Intro to Biostatistics - performing estimations and hypothesis tests; (decision – making process for evaluating

claims)
I. STATISTICS - determining relationships among variables; and making predictions

Statistics Sample

- is the science of conducting studies to collect, organize, summarize, analyze, and draw conclusions - a group of subjects selected from a population
from data. - “whatever you conclude from the sample especially if the sample is properly selected, that is also a
conclusion for the whole population”
Biostatistics
Variables and Types of Data
- is the development and application of statistical concepts and techniques to biological sciences.
1. Qualitative data
Why use statistics?
o variables that can be placed into distinct categories, according to some characteristic or
- To read and understand the biostatistical studies performed in your field attribute
- Helpful in conducting research in your field o Example: sex, political affiliations, religion, geographical location, and zip code (labels)
- Better consumers or better citizens 2. Quantitative data
o Numerical and can be ordered or ranked
Statistical Terms o Subgroups:
a. Discrete – values that can be counted (example: # of notebooks)
 Variable
b. Continuous (example: age, height, and weight)
o Characteristic or attribute that can assume different values
o Example: age is the variable (why? It’s a characteristic that would assume different values
because they are base on their birth year), sex, smoker status, group, and participant (why?
Because you assign values depending on what participant)
 Random variable
o Subtype of variable
o Values determined by chance
o Age is not a random variable and Group is an example of random variable
 Data
o value that the variables can assume Measurement Scales
 Data set 1. Nominal level
o Collection of data values o classifies data into mutually exclusive (nonoverlapping), exhausting categories in which no
 Data value or datum (singular form of data) order or ranking can be imposed on the data
o Each value under the data set o example: male and female
2. Ordinal level
2 Types of Statistics
o classifies data into categories that can be ranked; however, precise differences between the
a. Descriptive ranks do not exist
- collection, organization, summarization, and presentation of data 3. Interval level
- describing a situation and NO CONCLUSION ARISES o ranks data, and precise differences between units of measure do exist; however, there is no
- example: surveys and census meaningful zero
4. Ratio level
b. Inferential o possesses all the characteristics of interval measurement, and there exists a true zero
- Use of the concepts of Probability (chance of an event from occurring) o true ratios exist when the same variable is measured on two different members of the
- generalizing from samples to populations; population
II. DATA COLLECTION AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES Variables in Statistical Studies

Data collection  independent variable (explanatory variable)

 dependent variable (outcome variable)
- uses survey (phone calls, mailed questionnaire, personal interviews)
 confounding variable – influences the dependent variable but are not separated from the independent
- surveying records
variable
- direct observations
Misuses of Statistics
Basic Methods of Sampling
 suspect samples
1. Random Sampling
- small sample = non – conclusive
o samples are selected by using chance methods or random numbers
- sample volunteers = bias
o example: draw lots
 ambiguous averages
2. Systematic Sampling
- mean, median, and mode = central tendency
o numbering each subject of the population and then selecting every nth subject
 changing the subject
3. Stratified Sampling - best way to present the data is either percentage or absolute value
o dividing the population into groups (called strata) according to some characteristic that is
 detached statistics
important to the study, then sampling from each group - compared with nothing
o samples within the strata should be randomly selected
 implied connections
4. Cluster Sampling  misleading graphs
o population is divided into groups called clusters by some means such as geographic area - no x and y – axis
o then the researcher randomly selects some of these clusters and uses all members of the  faulty survey questions
selected clusters as the subjects of the samples

III. STATISTICAL STUDIES

1. Observational
o the researcher merely observes what is happening or what has happened in the past and
tries to draw conclusions based on these observations
o no interventions involved and there may be inaccuracies
2. Experimental
o the researcher manipulates one of the variables and tries to determine how the
manipulation influences other variables
o example: clinical trials
o advantage: researcher can decide how to select subjects and how to assign them
to specific groups and the researcher can also control or manipulate the variables
o disadvantage: occurs in unnatural setting and Hawthorne effect (if a participant
knows that they are under a study, they might change their behavior)