CONDUCTION

CONDUCTION

Fourier’s Law

Conduction – Plane Wall

Conduction – Plane Walls in Series

Conduction – Plane Walls in Parallel

( )( )
∑

Conduction – Hollow Cylinder/Pipe

( )

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

Conduction – Multilayers Cylinder

( ) ( ) ( )
∑

1
 CONDUCTION

Conduction – Hollow Sphere

( ) ( )

Combined Convection and Conduction – Plane Wall

( )

Combined Convection and Conduction – Plane Walls in Series

( )

Combined Convection and Conduction – Cylindrical Wall

( ) ( )
( )

Combined Convection and Conduction – Cylindrical Walls in Series

( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

Conduction with Internal Heat Generation – Plane Wall

̇
( )

Conduction with Internal Heat Generation – Solid Cylinder

̇
( ) ( )

̇
where, R = radius of cylinder
Heat Generation with Convection
̇

( )
Conduction with Internal Heat Generation – Electric Wire
where, resistance (ohms)

Critical Thickness of Insulation of a Cylinder

( )

2
 CONVECTION

CONVECTION

FORCED CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER INSIDE PIPES

Formula Limitation
Introduction and dimensionless numbers
q  hATb  Tw 

Tb  Tw
Tf 
2
Cp
N Pr 
k
hD
N Nu 
k

Dv DG
N Re   G
m
  A
Heat-transfer coefficient for laminar flow inside a pipe
D   
1/ 3 0.14
N Re  2100

N Nu a hD
 a  1.86 N Re N Pr   b 
k  L   w  N Re N Pr
D
 100
L
 T  T   Tw  Tbo  
q  ha ATa  ha A w bi 
 2 
Heat-transfer coefficient for turbulent flow inside a pipe
0.14 N Re  6000
h D 1/ 3  b 
N Nu  L  0.027 N Re
0.8
N Pr   0.7  N Pr  16000
k 
 w
L
 60
D
0.8
3.52 υ For air at 1 atm total pressure
hL  (SI)
D 0.2

0.8
0.5 υ s
hL  (English)
(D' ) 0.2

υ
0.8
For water at T = 4-105oC
 
h L 1429 1 0.0146 T C 0.2 (SI)


o


 D 

0.8
 υ 
h L 150 1 0.011 T F s


o
(English)



(D' ) 0.2 

0.8
υ For organic liquids
hL  423 0.2 (SI)
D

0.8
υ
hL  60 s (English)
(D' ) 0.2

3
 CONVECTION

Heat-transfer coefficient for transition flow inside a pipe

Entrance-region effect on heat-transfer coefficient

0.7 L
h D 2  20
 1   D
hL L
h D 20 
L
 60
 1  6 
hL L D
Liquid-metals heat-transfer coefficient
N Pe  N Re N Pr
hL D For fully developed turbulent flow
N Nu   0.625 N Pe
0.4

k in tubes:
L
 60
D
100  N Pe  10 4
hL D For constant wall temperatures:
N Nu   5.0  0.025 N Pe
0.8

k L
 60
D
N Pe  100
Log mean temperature difference and varying temperature drop
q  U i Ai (Ti  To )  U o Ao (Ti  To )  UA(T )
q  UATlm
T2  T1
Tlm 
 T 
ln  2 
 T1 

Tlm 
Thi  Tci   Tho  Tco 
 T T  For co-current flow
ln  hi ci 
 Tho  Tco 
T  Tco   Tho  Tci 
Tlm  hi
 T  Tco  For counter-current flow
ln  hi 
 Tho  Tci 

4
 CONVECTION

HEAT TRANSFER OUTSIDE VARIOUS GEOMETRIES IN FORCED

CONVECTION

Formula Limitation
Flow parallel to flat plate
N Nu  0.664 N Re,
0.5 1/ 3 N Re  3  10 5
L N Pr
N Pr  0.7
N Nu  0.0366 N 0.8
N 1/ 3 N Re  3  10 5
Re,L Pr
N Pr  0.7
Cylinder with axis perpendicular to flow
N Nu  CN Re
m 1/ 3
N Pr

Flow past single sphere

1 N Re  1 to 70000
N Nu  2  0.60 N Re N Pr 3
0.5

N Pr  0.6 to 400
Flow past banks of tubes or cylinders

5
 CONVECTION

S n For in-line tubes

 max 
Sn  D
S n For staggered tubes
 max 

2S D
'
p 

NATURAL CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER

Formula Limitation
Natural convection from vertical and horizontal planes and cylinders
 L3  2 g T c p  
m

  aN Gr N Pr m
hL
N Nu   a 
k   2
k 

6
 CONVECTION

Limitations for Table 4.7.2

L3 T  4.7m 3
255K  T f  533K
N Gr N Pr : 10 4  10 9

Corrections for h (To be used with Table 4.7.2)

For air ≠1 atm

1
 P 2
h  htable4.7 2  
 101.32  N Gr N Pr : 10 4  10 9

2
 P 3
h  htable4.7 2  
 101.32  N Gr N Pr  10 9
Natural convection in enclosed spaces
 3  2 g T1  T2 
N Gr , 
2
h
N Nu, 
k
7
 CONVECTION

For gases enclosed between vertical plates and L

3

h
N Nu, 
k
 1.0 N Gr , .N Pr  2x10 3 

N Gr , .N Pr  4
1

N Nu,  0.20
L   1
9 6x10 3
 N Gr , .N Pr  2x10 5 

N .N Pr 
1
3

Gr ,
N Nu,  0.073
L   1
9
2x10 5
 NGr , .N Pr  2x10 7 

For liquid in vertical plates

h
N Nu,   1.0
k N Gr , .N Pr  1x10 3 

 0.28
N Gr , .N Pr  4
1

L  
N Nu,
1x10 
1
4
3
 NGr , .N Pr  1x10 7

For gases in horizontal plates with the lower plate

hotter than the upper
N Nu,  0.21NGr , .N Pr  4
1
7x10 3
 NGr , .N Pr  3x10 5 

N Nu,  0.061NGr , .N Pr  3
1
N Gr , .N Pr  3x10 5 

For liquids in horizontal plates with the lower plate

hotter than the upper
N Nu,  0.069NGr , .N Pr  3 N Pr
1 0.074
1.5x10 5
 NGr , .N Pr  1x10 9 

8
 CONVECTION

BOILING AND CONDENSATION

Formula Limitation
Boiling
Nucleate boiling
For a horizontal surface
(for water boiling on the outside of submerged
surface at 1 atm)
q
h (W/m 2 .K )  1043T 3
1
(kW / m 2 )  16
A
0  T  7.75

h (W/m 2 .K )  5.56T 
3 q
16  (kW / m 2 )  240
A
7.32  T  14.4

 
1 q
h (btu/h. ft 2 .o F )  151 T o F 3 (btu / h. ft 2 )  5000
A

h (btu/h. ft 2 .o F )  10.168 T o F   3
5000 
q
A
(btu / h. ft 2 )  75000

For a vertical surface

(for water boiling on the outside of submerged
surface at 1 atm) q
(kW / m 2 )  3
A
h  537T  7
1
0  T  4.51

h  7.95T 
3 q
3 (kW / m 2 )  63
A
4.41  T  9.43

 
1 q
h (btu/h. ft 2 .o F )  87 T o F 7 (btu / h. ft 2 )  1000
A

h (btu/h. ft 2 .o F )  0.240 T o F  
3
1000 
q
A
(btu / h. ft 2 )  20000

For P atm
0.4
 p
h 
1
For force convection boiling inside tubes at 1 atm
P

h  2.55T  e
3 1551
(SI unit)

 
P
3
h  0.077 T F e o 225
(English Unit)
Film boiling

 
1
 k v 3  v  L   v g h fg  0.4c p T 4
h  0.62 v

 D  v T 

9
 CONVECTION

Condensation
Laminar and Vertical Plate/Tubes

     v gh fg L3 
1/ 4

N Nu 
hL
 1.13 l l
NRe < 1800

kl 
 l kl T 

Turbulence and Vertical Plate/Tubes

1/ 3
 g l2 L3 
N Nu 
hL
 0.0077 
 N Re 0.4 NRe > 1800
 l 
2
kl
Vertical tube, diameter D m


D
4m 4
N Re   m = kg mass/s condensate
Dl l
Vertical plate, width W m


W
4 m 4
N Re   m = kg mass/s condensate
Wl l
Film-condensation coefficient outside horizontal
cylinders
1/ 4
hD   l (  l   v ) gh fg D 3 
N Nu   0.725 
kl  N l k l T 

10
 HEAT EXCHANGER

HEAT EXCHANGER

LOG-MEAN-TEMPERATURE-DIFFERENCE CORRECTION FACTORS

T2  T1
Tlm 
 T 
ln  2 
 T1 
For parallel-flow: Thi  Tci   Tho  Tco 
Tlm 
 T  Tci 
ln  hi 
 Tho  Tco 
For counter-flow: T  T   Tho  Tci 
Tlm  hi co
T T 
ln  hi co 
 Tho  Tci 
Thi  Tho
Z
Tco  Tci
Tco  Tci
Y
Thi  Tci
q  U i Ai Tm  U o Ao Tm
Tm  FT Tlm

11
 HEAT EXCHANGER

HEAT-EXCHANGER EFFECTIVENESS
qactual  Cmin THi  TC i 
UA
NTU 
C min
  C 
1  exp  NTU 1  min 
  C max 
For counter-flow: 
C   C 
1  min exp  NTU 1  min 
C max   C max 
  C 
1  exp  NTU 1  min 
  C max 
For parallel-flow: 
C
1  min
C max

12
 HEAT EXCHANGER

FOULING FACTOR AND TYPICAL OVERALL U VALUES

1
Ui 
1 1 ro  ri Ai A Ai
   i 
hi hdi k A AAlm Ao ho Ao hdo
1
Ui 
 1 ln( ro / ri ) 1 1 1 
Ai      
 ho Ao 2kL hi Ai hdi Ai hdo Ao 

13
 RADIATION
RADIATION

Formula Limitation
Introduction and Basic Equation for Radiation

xW/m2.K4 SI UNIT
xBtu/h.ft2.°R4 ENGLISH UNIT

Radiation to a Small Object from Surroundings



 where 

Combined Radiation and Convection

qconv = hc A1 (T1 T2)
qrad = hr A1 (T1 T2)
q = qconv + qrad = (hc + hr) A1 (T1 T2)
 (T14  T24 ) (T1 / 100) 4  (T2 / 100) 4
hr    (5.676) SI UNIT
T1  T2 T1  T2

(T1 / 100) 4  (T2 / 100) 4

hr   (0.1714) ENGLISH UNIT
T1  T2

14
 RADIATION

Effect of Radiation on the Temperature Measurement of a Gas

4
 T p   Tw 
4

qc  hc Ap (Tg  T p )  q r  Ap (5.676)    

 100   100 

Advanced Radiation Heat Transfer Principles (Radiation Spectrum)

3.7418 1016
EB  2
5 [e1.438810 / T
 1]

max T  2.898x103 m.K

EB  T 4

E E
 
E B T 4

1G  E1
 2G  EB
1 E1

 2 EB
E1 Valid at thermal equilibrium
1   1
EB

15
 RADIATION

Derivation of View Factors in Radiation for Various Geometries

q12  A1 (T14  T24 )

q12  F12 A1 (T14  T24 )

q21  F21 A2 (T14  T24 )

1
q12  A1 (T14  T24 )
1/ 1  1/  2  1
A (T1  T2 )
4 4
q12, N shields 
1 1   1 1   1 1 
   1     1     1

 1  2    3,1  3, 2    N ,1  N , 2 

(q12 ) N 1  (T14  T24 )


A N 1 2 /  1
1 cos 1 cos  2 dA1dA2
F12   
A1 A1 A2 r 2
q12  F12 A1 (T14  T24 )  F21 A2 (T14  T24 )
Ai Fij  Aj Fji where F12 A1  F21 A2 The Reciprocity Relation

16
 RADIATION
N

F
j 1
ij 1 where F11  F12  F13  ...........  1.0 The Summation Rule

The Superposition Rule

17
 RADIATION

View Factors When Surfaces are Connected by Reradiating Walls (Black Bodies)
__
A2  A1 F122 1  ( A1 / A2 ) F122
F 12  
A1  A2  2 A1 F12 A1 / A2  1  2( A1 / A2 ) F12
__ __
A1 F 12  A2 F 21
__
q12  F 12 A1 (T14  T24 )
__
F12  F 12 If no reradiating wall
View Factor and Gray Bodies
q12  F12 A1 (T14  T24 )
1
F12 
1 A1  1  1 
   1    1
2   1 
___
A2
F 12
A1F12  A2 F21
Radiation in Absorbing Gases
I L  I  0 e   L
V
L  3.6
A
q  A( GTG4   GT14 )

To determine
Black surface

To determine ( ) , ( )

18
 RADIATION

  1.0
 '
2 Non-black surfaces

q  A ' ( GTG4   GT14 ) Non-black surfaces

19
 UNSTEADY-STATE HEAT TRANSFER
UNSTEADY-STATE HEAT TRANSFER

Formula Limitation
Derivation of Unsteady State Conduction Equation

T   2T  2T  2T  q  with heat
   2  2  2  
t  x y z  c p generation

T   2T  2T  2T 
   2  2  2   without heat
t  x y z  generation
Simplified Case for Systems with Negligible Internal Resistance
hAT  T dt  c p VdT
T T dT hA t t
T T0 T  T


c p V t 0
dt

T  T  ( hA / c p V ) t
e
T0  T
Equation for Different Geometries
hx1
N Bi   0.1
k

V 4r 3 / 3 r Sphere
x1   
A 4r 2 3
V D 2 L / 4 D r
x1     Long cylinder
A DL 4 2

x1 
V

2 x  L  x 2 Long square rod
A 4(2 x) L 2 (x = ½ thickness)
Total Amount of Heat Transferred
q(t )  hA(T  T )
 ( hA/ c p V ) t
q(t )  hA(T0  T )e dt
t t t t  ( hA/ c p V ) t
Q q(t )d (t )   hA(T0  T )e dt
t 0 t 0
 ( hA/ c p V ) t
Q  c p V (T0  T )[1  e ]
Unsteady State Heat Conduction in a Semi-infinite Solid
T1  T0
 1Y
T1  T0
x  h t  x h t    x h 
 erfc  exp     erfc   t 
2 t  
 k  t k   2 t k 

20
 UNSTEADY-STATE HEAT TRANSFER

Unsteady State in a Large Flat Plate

k

c p

21
UNSTEADY-STATE HEAT TRANSFER

22
UNSTEADY-STATE HEAT TRANSFER

23
 UNSTEADY-STATE HEAT TRANSFER

Unsteady State Heat Conduction in Cylinder

24
UNSTEADY-STATE HEAT TRANSFER

25
 UNSTEADY-STATE HEAT TRANSFER

Unsteady State Heat Conduction in Sphere

26
UNSTEADY-STATE HEAT TRANSFER

27
 UNSTEADY-STATE HEAT TRANSFER

Unsteady State Conductions in Two and Three- Dimensional Systems

T1  Tx
Yx 
T1  T0
T1  T y
Yy 
T1  T0
T1  Tz
Yz 
T1  T0
T1  Tx , y , z
Yx , y , z  (Yx )(Y y )(Yz ) 
T1  T0
T1  Tx , y
Yx , y  (Yx )(Y y ) 
T1  T0
Charts for Average Temperature in a Plate Cylinder, Sphere with Negligible Surface
Resistance

T1  Tav
E
T1  T0
E  E a Eb Plate & rectangular
bar in a & b direction
E  E a Eb E c Conduction from 3
surfaces
E  Ec E r Conduction in short
cylinder

28