that of the motor. Loads
HP Approx. maximum Rotor design can generally be classified into four groups. Table 2.3
locked rotor current indicates the more c o m m o n of these and their normal
torque requirements, during start-and variation with speed.
1 18 B.D.
1.5 25 B.D. The corresponding curves are also drawn in Figures 2.10-
2 31 B.D. 2.13. To ascertain the output requirement of a motor, for
3 39 B.C.D. different applications a few useful formulae are given in
5 56 B.C.D. Appendix 1 at the end of Part I of this book.
7.5 77 B.C.D.
10 98 B.C.D.
15 141 B.C.D.
20 178 B.C.D. 2.6 Selection of motors
25 222 B.C.D.
30 265 B.C.D. The r e c o m m e n d e d practice would require that at each
40 354 B.C.D. point on the motor speed-torque curve there should be a
50 441 B.C.D.
60 529 B.C.D. m i n i m u m 15-20% surplus torque available, over and above
75 661 B.C.D. the load torque, for a safe start (Figure 2.14). The torque
100 884 B.C.D. thus available is k n o w n as the accelerating torque.
125 1105 B.C.D.
150 1319 B.C.D.
200 1764 B.C.
2.7 Time of start-up and its effect
Note For motors beyond 200 h.p., NEMA has not covered these on motor performance
data. It is, however, recommended that larger motors may be designed
to have even lower locked rotor currents than the above to reduce
the starting transient effects on the distribution system as well as This depends upon the applied voltage, i.e. type of
on the motor windings. switching, starting torque of the motor, counter-torque

Table 2.3 Types of loads and their characteristics

Serial Load Characteristics of Starting torque Opposing torque with Figure no.
no. load speed

1 Presses, punches, latches Light duty 20-30% Torque remains constant 2.10
and drilling machines and at a very low value,
since the load is applied
when the motor has run to
speed
Fans, blowers, centrifugal The power is Medium duty 10-40% Torque rises with square of 2.11
pumps and compressors proportional to the the speed (T ~ N 2)
third power of the
speed (P ~ N3)
Rolling mills, ball mills, The power is Heavy duty 30-40%. Near full-load torque 2.12
hammer mills, calendar proportional to the May be more and have to
drives and sugar square of the speed accelerate large masses
centrifuges (P ~: N2) of heavy moment of
inertia, requiring a
prolonged time of start-up
Conveyors and hoists The power is Heavy duty 100-110% Torque remains constant 2.13
proportional to the throughout the speed range
speed (P ~ N) and at almost the full-load
torque
2/42 Industrial Power Engineering and Applications Handbook

100 100

T 80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

% Speed % Speed~~

Figure 2.10 Light duty Figure 2.12 Heavy-duty start

100

80
,oo
60

;6o .

i?.. 40
ii
20
2O

% Speed
% Speed
1. Torque o~ (speed) 2 1. Torque constant
2. Power ~: (speed) 3 2. Power o~ speed

Figure 2.11 Medium duty Figure 2.13 Heavy duty

of the load and the inertia of the rotating masses etc. It where
is expressed by G D 2 = 4.g . M . K 2
g = 9.81 m/s 2
M = mass and
G D 2 9N r (2.5) g 9M = W (weight in kg)
ts = 375. Ta K = radius of gyration
Ta = average accelerating torque in mkg (Figure 2.14),
where i.e. average (Tst- TL) in mkg
ts = time of start-up in seconds TL = opposing torque (load torque)
G D 2 = total weight moment of inertia of all the rotating
masses, referred to the motor speed in kg.m 2 GD~ at motor speed

( G D M is motor and G D 2 is load weight moment If the load is driven through belts or gears at a speed
of inertia referred to the motor speed) different from that of the motor, the effective value of
 Motor torque, load torque and selection of motors 2/43

Heat generated;

H = Is] 9R. ts watt- s. (W.s.) (2.7)

also H=W-S. 0 (2.8)

2 or 0= H ~
W.&

t
q~
Minimum
15-20% of Tr
where
W = weight of heated portion in kg
Accelerating torque, Ta / /-(~',,,% d; = specific heat of the material of windings, in watt- s./
kgm (~
1 0 = temperature rise in ~ (Table 11.1)
A possible way to restrict the temperature rise is the
use of a material having a high specific heat. An increase
in the weight would be futile, as it would require more
Load torque 1
material and prove to be a costly proposition. A motor's
constructional features should be such as to provide good
Speed heat dissipation through its body.
Figure 2.14 Accelerating torque (Ta)
Sharing of heat
The rotor and stator heats, during start-up and run, are
interrelated and vary in the same proportion as their
GD 2 of the load, as referred to the motor speed, will be respective resistances. (See circle diagram Figure 1.16
different. Equating the work done at the two speeds: in Section 1.10.)

GD~ . N 2r = GD? . N 2L If Hr = the heat of rotor in W. s.

and H s = the heat of stator in W-s.
or GD2 = GD2 . ( NL )2 (2.6)
Then Hs = gl (2.9)
Hr R~
where
GD~ = weight moment of inertia of load at a speed NL. While the total heat generated in the stator and the
rotor may be comparable, there may be a significant
difference in the temperature rise of the respective parts
Example 2.1
as a result of the bulk of their active parts and area of
A 100 kW, 750 r.p.m, motor drives a coal mill, having GD~ as heat dissipation. For the same material, the rotor will
600 kg.m 2 through belts, at a speed of 500 r.p.m. Then its have a much higher temperature rise compared to the
effective GD~ at motor speed will be stator, in view of its weight, which may be several times
less than the stator. During start-up, therefore, the rotor
( 500 ]2 will become heated quickly and much more than the
GD~ = 600 x ~ . ~ )
stator. Repeated start-ups may even be disastrous. During
= 600 x 0.445 a run, however, when the temperature has stabilized, an
overload will render the stator more vulnerable to damage
--- 267 Kg m2 than the rotor. The rotors, as standard practice, are designed
for much higher temperature rises (200-300~ and may
Note For simplicity, the synchronous speed of the motor is
considered, which will make only a marginal difference in
be suitable to withstand such marginal overloads.
calculations.
Corollary
2.7.1 Motor heating during start-up During start-up the rotor, due to its lighter weight compared
Irrespective of the type of switching adopted or the load to the stator, and during a run, the stator, due to overload
driven by the motor, each time it is switched it generates are more vulnerable to damage through excessive heat.
heat, in both the rotor and the stator components. The
magnitude of the start-up heat will depend upon the inertia Example 2.2
of the rotating masses, the type of switching, the torque A rotor fails during start-up, possibly due to a lower supply
developed by the motor and the opposing (load) torque voltage than desired or a smaller accelerating torque than
required or reasons leading to similar conditions. In such
etc., as can be inferred from equation (2.5). The higher cases the rotor fails first, due to higher rotor currents and a
the time of start-up, the higher will be the heat generated. prolonged acceleration time or a locked rotor. At this instant,
The corresponding temperature rise of the stator or the unless the motor control gear trips, the stator may also fail
rotor windings can be measured as below: due to excessive heat. Instances can be cited where even
2/44 Industrial Power Engineering and Applications Handbook

the short-circuit end rings of a squirrel cage rotor melted, and 300%
the molten metal, through its centrifugal force, had hit the
stator overhangs, damaging them through its insulation,
causing an inter-turn fault.
\
2.7.2 Heating during a no-load start-up \
\
200%
During a no-load start-up, i.e. when the motor shaft is
>,
free, half the energy drawn from the supply appears as
heat in the rotor and the stator windings. In slip-ring t >
motors the bulk of the rotor heat is shared by the external
resistance, a feature which makes it a better choice for
frequent starts and stops, and for driving loads that possess 100%
\"k \ \ \ \ IX,\\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ ~
large inertia. It has been seen that most of the stringent Motor torque on Y~,,\ ~ ~
load requirements can also be met with high torque squirrel
cage motors, manufactured with a judicious design of
"~ L o a d curve
stator and rotor resistances, an efficient means of heat
dissipation and a proper choice of active material. The
heat generated during a no-load start-up can be expressed 0
I
by; Speed.-...-..--==,- Nr

GD~. N~ Figure 2.15 Variation in Ta with YIA switching

Hnl = ---iv," W.s (2.10)
730
This expression, except for the mechanical design, is with a switching other than DOL (Figure 2.15). The
totally independent of the type of start and the electrical starting time rises disproportionately and so does the
design of the motor. Electrically also, this is demonstrated starting heat. Care should therefore be taken when selecting
in the subsequent example. The expression, however, a motor for a particular type of switching and magnitude
does not hold good for an ON-LOAD start. On load, the of the opposing torque. This is to avert possible damage
accelerating torque diminishes substantially with the to the motor due to prolonged starting time, as a
type of load and the method of start, as can be seen consequence of an inadequate accelerating torque.
from Figure 2.14, and so diminishes the denominator of Maintaining a minimum accelerating torque at each
equation (2.5), raising the time of start. point, during the pick-up may also not be adequate
sometimes, when the starting time exceeds the locked
E x a m p l e 2.3 rotor or thermal withstand time of the motor, as discussed
A squirrel cage motor is started through an auto-transformer below.
starter with a tapping of 40%. Compare the starting heat with
a DOL starting when the motor shaft is free.
With DOL Ta = 1 0 0 %
2.8 Thermal withstand time
With an auto-transformer Ta = (0,4) 2 or 16%

GD~ N, This is also known as safe stall time or the locked rotor
9 Starting time with DOL, t s - 375 x Ta withstand capacity of the motor. This is the time during
which the motor can safely withstand electromagnetic
GD~ Nr effects and consequent heating in a locked condition.
and with auto-transformer, ts~ = ~ x 0.16Ta
These are drawn for the cold and hot conditions of the
i.e. 6.25 times of DOL motor in Figure 2.16. Evidently, the motor must come to
speed within this time, irrespective of type of load or
Since the heat during start-up =(Is02. t method of switching. In a reduced voltage start-up or
.'. Heat during start on a DOL =(Is02. ts slip-ring motors the starting current would be low and
these curves would signify that for any reason if the
and on an auto-transformer o~(0.41s02 . tsl rotor becomes locked during start or run, or takes a
or ~ 0.16(/st) 2 x 6.25ts prolonged time to come up to speed, the protective device
must operate within the safe stall time, Generally, these
i.e. =: (/st)2. ts curves are drawn for the stator to monitor the actual
Thus at no load, irrespective of the motor torque and the type running condition and not the condition during start-up.
of switching, the starting heat would remain the same. The rotor can withstand much higher temperatures during
a run. With the help of these curves, knowing the starting
time and the starting current of the motor, one can ascertain
2.7.3 Heating during an on-load start-up the number of starts and stops the motor would be capable
Against an opposing torque, the accelerating torque of of undertaking. These curves also help in the selection
the motor, which hitherto had varied in proportion to the of the protective relays and their setting as discussed in
type of switching, will now diminish disproportionately Chapter 12.
 Motor torque, load torque and selection of motors 2/45

/
C = heat capacity of the motor
Locked rotor current
= heat r e q u i r e d to raise the t e m p e r a t u r e of the
windings by 1 ~ in Joules
=W.&

where
5 W = weight of the stator windings in kg

T
.-.. 4
= volume of stator windings x specific gravity of
the metal of the windings
= Lmt. Z s 9 A c u - d
Lmt = length of a mean turn of the winding in metres
Zs = n u m b e r of stator turns per phase
Acu = area of the whole windings in cm 2
(5 d = specific gravity of the winding material in
gm/cm 3
t~ = specific heat of winding metal in w a t t . s/kg 9m ~

Note 1 In equation (2.11) it is presumed that the heating of the

windings is adiabatic i.e. whatever heat is generated during a stalled
condition is totally consumed in raising the temperature of the
stator windings by 0. An adiabatic process means that there is no
-~B_~ Safe stall time 'tst' (seconds) " ~ heat transfer from the system to the surroundings. This is also
known as the heat sink process. The presumption is logical, because
E c d J the duration of heating is too short to be able to dissipate a part of
~- D -I it to other parts of the machine or the surroundings.
A- Maximum withstand time under hot condition (on DOL)
B- Maximum withstand time under cold condition (on DOL) o.c O.W.&
C- Maximum withstand time under hot condition during Y ' tste = Hst------
~ = is2e. R 1
D- Maximum withstand time under cold condition during Y
0" (Lmt . Z s .Acu . d ) . t~
Figure 2.16 Thermal withstand curves Is2e "R1
p" Lmt 9Z s
where R e = Acu
2.8.1 Heating p h e n o m e n o n in a motor during a
stalled condition and /9 =/940(1 + ~ h)
where, ~ = temperature coefficient of resistivity
=1 oC
(a) F o r t h e stator 234.5
/940 = resistivity of copper at 40~
Stalling is a condition in which the rotor b e c o m e s locked h is known as the middle temperature during the entire temperature
due to excessive load torque or opposing torque. Stalling variation in the locked rotor condition.
is thus a replica of a locked rotor condition and can
occur at any speed below the Tpo region, as illustrated in
Figure 2.17. The figure also shows that the stator current
during stalling will generally correspond to/st only, due Motor current
to the characteristic of the motor s p e e d - c u r r e n t curve.
Whenever the rotor becomes locked in a region that almost
corresponds to the/st region of the motor (Figure 2.17)
it will mean a stalling condition.
po
In such a condition, if the heat generated in the windings
raises the temperature of the windings by 0 above the
temperature, the motor was operating just before stalling. /
Then by a differential form of the heat equation:
Starting torque I
at reduced voltage
Hste. tste = O. C (2.11)
r~
where / ' i
Hst e = heat generated during stalled condition per second \ i
i
in watts Load torque I
- power loss
t Speed
= 12e " R1 Stalling
1ste - current at the point of stalling in A m p s (Locked rotor
Re = resistance of the stator windings per phase in f~ condition)
tste = time for which the stalling condition exists in
seconds Figure 2.17 Stalled or locked rotor condition
2/46 Industrial Power Engineering and Applications Handbook

t9" Lmt 9Z s 9 Acu " d " d; Therefore the permissible rise in temperature in a stalled
9 tst e =
Zmt 9Z s condition will be as follows:
lsZe "P40 (1 + o~ h).
Acu

--tAbu)
k, Iste
0.
/940(1 + ~h)
0
0
0
for
for
for
bars in cold conditions
bars in hot conditions
rings in cold conditions
=
=
=
450 -
450-
100 -
40 = 410~
150 = 300~
40 = 60~
0 for rings in hot conditions = 100 - 70 = 30~
and ~/st e = J~ --- current density during start in A/cm2 and

2.8.2 Plotting thermal withstand characteristics

/940(1 + o~h)
=k of the motor
d.•
where Calculate the thermal withstand times tstr under cold
k = material constant for the metal; and hot conditions and also at different/st, say 200%,
(i) for aluminium = 0.016 3 0 0 % and 4 0 0 % etc. of Ir as s h o w n below. A f t e r
(ii) for copper = 0.0065 determining the corresponding safe thermal withstand
(iii) for brass = 0.0276 times, according to the above formula, draw the graph
(Figure 2.16),/st VS tst:
9 tstg = ~S~" 0. 0.00651 (for copper windings)

Note 2 Since no system can be heat adiabatic in practice there is

a certain amount of heat dissipation from the impregnated windings Stalled c u r r e n t Isff' Thermal withstand time, tste in seconds
to the stator core and housing. This heat dissipation is considered as % of lr
as 15% of the total heat generated as in IEC 60079-7.
200 t5
.'. actual Hs = 85% of what has been calculated above 300 t4
400 t3
0
and tst e = js2s x 0.0065 • 0.85 500 t2
600 t1
0 seconds (s) (2.12)
or tste = J~ x 0.00552 /st e
and for Jss (for A windings) = ~/-5- (Area of windings/turn). Z,
Application
Note Jss is a design parameter and more details may be obtained
For safe stall conditions tste should be less than the thermal from the motor manufacturer.
withstand time of the motor under locked or short-circuit
condition.
Example 2.4
(i) 0 is called the permissible rise in temperature in A 250 kW motor has a cold thermal withstand time of 30
seconds and a hot thermal withstand time of 25 seconds. If
the stalled condition.
the starting time is 7 seconds, determine the consecutive
(ii) For class B insulation, the m a x i m u m limiting cold or hot starts that the motor will be able to sustain safely.
temperature is 185~ and for class F 210~ (short-
time permissible temperature). The permissible rise Number of consecutive cold starts = ~ = 4.3
in temperature in class B is 80~ above an ambient
of 40~ i.e. 4 starts

.'. 0=185-(40+80) and number of hot starts = ~ = 3.6

= 65~ for hot conditions i.e. 3 starts

and 0 = 1 8 5 - 4 0 The period after which this can be repeated will depend upon
the heating curve and the thermal time constant of the motor,
= 145~ for cold conditions i.e. the time the motor will take to reach thermal equilibrium
after repeated starts (See Chapter 3).

(b) F o r t h e r o t o r
Example 2.5
To ascertain whether the stator or the rotor would fail A centrifugal compressor driven through V-belts at a speed
first during a stalled condition, the thermal withstand of 4500 r.p.m, having the torque curve as shown in Figure
2.18 and a moment of inertia MK2 of 2.50 kgm 2 employs a
time of the rotor should also be determined separately
squirrel cage motor with the following parameters:
for the rotor bars and the end rings. The lowest values
for the stator or the rotor will be the safe stall time for kW = 350
the entire motor. The limiting temperatures in rotor Nr = 1485 r.p.m.
components may be considered as follows:
speed-torque characteristic as in Figure 2.18
Limiting temperature for bars 450~ GD~= 30 kgm 2
Limiting temperature for rings 100~
Operating temperature for bars 150~ Safe stall time [. h o t - 30 s.
cold - 40 s.
Operating temperature for rings 70~
J
 Motor torque, load torque and selection of motors 2/47

175

150 ..... I

~-~-i~que at rated v o ' t ~ - i'~1

11111111'10" 1'15
100 I I I I , I I, ,I 00
0.96TrLI I I I I I I I I I I I I '.-' ' '..' I
I~L I I I I I I I I I I I I .~uw.e.z. I
I I"~1J,J I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I ."!'~Otor t" I I II I.~
I I I I~.~ ur ue o e ~J~
75 I i L ~ ~ ~ 8 O y o v o l ~ l I.
I I I ",~.! ! 70.41 I I 1 ~,

II !" i
35

Speed Nr Figure 2.18 Determining the accelerating

(1485 rpm) torque

Calculate the starting time and consecutive cold and hot / /2

starts for which the motor will be suitable with a D O L starting. (e) Total GD~ at motor speed = 30 + (4 x 9.81 x 2.5) 4500
1485
Solution
where [GD~ = 4. g. MK 2 ] (at the c o m p r e s s o r speed)
To determine the exact accelerating torque, measure the
ordinates of torque as shown at different speeds and calculate
the average torque as follows: i.e. GD~ = 30 + 901
(a) Average load torque = 931 Kgm 2

TL = 3 5 + 4 0 + 5 0 + 6 0 + 7 0 + 8 0 + 8 5 + 9 5 + 1 0 0 (f) Stating time t - 931 x 1485

s - 375x146.9

615 = 25.1 seconds

9 Take roughly 10% more to account for any tolerance and
= 68.33% variations,
(b) Average motor torque 9". ts = 25.1 x 1.1
T= 150+120+110+110+130+170+180+120+100 -~ 27.6 seconds
9
This motor is therefore suitable for only one cold or one hot
1190 start at a time until the temperature rise stabilizes again.
9 If this motor is started with an auto-transformer with a
- 132.2% tapping of 80%, the motor average torque will be

(c) 9 Average accelerating torque = 132.2 x 0.64 (curve 2, Figure 2.18)

Ta = 132.2 - 68.33 or T = 84.6%

= 63.87% and acceleration torque Ta = 8 4 . 6 - 68.33

(d) Motor rated torque = 16.27%

i.e. 230 x 0.1627 = 37.42 mkg.

Tr = 3 5 0 x 9 7 4
1485 931 x 1485
- 230 mkg and ts = 375 x 37.42

9". Ta = 230 x 0.6387 = 98.52 seconds

= 146.9 mkg which is much more than the safe stall-withstand time.
2/48 Industrial Power Engineering and Applications Handbook

Inference through an auto-transformer, even with a tapping as high as

On an ON-LOAD start, the starting time increases 80% although the motor possesses some accelerating torque
disproportionately, depending upon the type of switching. This at each point during pickup (curve 2 of Figure 2.18).
load therefore cannot be accelerated within a safe stall time

Relevant Standards

IEC Title IS BS

60034-12/1980 Rotating electrical machines 8789/1996 BS EN 60034-

starting performance of single-speed three-phase cage 12/1996
induction motors for voltages up to and including 690 V
60079-7/1990 Electrical apparatus for explosive gas atmosphere. 6381/1991 BS 5501-6/1977
Increased safety protection e

Related US Standards ANSI/NEMA and IEEE

NEMA/MG-1/1993 Motor and generators ratings, construction, testing and performance
NEMA/MG-2/1989 Safety Standards (enclosures) for construction and guide for
selection, installation and use of rotating machines

Notes
1 In the tables of relevant Standards in this book while the latest editions of the standards ard provided, it is possible that revised editions
have become available. With the advances of technology and/or its application, the updating of standards is a continuous process by
different standards organizations. It is therefore advisable that for more authentic references, readers should consult the relevant
organizations for the latest version of a standard.
2 Some of the BS or IS standards mentioned against IEC may not be identical.
3 The year noted against each standard may also refer to the year of its last amendment and not necessarily the year of publication.

List of formulae used also, H = W . 6 . 0 (2.8)

W = weight of heated portion in k g m

Effect of starting current on torque = specific heat of the material of windings, in
watt.s/kgm. ~
I 2 x R2 (2.1) 0 = temperature rise in ~
Tr~ S
Sharing of heat
Zst- (Ist) 2 (2.2)
rr - t-~-r ) XS Hs R1
(2.9)
Hr R~
stl (,Stl)2
Tst2 ~ (for the same rotor resistance R2)
Hr = rotor heat in W. s.
Hs = stator heat in W . s .
(2.3)
Heating during a no-load start
Tstl (Istl)2 R2
or T-~t2 = /-7"t2 x R---~-(for different rotor resistances)
Nr W-s. (2.10)
Hne = 730
(2.4)
Heating in a motor during a stalled condition:
Time of start-up
for the stator
GD2 " Nr (2.5)
n s f f . tsff = 0 . C (2.11)
t s = 375 9 Ta
ts = time of start in seconds nste - heat generated during stalled condition per second
= + in watts
tste = time for which the stalling condition prevails in
G D 2 = motor and seconds
G D 2 = load weight m o m e n t of C = heat capacity of the motor
inertia referred to the motor speed
0 seconds (2.12)
or tst e = j 2 s x 0.00552
or CD 2 = ODe "~,-~r ,) (2.6) Jss = current density during start in A / c m 2

GD~ = weight m o m e n t of inertia of load at a speed NL

Further reading
Motor heating during start-up Machinery Hand Book, Industrial Press Inc., 200 Madison Avenue,
H=I 2 .R'ts (W.s.) (2.7) New York, USA.