COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, EMBRYOLOGY & VESTIGIAL STRUCTURES

Comparative anatomy is the science of comparing the physical structures of a species with
others. To compare is to show how things are similar or different. There was lots of supporting
evidence for comparative anatomy even in Darwin’s day. For example, Darwin proposed that the
pentadactyl limb of a distant ancestor was modified by natural selection to form the different limbs
of all the living four-footed land animals (tetrapods).

The pentadactyl limbs of tetrapods have been studied in much more detail since then, and now
there are fossils that show how they evolved from living in the water to living on the land.

Comparative anatomy has been used as a starting point for most of the taxonomic classifications
we recognise today. Comparative anatomy is still used today to classify organisms, but it is often
used alongside genetic and ecological information.

CLASSIFICATION AND HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES

Organisms that belong to distantly related groups can also share similar structures. For example,
zoologists classify all animals with backbones as vertebrates. This includes fish, whales, birds and
bats. Within the vertebrates, all animals with four limbs are classified as tetrapods, as they have a
similar number of limbs and limb bones arranged in the same way. The limbs of vertebrates have
the same basic structure but not always the same functions. Vertebrate limbs are an example of
homologous features: their similarities are due to shared ancestry and their differences are due to
evolutionary divergence (change) over time.
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The forearms of mammals, amphibians, reptiles and birds are remarkably similar in structure.
Each, however, is used for a different function, such as swimming, walking or flying. The structure
of the forearm can be traced back to the fin of a fossilised fish from which amphibians are thought
to have evolved.

Similarity in characteristics that result from a common ancestry is known as homology. Anatomical
signs of evolution such as the similar forearms of mammals are called homologous structures.
For example, in the diagram below, you can see that each limb has a similar number of bones that
are arranged in the same basic pattern. Even though their functions are different, the similarity of
basic structure still exists.

COMPARATIVE EMBRYOLOGY

Embryology is the study of the development, structure, and function of embryos. Comparisons of
vertebrate embryos shows striking similarities in the early stages of their development. The
similarities, particularly in the very early stages, suggest that the genes that control the early
growth of vertebrates may have come from common ancestors. The differences that embryos
show as they develop further are due to other genes that are unique to each type of vertebrate.
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There is a time during the embryonic development of fish, lizards and humans when there are
branchial arches. These are arch-shaped structures in the throat region. Many other similar
structures are also present, such as a ‘tail’.

In humans, the parathyroid glands (endocrine glands in your neck) develop from the branchial
arches. Two of the arches grow into the bones in your middle ear. In reptiles, their lower jaws grow
from one of the arches. In fish, a gene called Gcm-2 controls the development of the branchial
arches into gills. If the gene mutates (or if scientists prevent it working) in embryonic development,
the gills fail to develop. In chick embryos, the Gcm-2 gene turns two of the arches into the
parathyroid gland. If scientists prevent the gene from working, the parathyroid gland fails to
develop. So vertebrate embryos have structures that appear to be homologous on the basis of
anatomy, and studying genes shows the same gene has produced different effects in two different
species. Somehow the Gsm-2 gene has changed in its effect on the branchial arches from one
species to another.

So, the development of mammals, reptiles, birds and fish are linked to the branchial arches.
Biologists long ago proposed that fish evolved into birds. Evidence from studying embryos
including branchial arches supports this idea.

VESTIGIAL STUCTURES

Vestigial structures are functionless structures found in organisms. They have puzzled naturalists
throughout history and were noted long before Darwin first proposed the concept of evolution form
a common ancestor (also called common descent). We now understand that individual organisms
contain, within their bodies, abundant evidence of their histories. Some of these structures are
clearly selected to perform a certain function that is no longer required. However, these features
were not selected against and so they remained. Without the theory of evolution, the tiny wings of
a cassowary are a puzzling structure. So, too, are the hindlimb buds of many snake species, which
still carry vestigial pelvises hidden beneath their skin. Vestigial structures are now interpreted as
evidence of ancestral heritage in which these structures once performed other tasks. The wings of
 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, EMBRYOLOGY & VESTIGIAL STRUCTURES

a cassowary are a reminder that a distant relative of this organism once used its wings for flying.
Similarly, snakes evolved from a four-legged ancestor.

Humans, too, carry the evolutionary baggage of our ancestry. The ancestors of humans are known
to have been herbivorous, and molar teeth are required for chewing and grinding plant material.
More than 90 % of all adult humans develop third molars (otherwise known as ‘wisdom teeth’).
Usually these teeth never erupt from the gums and in one-third of all individuals they are
malformed and impacted. These useless teeth can cause significant pain and an increased risk of
injury and may result in illness and even death.
 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, EMBRYOLOGY & VESTIGIAL STRUCTURES

QUESTIONS

1. Define the term comparative anatomy.

The science of comparing the physical structures of a species with others.

2. Some early lobe-finned fish are difficult to classify into fish or amphibian, because they have
features of both. How does this support the theory of evolution?

The observation that lobe-finned fish have both features of a fish and amphibian suggests that one
of the two species of animals have evolved into another. This fish is an example of an organism
that shows the transition of this evolutionary change.

Was a missing link between fish and amphibians. It is the evolutionary link between fish and
amphibians. The earliest amphibians evolved from fish like animals

3. The forelimbs shown below are from six different vertebrates. They show a number of
similarities. This suggests that they share a common ancestor. However, they are each modified to
suit a particular type of environment.
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(a) Match the name of the vertebrate – bat, whale, bird, frog, human, lizard – to its forelimb in the
diagram.

A: Bat B: Whale

C: Bird D: Lizard

E: Human F: Frog

(b) Make a list of the similarities of each forelimb.

Each structure has similar bone structure at specific points.

(c) Suggest the specific function of each forelimb.

A: Flying

B: Swimming

C: Flying

D: Walking and climbing

E: Various activities

F: Jumping

(d) The study of the shapes and sizes of the bodies of different organisms is called comparative
anatomy. Apart from forelimbs, which other parts of vertebrates could be useful for comparison?

Skull and hindlimbs

4. The embryos of different organisms provide further evidence to support the theory that present-
day organisms evolved from organisms in the past. The diagram below shows different stages in
the development of a bird (chicken), amphibian (salamander), and mammals (human and pig) from
fertilised egg to adult.

(a) Which organisms do you think are most closely related? Explain your answer.

Pigs and humans are more closely related as the shape of the embryo during development is very
similar compared to the rest of the organisms.

They are both mammals.

(b) How would evolutionists explain the embryonic development of these organisms?

Pigs have evolved to humans more quickly than the other organisms which explains their similar
embryonic development.

Comparisons of vertebrate embryos shows similarities in the early stages. The similarities suggest
that the genes that control the early growth of vertebrates may have come from common
ancestors. The differences that embryos shows as they develop further are due to tother genes
that are unique to each type of invertebrate

5. Land animals (tetrapods) evolved from lobe-finned fish about 400 million years ago, in the
Devonian Period. Whales evolved from land mammals about 50 million years ago. What do these
facts suggest about evolution being a process with some kind of direction or purpose?

There is no purpose. Lobe-finned fish left the water to colonise land then some tetrapods, later
went back to live in the water

6. How are the following facts linked? The Queensland lungfish is a lobe-finned fish. The same
gene controls development of fingers in humans and fin digits in the lungfish.
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The lobe-finned fish has both amphibians and vertebrate structures. Humans are vertebrates,
since both organisms have somewhat similar structures it makes sense that the same genes
control the development of fingers/digits in both organisms as they have vertebrae structures.

They are homologous structures

7. How are the following facts linked? Whales have some bones that are homologous with the
pelvis and rear limb of living tetrapods but do not function as limbs. Whales breathe air using lungs.
Whale fossils are always younger than fossils of the oldest land mammals.

Whales evolved from organisms that used limbs on land which also required them to have lungs.
The mammals that whales evolved must be older than the descendent.

8. How does the presence of vestigial structures support the theory of evolution?

They suggest that an organism changed from using the structure to not using the structure, or
using it for a different purpose

Some of these structures are clearly selected to perform certain functions that is no longer
required. However, these vestigial features were not selected against and so they remained.

Vertebrate limbs appear to have a basic underlying pattern, which is called the pentadactyl limb.
The word pentadactyl originates from ancient Greek: penta meaning five and dactyl meaning digits
(toes, fingers). This pattern is shown below.
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Some different vertebrate limbs are shown below. These are not drawn to scale.

9. Identify four limbs from the second diagram that are most like the basic pattern of vertebrate
limb that is shown in the first diagram. Explain your choices.

Whale, mole, bat and rabbit, as they have 5 digits similar to the human
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10. Identify the two limbs that are least like the basic pattern. Explain your choices.

Horse and whale, as horses only have 3 digits and whales have the most different hand structure
shape.

11. Explain how bat, horse and mole limbs are suited to their particular function.

Due to the environment they live in, nature requires different tasks in order to survive and
reproduce. Organisms with variations in the population are selectively pressured and so the most
fit organisms can reproduce and pass on the traits to their offspring. The most fit organisms are the
ones with specific limb structures which are suitable for tasks they need to survive. The traits get
passed into generations which is how all different organisms are suited to their particular function.

12. Identify which animal’s limb bone seems to have changed the most from the generalised
pentadactyl limb. Justify your choice.

The bat as its structure has changed the most out of all of the organisms as well as its function,
which is used for flying unlike the original limb’s purpose

13. According to scientific studies, bats are the closest of these animals to humans in terms of
ancestry, and rabbits are the second closest. Moles, horses and whales are more distant relatives.
Propose evidence to support or refute that, in terms of limb structure, bats and rabbits are more
closely related to humans than moles, horses and whales.

Their bone structure are very similar in the way that bones appear in same locations and numbers

14. Suggest why a vestigial structure, once it has been reduced to a certain size, may not
disappear altogether.

The structure does not interfere or provide a disadvantage to the organism so therefore there is no
reason for it to disappear as a cause of selective pressures.
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