GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING Il (THEORY) STUDY GUIDE | GTE281QEUnisa PO Box 362, UNISA, 0008 Copyright© Unisa 2005 1 terms of he Copyright Act 98 of 1878 no pat ofthis material may be reproduced, be stored in 2 rebieval system, be transmitted or used in any form or be published, redisbibuted or screened by {any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying recording or cherwise) without the price writen ‘permission of Unisa. However, permission fo use in these ways any material i his work thats ‘erived from ather sources must be obtained from the orginal sources Printed in South Aton by UnisaGEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING II (THEORY) STUDY GUIDE | GTE281QE COMPILED BY: P.E. PEARSE MODERATED BY: DR. G. FANDURAKISGEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING II (THEORY) GTE281QE INDEX CONTENTS PAGE MODULE 1 1 .MODULE 2 29 1. SOILS” 29 2. LABORATORY SOIL TESTS 63 3. FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF SOME SOILS 104 4. FIELD INVESTIGATION, PROFILING AND SAMPLING 111 5. CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS 128 6. SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS 1391. 1.1 2. 21 3. 3.1 4. 41 5. 5.1 6. 6.1 7. 7.1 8. 8.1 9. 9.1 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING II GTE281QE MODULE | GEOLOGY CONTENTS GENERAL GEOLOGY THE EARTH MINERALS SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS IGNEOUS ROCKS SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS PHYSICAL GEOLOGY SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS METAMORPHIC ROCKS. SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS HISTORICAL GEOLOGY SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS SOUTH AFRICAN STRATIGRAPHY SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS GTERBICE as Technikon SA 14 15 15 17 17 Module 7 EngineeringGEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING II GTE281QE MODULE | GEOLOGY CONTENTS PAGE SECTION Ill: ENGINEERING GEOLOGY 19 19. ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS AND SOILS. 19 19.1 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS 19 20, GROUNDWATER 22 20.1 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS 22 21. SITING OF WORKS 23 21.1 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS 23 22, ROCKIN CONSTRUCTION 25 22.1 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS 25 PART B: PRACTICAL WORK 27 SECTION I: MAPWORK 27 23 GEOLOGICAL MAPS on 23.1 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS 27 ‘GTE2B1CE 2 Module 7 Technikon SA EngineeringGEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING II GTE281QE MODULE | GEOLOGY CONTENTS. PAGE SECTION II: MINERAL IDENTIFICATION 28 27. MACROSCOPIC IDENTIFICATION 28 PART A: THEORY GTEDBICE as Module 7 Technikon SA Engineering1. GENERAL GEOLOGY 1.1. THE EARTH OBJECTIVES The objective of this chapter is to introduce the learner to a global view of the earth, its position in space relative to the other planets in the solar system, its internal structure and crustal formation Pages 1-5 in South African Geology for Mining Metallurgical, Hydrological and Civil Engineering. 1.2 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS (a) Name the five theories that have been put forward regarding the origin of our solar system (b) Briefly describe the internal structure of the Earth Illustrate your answer with a labelled sketch (©) Briefly describe what is meant by Isostasy (d) Describe what is meant by orogenesis and its effect on the surface of the Earth's crust (e) Describe what is meant by the theory of plate tectonics and its explanation of the reasons for the formation of the major geological features of the earth's surface () Write notes on seismology and its application to the measurement of earthquakes cresice = - Module 7 Technikon SA EngineeringOUTCOMES a The learner should, after studying this chapter, have an understanding of the theories postulated by geologists and other scientists as to the possible origins of the universe of which the solar system and its planets, including our earth, form a part a Furthermore the learner should have an understanding of the composition of the earth and especially its internal structures and its crust in relation to such aspects as isostasy, orogenesis, plate tectonics and seismic activity is required GTERBICE 3 Module 7 Technikon SA Engineering2. MINERALS OBJECTIVES A knowledge of the more common and abundant minerals that make up the majority of rocks forming the crust of the earth is fundamental the identification of rock types and understanding of how these weather to form soils on which structures are founded Pages 6 - 13 in South African Geology for Mining Metallurgical, Hydrological and Civil Engineering. 2.1 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS (a) What is the definition of a mineral in the context of geology (b) Name, describe and draw eight common basic crystal forms (c) Name and describe 9 of the more important terms used to describe the peculiarities of development of individual crystals or of crystal aggregates (4) — Geologists use various methods of identifying minerals such as Colour Streak Luster Density cleavage and fracture hardness Fuly describe each of these methods (e) Describe 8 other physical characteristics of minerals () Name and describe the 5 Femic minerals (g) Name and describe the native elements ‘GTEQBICE Module 7 Technikon SA Engineering(h) Name and describe the minerals that fall into the following categories oxides sulphides carbonates sulphates and phosphates halides silicates (i) Know and be able to reproduce the Mohs hardness scale (Table2 4) OUTCOMES 2 The leamer, having studied this section, should know some of the basic crystal forms, know how common minerals can be identified by colour, streak, lustre, density, cleavage, fracture and other physical characteristics a The learner will also have knowledge of some of the more common minerals and the groups into which they fall as well as their properties GTEDICE 7 Module 7 Technikon SA Engineering3. IGNEOUS ROCKS OBJECTIVES This chapter will direct the attention to, and appraise the learner of the basic origin, composition and identification of igneous rocks Igneous socks are one of the three major broad types into which rock types are classified with relation to their origin The characteristics of the basic rock types differentiate their behaviour and engineering properties both in the un-weathered and weathered states This is a valuable tool for the civil engineer/technologist when making an initial assessment of the founding conditions for a structure Pages 14 - 18 in South African Geology for Mining Metallurgical, Hydrological and Civil Engineering. 3.1. SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS (a) Fully describe the nature of magma and what happens when its temperature falls below a certain level (b) Describe the following types of volcanic eruption fissure eruptions central eruptions minor phenomena (c) Describe the following products of volcanic eruptions lava fragmental material gasses (4) Name and describe the modes of occurrence that are characteristic of igneous rocks GTE281CE ~ Module 7 Technikon SA Engineering(ec) What is meant by the texture of a rock? Describe the following terms relating tothe textures of rocks crystallinity granularity grain-shape (f) Describe the rock textures typical of lavas (9) Igneous rocks are broadly classified according to their depth of formation and their silica (SiO*) content Draw a table showing this classification and the rock types that fall into the various categories (h) Name and describe the characteristics of common igneous rocks that fall into the following categories the granite family the syenite family the diorite family the gabbro family the peridotite family OUTCOMES a After studying this section the leamer should have an understanding of how igneous rocks are formed through either volcanic action or intrusion between other layers below the earth's surface a Furthermore the characteristics, properties and composition of the more common igneous rocks should be known Module 4 ‘GTEMICE Technikon SA Engineering4. PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OBJECTIVES The objective of this chapter is to provide an understanding of how igneous rocks are formed, their composition, properties and characteristics Pages 19 - 24 in South African Geology for Mining Metallurgical, Hydrological and Civil Engineering. 4.1 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS (a) __ Briefly describe the following processes and forces that bring about changes in the shape of the earth's surface weathering corrasion corrosion mass wasting erosion denudation (b) Discuss in detail the actions of running water as a principal agent producing landforms under the headings of erosion, transport and deposition (c) _ Discuss in detail the actions of ground water and the more important results of these actions (4) Discuss the actions of ice on the earth's surface especially glaciation (e) Define the term geomorphology? Name in order from the oldest to the youngest the four major cyclic landforms that occur in Southern Africa OUTCOMES a After studying this chapter the learner should have an understanding of the forces and processes that bring about changes in the shape of the earth's surface GTEZBICE 7 ~10- Module 7 Technikon SA Engineering5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. OBJECTIVES This chapter will appraise the learner of the transformation of deposited sediments into solid strata called sedimentary rocks, their composition and characteristics Pages 25 - 27 in South African Geology for Mining Metallurgical, Hydrological and Civil Engineering. 5.1. SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS (a) Name and briefly describe five types of sedimentary deposits (b) What is diagenesis? Briefly describe the two main processes that lead to diegenesis (c) The most simple practical classification of sedimentary rocks involves groupintg them into four main classes Describe these main classes as well as the subdivisions of each class (d) Name and fully describe five common sedimentary rocks (e) Draw up a table showing the classification of sedimentary rocks OUTCOMES @ At the end of this chapter the learner should have an understanding of how, through the process of weathering, transportation and deposition, over geological time such sediments were covered by other strata to form sedimentary rocks a Furthermore the learner should know the names, properties, composition and characteristics of the more common sedimentary rocks GTE2BICE ae Module 7 Technikon SA Engineering6. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY OBJECTIVES Due to the instability of the earth’s crust, there have been movements leading to faulting end folding of the strata An understanding of the structures that have resulted is important as they have a significant influence on the design of structures on which they are situated Pages 28 — 34 in South African Geology for Mining Metallurgical, Hydrological and Civil Engineering. 6.1 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS (a) Define the following terms relating to the inherent structures of sediments stratification bedding planes laminae strata dip apparent dip dip slope strike (b) Define the following elements of a fold axis axial plane plunge plunge angle limb (c) Make a sketch showing the typical elements of a fold GTE281CE =12- Module 1 Technikon $A Engineering(d) Describe the various types of fold and illustrate these with appropriate sketches (e) _ Describe the difference between fissures and faults (f) Describe the following elements of a fault Fault plane Hade Hangingwall Footwall Slickensides Upthrow Downthrow Net-slip Strike-slip Heave Throw Rotational fault Pivotal fault Step fault Trough fault (graben) Horst (g) _ Draw diagrams showing the following effects of faulting on outcrops Normal dip fault Normal strike fault Oblique fault Faulted dome Reverse fault Strike fault OUTCOMES a The learner should have an understanding of the inclination and folding of rock strata, fissures and types of faults that occur in the earth’s crust u Leamers should be able to illustrate the types of faults with neat sketches ‘GTE2B1CE -13- Module 7 Technikon SA Engineering7. METAMORPHIC ROCKS OBJECTIVES This chapter will familiarise the learner with the third major group of rocks ie metamorphic rocks This includes the changes that are brought about in the characteristics and composition of rocks that are subjected to intense forces such as pressure and heat Pages 35 - 36 in South African Geology for Mining Metallurgical, Hydrological and Civil Engineering. 7.1 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS (a) What three agents bring about metamorphism in rocks (b) Write short essays describing Thermal metamorphism Dynamic Dynamothermal metamorphism (c)_ Wratis a metamorphic aureole? (d) Name 8 metamorphic rocks that were altered by heat (e) Describe what the term schistosity means (f) Draw a table to show the classification of metamorphic rocks (g) Name 8 common metamorphic rocks OUTCOMES a The leamer will have an understanding of the change in character, composition, structure brought about in pre-existing rocks through the metamorphic process a Furthermore learners should know the names and characteristics of some of the more common metamorphic rocks GTERBICE a Module Technikon SA Engineering8. HISTORICAL GEOLOGY OBJECTIVES Historical geology deals with the sequence of events that have occurred to shape and reshape the earth's crust over geological time It is important that the learner has an understanding of how strata can be dated and the timescale of occurrence of the various era, series, and systems in the South African Stratigraphic column Pages 37 - 43 in South African Geology for Mining Metallurgical, Hydrological and Civil Engineering. 8.1 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS (a) Describe what the terms stratigraphy and sedimentation mean (b) Explain the law of superposition as one of the basic principles of stratigraphy (c) How would a geologist estimate the time taken for a sedimentary stratum to form? (4) What do unconformities in sedimentary strata indicate? (e) Explain why the contact relations of igneous rocks with sedimentary strata are of great importance in determining the sequence of geological events () Describe briefly the science of paleontology (g) Describe the two main reasons why fossils are useful to a geologist (h) Describe briefly the following branches of paleontology invertebrate paleontology vertebrate paleontology micro paleontology paleobotany () Describe how radiometric dating is used to determine the age of rocks GTERBICE “15 Module 7 Technikon SA Engineering() _ Drawa table showing the main subdivisions of geological time (k) Name and describe the four principal lithostratigraphic unit terms OUTCOMES a The learner, after studying this chapter, should know how geologists are able to date rocks by the law of superposition, fossils and radiometric dating a. The learner should understand and know the identification of the major era of formation geological systems that has culminated in the South African Stratigraphic column which GTE2B1CE ~16- Module 1 Technikon SA Engineering9. | SOUTH AFRICAN STRATIGRAPHY OBJECTIVES The objective of this chapter is to instruct the learner in the occurrence and location of the groups, formations and the rock types that occur within the various eratha in South Africa Pages 44 — 55 in South African Geology for Mining Metallurgical, Hydrological and Civil Engineering. 9.1 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS (a) The following terms are used in the new South African stratigraphic classification Explain the meaning of these terms Sequence Supergroup Group Formation Bed Complex Suite (b) Study the following erathrems Swazian Radian Vaalian Mokolian Namibian GTEZBICE = Module T Technikon SA EngineeringOUTCOMES a The leamer should have a overall knowledge of the general stratigraphy of South Africa and the rocks that occur within the various sequences, supergroups, and groups 2 The leamer should know that at the start of any project, by locating the position of the site on the geological map, the types of rock and soils that are likely to be found in the area and also any problems that that may occur can be identified GTE2B1CE Module 7 Technikon SA EngineeringSECTION Ill: ENGINEERING GEOLOGY 19. ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS AND SOILS. OBJECTIVES: Although the properties of soils will be dealt with in much greater detail in other sections of this course, this chapter will enlighten the learner of the processes involved in the weathering of rocks to soils Pages 157 - 160 in South African Geology for Mining Metallurgical, Hydrological and Civil Engineering. 19.1 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS (a) Explain the meaning of the terms sedentary soil transported soil sorbed water degree of saturation (b) A rock is weighed under accurate laboratory conditions and the following results were recorded Mass after drying for 24 hours at 105°C (Me) = 1575g Mass after immersing for 48 hours and weighing it suspended in water (My) = 992 g Mass of saturated rock weighed in air(M,) = 1625 GTE2B1CE 7 ~ ~19- Module 7 Technikon SA EngineeringCalculate the following properties of this rock Density Bulk density Porosity Sorption (c) A lead is applied to a cylindrical rock sample having a diameter of 86 mm Calculate its compressive strength if the sample failed when the load reached of 203 KN (d) There are two distinct processes (physical and chemical) by which rocks weather to form soil Describe in detail these processes (ec) Discuss the products of weathering and give examples of rock weathering () Draw a neat sketch of a typical soil profile, name and discuss the characteristics of each horizon (@) What is clay? Name and describe the characteristics of the three groups of clay minerals Which rock types produce which clay mineral types? (h) Describe the following properties relating to soils Capillary water Cohesion Plasticity Swelling Compaction Bulking (i) Name and describe the eight soil types that occur in South Africa GTEDBICE -20- Module 1 Technikon SA EngineeringOUTCOMES a The leamer will have an understanding of such characteristics relating to rocks as density, porosity, sorption and strength as well as the methods of measuring these a The leamer shall know the weathering processes that produce soils from rocks of various types as well as the soil types occurring in South Africa GTEIBICE ‘Module 1 Technikon SA Engineering20. GROUNDWATER OBJECTIVES Since presence or absence of groundwater often has a significant effect on the design and construction of structures on or below the surface it is essential that the learner has knowledge of the nature of its occurrence and the problems that can arise if its effects are not minimised Pages 161 — 164 in South African Geology for Mining Metallurgical, Hydrological and Civil Engineering. 20.1 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS (a) Write short essays describing the following aspects relating to groundwater Rocks as water bearers Forces that control water in rocks The water table Movement of groundwater Springs Wells and boreholes Groundwater in South Africa Drainage problems Sinkholes and dolines OUTCOMES a Having studied this chapter the learner shall understand the movement of water below the surface, the forces controlling such movement, springs, wells, boreholes, drainage problems, sinkholes, dolines and landslides GTEWICE “22 Module 7 Technikon SA Engineering21. SITING OF WORKS OBJECTIVES The geology of an area very often has a direct bearing on where and how certain structures such as dams, roads, railways, power stations, ete are built Furthermore the underlying geological conditions can have a significant influence on the cost of the structure, especially the cost of foundations It is therefore essential that the learner has some fundamental understanding of the factors that can influence the siting works of a civil engineering nature Pages 165 - 171 in South African Geology for Mining Metallurgical, Hydrological and Civil Engineering. 21.1. SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS (a) _ Discuss the geological investigations that are usually carried out to determine the suitability of localities proposed for siting of structures (b) What three types of loads must the engineer consider when designing the foundations of a building? (c) Describe the various types of foundations on which buildings are constructed (4) Discuss special cases that will require consideration when designing foundations for structures (e) Discuss the following factors that should be taken into account when siting a dan The rocks and soils underlying the reservoir area The rocks and soils underlying the dam wall area GTEDEICE Be Module 7 Technikon $A Engineering(f) How will the strike and dip of the rock strata affect the stability of a cutting OUTCOMES a After studying this chapter the learner should understand the influence that the properties of the soils and rocks can have on the siting, the type of construction and foundation requirements of structures. ‘GTEISICE “2 Module 7 Technikon SA Engineering22. ROCK IN CONSTRUCTION OBJECTIVES Rock, especially in the form of crushed aggregate is used in many types of construction especially in concrete and in road layerworks The leamer should have a good understanding of the characteristics and suitability of the various rock types for construction applications Pages 172 - 175 in South African Geology for Mining Metallurgical, Hydrological and Civil Engineering. 22.1 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS (a) Describe the various uses of rock in construction and their related desirable characteristics (b) Discuss the physical and chemical properties that are desirable in concrete aggregates (c) Discuss the findings of Weinert with regard to the influence that climate has on the weathering of rocks and the consequences of this on their suitability as road building aggregate (4) Discuss the suitability of the following rock groups for aggregates Basic and intermediate crystalline rocks Acid crystalline rocks Arenaceous rocks Argillaceous rocks Carbonate rocks Recent superficially-formed deposits Mine sand GTE281CE™ -25- Module T Technikon SA EngineeringOUTCOMES a The learner, after studying this chapter, shall know the uses and sources of rock, the desirable characteristics of rocks in relation to their uses in all types of construction and as aggregates GTEZBICE 26 Module 7 Technikon SA EngineeringPART B: PRACTICAL WORK SECTION I: MAPWORK 23 GEOLOGICAL MAPS OBJECTIVES Geological maps are extremely useful tools for deciding on the siting of structures and in the location of routes for roads and railways These show what naturally occurring materials are available as well as the problems that might be encountered The learner will be expected to know the symbols used in geological maps, interpret and understand the information contained therein and to be able to draw sections showing the strata as they would occur below the surface Pages 178 - 212 in South African 23.1 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS. (a) Carty out the exercises given on pages 183 — 190 (maps 9 — 12) in the text book OUTCOMES © The learner should understand scales, profile drawing, conventional geological map symbols, strike and dip, form of outcrops, diversified relief, geological history of an erea a Furthermore the learner must be able to apply this knowledge to the interpretation of geological maps and to draw sections showing the strata as they would occur below the surface ‘GTEZBICE a Module T Technikon SA EngineeringSECTION Il: MINERAL IDENTIFICATION Page 256 in South African Geology for Mining Metallurgical, Hydrological and Civil Engineering. 27. MACROSCOPIC IDENTIFICATION Pages 272 - 276 in South African Geology for Mining Metallurgical, Hydrological and Civil Engineering. 27.1 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS (a) The student should obtain the simple implements described in the opening paragraphs of this chapter and collect a number of rock samples from a variety of geological sources in his/her area By performing the tests described the student should identify the various mineral types to be found in his collection of rocks OUTCOMES: After carrying out these exercises the student should be able to identify certain basic mineral types GTE28iCE “28 Module 7 Technikon SA EngineeringMODULE 2 SOILS CHAPTER 1 SOIL, ITS FORMATION AND CONSTITUTION CONTENTS PAGE 1.1. ORIGIN 34 1.2. WEATHERING 32 1.3. MECHANICAL WEATHERING 33 1.4 CHEMICAL WEATHERING 33 1.5 RESIDUAL SOIL 33 1.6 TRANSPORTED SOIL 34 1.7 PEDOGENIC SOIL 35 1.8 CONSTITUTION AND COMPOSITION OF SOIL 37 1.8.1 Soil constituents 37 1.8.2 Solid phase 38 1.8.2.2 Fine Soils 39 1.8.2.3 Intergranular cement 40 1.8.2.4 Organic matter a 1.8.3 Liquid phase 42 18.3.1 Water 42 1.8.4 Gaseous phase 42 1.8.4.4 Air 42 1.8.4.2 Gasses 43 1.9 CLAY SOILS 43 GTEZBICE -20- Module 2 Chapter 7 Technikon SA EngineeringMODULE 2 SOILS CHAPTER 1 SOIL, ITS FORMATION AND CONSTITUTION CONTENTS PAGE 1.9.1. Characteristics of clays 43 1.9.2. Effects of moisture change on clays 45 1.10 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS 56 GTExeIcE 0 ‘Module 2 Chapter? Technikon S4 EngineeringOBJECTIVE The objective of this chapter is to instruct candidates in the origin and formation of soils and the fundamentals of the nature and characteristics of soils as a foundation to the understanding their behaviour in the engineering context INTRODUCTION Soil may be defined in several different ways, depending on who is doing the defining For engineering purposes a soil may be defined as "any loose surface material overlying solid rock" It may generally be taken to include all material formed from aggregates of rock particles which can be separated by gentle mechanical means and excavated without blasting The empty spaces between the particles are occupied by liquid and gas Most of the Earth's land surface, and parts of the bed of the sea, are covered with a layer of granular sediments, mainly derived from the breakdown and decomposition of rocks Where such sediments either remain entirely un- cemented, or are so lightly cemented as not to change their essentially particulate nature, or where cemented materials have been broken up by excavation, they are described as soils It is this particulate or granular nature which distinguishes soils, in the general engineering sense, from rocks 1.1. ORIGIN All soils originate, directly or indirectly, from solid rocks and these are classified according to their mode of formation as follows IGNEOUS ROCKS Formed by cooling from hot molten material (‘magma’) within or on the surface of the earth's crust, eg granite, basalt, dolerite, andesite, gabbro, syenite, porphyry GTE261CE — 3 ‘Module 2 Chapter 7 Technikon SA EngineeringSEDIMENTARY ROCKS Formed in layers from sediments settling in bodies of water, such as seas and lakes, eg limestone, sandstone, mudstone, shale, conglomerate METAMORPHIC ROCKS Formed by alteration of existing rocks due to (a) extreme heat, eg marble, quartzite, or (b) extreme pressure, € g slate, schist 1.2 WEATHERING The processes of soil formation are complex, but they need only be considered here in so far as they directly affect the engineering properties of the resulting material Most soils have been formed by the disintegration of rock as a result of weathering processes which may be classified as mechanical or chemical Soil is produced by the mechanical and chemical weathering of rock Weathering is the process of breaking down rock into smaller fragments The following five factors control the nature and rate of weathering processes - a) The nature of the parent material The rock type and rock structure is initially the most important factor b) Climate_governs the type and rate of weathering Warm humid conditions favour chemical weathering, while arid conditions favour mechanical disintegration c) Living organisms may modify the climatic influences The wedging action of roots in rock fissures contribute to mechanical weathering Organic matter provides a range of acids which are active in chemical decomposition d) Topography governs the rate at which water is lost In a permanently water-logged area chemical decomposition is retarded GTEDICE Ee Module 2 Chapter 1 Technikon SA Engineering2) The period of time over which the weathering factors have acted will determine the degree of weathering 1.3. MECHANICAL WEATHERING Mechanical weathering is the fragmentation of the parent rock by physical forces, such as those resulting from temperature stresses or from the formation of ice Temperature stresses, caused by cooling of the rock mass or as a result of daily temperature changes near the surface, lead to cracking If water percolates into these cracks and subsequently freezes, the resulting expansion opens the cracks further, until eventually pieces are broken from the rock mass By the same processes, these pieces may then be broken down into smaller and smaller fragments In dry climates, the impact of sand grains carried by high winds may also cause rapid erosion of rock surfaces Mechanical weathering leaves the crystal structure of the material unchanged and clearly identifiable with that of the parent rock 1.4 CHEMICAL WEATHERING In chemical weathering the original rock minerals are transformed into new minerals by chemical reaction Water and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere form carbonic acid, which reacts with the existing rock minerals to form new minerals and soluble salts Soluble salts present in the ground water and organic acids formed from decayed organic matter also cause chemical weathering 1.5 RESIDUAL SOIL Residual soil is that soil that is still in the same place as where the parent rock from which the soil is derived originally was In other words it has not moved GTERBICE ae ~ Module 2 Chapter 7 Technikon SA EngineeringIf the rate of removal is less than the rate of formation a residual soil results Residual soil is usually underlain by the parent rock and can be very thick (over 50 m) The characteristics and engineering properties of a residual soil depends on the nature of the parent rock Generally, fine-grained particles are formed near the surface and the grain size increases with depth At greater depths angular rock fragments may also be found The soil content will be highly variable, with a wide range of both mineral type and particle size In hot climates, weathering may remove some minerals, leaving others of a more resistant nature in a concentrated deposit, e g laterite, bauxite, china clay Residual soils are generally named after the parent rock from which they were derived The table below lists the soil textures of some common residual soils 1.6 TRANSPORTED SOIL ‘Transported soils are those that have been moved by some agent from their original position to another location The main agents of transportation of the products of weathering are Water Wind Ice (glaciers) Gravity (landslides) The principal effect of transportation is that of sorting During the processes of movement, separation of the original constituents takes place This is influenced by both the nature and size of the original rock or mineral grains In hot arid climates, for example, a fine windblown dust known as loess may be carried considerable distances before being deposited Grezsice——“i‘i‘“‘“‘;}!OCUOUOU!U!O!O!O!O!~!~!~!~O!C!C!OC«CMde 2 Chapter Technikon SA EngineeringThe action of flowing water may dissolve some minerals, carry some particles in suspension and bounce or roll others along The load carried by a river or stream depends largely on the flow velocity In the upper reaches the velocity is high and so even large boulders may be moved However, the velocity falls as the river drops down towards the sea and so deposition takes place first, gravel-sized particles are deposited in the flood plain and then coarse to medium sands, and finally, in the estuary or delta areas, fine sands and silts Clay particles, because of their smallness of size and flaky shape, tend to be carried well out into the sea or lake The movement of ice also provides transport for weathered debris For example, a glacier acts as a slow-moving conveyor belt, carrying sometimes very large boulders considerable distances The weight of a boulder causes it to sink down through the ice As it reaches the sole of the glacier, it is ground against the rock base and may be reduced to a very fine rock flour Thus, the range of particle sizes in, say, a boulder clay is very large indeed The material deposited as a glacier begins to melt and retreat is termed moraine, this also will comprise a wide range of sizes and usually takes the form of a ridge or a series of flat hummocky hills 1.7 PEDOGENIC SOIL Pedogenic soils are soil particles which have been cemented together by cementing agents usually dissolved in underground waters Where these waters carrying the cementing agent migrate towards the surface, evaporation takes place and this causes the cementing process to take place As with many geological phenomena the formation of pedogenic soils is a slow procedure The general process starts with a thin coating of cementing agent forming Grezeice = -3 Module 2 Chapter 1 Technikon SA Engineeringaround each grain of the parent material With the passage of time the coating of cementing agent becomes so thick that eventually the identity of the parent material is totally lost to the characteristics of the cementing agent These soils are generally named after the cementing agent responsible for their formation such as calcrete, ferricrete and silcrete Calcrete Calcrete is only formed in relatively dry areas (je in areas where the annual evaporation exceeds the annual rainfall) Calcium carbonate (lime) dissolved in underground water migrates to the surface where it evaporates leaving behind the calcium carbonate Over the ages these deposits can reach an approachable thickness of many hundreds of meters Calcretes occur in the drier, western half of southern Africa and are very useful road building materials Ferrecrete Ferrecrete is formed by the evaporation of water carrying ferric iron (FezOs) in solution reaching an evaporation zone where the iron coats the particles of the parent mate‘ial Continual deposition of the cementing material may eventually lead to an a thick deposit of iron rich material Ferrecrete can also be a valuable source of road building material Silcrete The cementing agent leading to the formation of silcrete is silica or more correctly silicon dioxide (SiO2) The process for the formation of silcrete is similar to that of other pedogenic materials GTE261CE - - “36- jule 2 Chapter 7 Technikon SA Engineering1.8 CONSTITUTION AND COMPOSITION OF SOIL 1.8.1 Soil constituents The large majority of soils consist of mixtures of inorganic mineral particles, together with some water and air Therefore, it is convenient to think of a soil model which has three phases solid, liquid and gas ‘Any sample of soil will be found to contain some or all of the following (a) Solid phase () Coarse Soils- Gravels and sands (i) Fine soils ~ Silt and clay (iii) Intergranular cement (iv) Organic matter (b) Liquid phase () Water (i) Dissolved salts (c) Gaseous phase (i) Air (and sometimes other gases) (i) Water vapour Alll these are constituent parts of the soil, and all will, to a greater or lesser extent, affect the engineering properties GTEDBICE “aT Module 2 Chapter 7 Technikon SA EngineeringPHASES CONSTITUENTS Gas Air and water vapour Water and dissolved salts Liquid eae Rock fragments eral g Organic matter THREE PHASE SOIL MODEL 1.8.2 Solid phase 1.8.2.1 Coarse Soils Coarse soils will be classified as those having particle sizes >0 06 mm, ie gravels and sands Their grains will be rounded or angular and usually consist of fragments of rock or quartz or jasper, with iron oxide, calcite, mica often present A number of systems of size limits have been proposed by different workers reflecting the practice in the different branches of soil technology The system used for engineering purposes in this country is that given below - * Gravel fraction-particles between 60 mm and 20 mm (equivalent particle diameter) * Sand fraction-particles between 20 and 006 mm (equivalent particle diameter) * Silt fraction-particles between 006 and 0-002 mm (equivalent particle diameter) * Clay fraction-all particles smaller than 0002 mm (equivalent particle diameter) Subdivisicns exist embracing coarse, medium and fine fractions for both sand and silt ~~ Module 2 Chapter 7 GTeExice Technikon SA EngineeringGravel consists of particles of coarser material resulting from the disintegration of rocks Where these particles have been transported by water from the original source they are worn down by attrition and have rounded shapes Where no transportation has taken piace the particles are generally angular Sands are usually composed of particles of silica or quartz but some sands contain calcium carbonate in the form of shell particles and glacial sands contain comminuted rock minerals The particles are visible to the naked eye and feel gritty when rubbed between the fingers. The contribution of the sand fraction to the stability of the soil is due to the mechanical interaction between the particles (internal friction) and soils in which the fraction predominates are therefore referred to as frictional soils The particles lack any considerable cohesion owing to the relatively small influence of the inter-particle water films or of surface effects and they contribute little to the moisture suction of the soil The low surface adsorption further excludes shrinkage or swelling of the particles in this fraction Soils that are predominantly sandy often have an open structure and are therefore permeable and well drained Consolidation effects are relatively small in sandy soils which are also unsusceptible to frost damage when they are present in road foundations 1.8.2.2 Fine Soils Fine soils are finer than 0 06 mm and are typically flaky in shape, ie silts and clays Very fine oxides and sulphides, and sometimes organic matter, may also be present Of major importance in an engineering context is the flakiness of the clay minerals, which gives rise to very large surface areas Fine-grained soils, such as silts and clays, owe the greater part of their mechanical cohesion to the fact that individual particles in the soil mass are hound together by ‘GTEDBICE Weds 2 Chapter? Technikon SA Engineeringfilms of water The cohesive forces that arise from these films are thought to be of two types, viz those due to surface tension forces at the air/water interfaces within the soil siructure, and those due to interaction between the soil particles or between the particles and water molecules The cohesion due to the surface tension of water arises in soils at low moisture contents, as the soil then contains the necessary proportion of air- voids SILT Silt particles are physically and chemically rather similar to the particles in the sand fraction the differences being due mainly to the smaller size Like sand particles their contribution to soil stability is due mainly to internal friction but the inter-particle water films do confer a degree of cohesion on the soil Predominantly silty soils are very susceptible to frost heave and this is, perhaps, their chief interest to the road engineer in cold climates that have severe winters Owing to the higher permeability of silts, consolidation is much less marked than that experienced with clays Swelling and shrinkage also occur on a much reduced scale Silts can be difficult to compact CLAY The particles in the clay fraction differ from those in the other two fractions, both in their chemical constitution and in their physical properties Chemically, they consist of hydrated alumino-silicates which are formed during the leaching processes to which the coarser particles of primary rock minerals are subjected Among the minerals that occur in clay particles are forms of kaolinite, montmorillonite and mica 1.8.2.3 Intergranular cement In some soils, a considerable quantity of cementing material (such as calcite, iron oxide or silica) is deposited on the surfaces of the soil particles This material may originate in dissolved salts, introduced from elsewhere by the soil water, or may be the residual product of the disintegration of the soil minerals by leaching In either case, the mineral forms a cement between the particles, increasing the shear GTEICE -40- Module 2 Chapter 7 Technikon SA Engineeringstrength and reducing the compressibility of the soil Soils that are cemented in this manner are referred to as pedogenic soils, 1.8.2.4 Organic matter Organic matter in the soil is derived from plant or animal remains It is generally concentrated in the top 0,3 to 0,5 m of the soil, but leaching may carry it down much further in permeable soils, while peat deposits may occur at considerable depths, where the normal processes of decomposition are arrested due to lack of air Fresh organic matter in the soil is liable, in the presence of air, to attack by bacteria The end product of this attack is a group of very complex organic compounds collectively known as humus All these organic materials have properties which are very undesirable in engineering structures These properties are summarised below (a) Organic material will absorb large quantities of water (up to five times its own weight) Increases in pressure applied to the material cause large volume changes, as the water is expelled Thus, a bed of peat 3 m thick might settle 0,5 m under quite a modest increase in load There would also be considerable swelling if the load were removed Lowering the ground water level by drainage may also cause a reduction in the volume of the soil and a general settlement of the land (b) The material has very low shear strength and will adversely affect the strength of any soil of which it forms a considerable part (c) _ Humus has a very large base exchange capacity (d) The presence of organic matter inhibits the setting of cement Highly organic soils cannot be stabilised with cement The quantities of organic matter that can be tolerated depend on its nature and on the purpose for which the soil is required Humus derived in very acid conditions usually has the most serious effects in inhibiting the setting of cement In general, GTEW@ICE ar ' ‘Module 2 Chapter 1 Technikon $A Engineeringless than t% of organic matter is unlikely to affect the setting of cement 2% to 3% could seriously alter the strength and compressibility of the soil 18.3.1 Water Water plays an important part in determining the physical properties of a soil, and most of the classical studies in soil mechanics, such as those on consolidation, stability and compaction, are concemed In some way or other with the liquid/solid relationships of soil Water also acts as a solvent for any salts in the soil Fine-grained soils, such as silts and clays, owe the greater part of their mechanical cohesion to the fact that individual particles in the soil mass are hound together by films of water The cohesive forces that arise from these films are thought to be of two types, viz those due to surface tension forces at the air/water interfaces within the soil structure, and those due to interaction between the soil particles or between the particles and water molecules 1.8.4 Gaseous phase 1.8.4.1 Air Soils may be considered in a practical sense to be perfectly dry or fully saturated, or to be in a condition somewhere between these two extremes To be exact, the two extremes do not occur In a so-called ‘dry’ soil there will be water vapour present, while @ ‘fully saturated’ soil may contain as much as 2 per cent air voids Air, of course, is compressible and water vapour can freeze, both of which are significant in an engineering context GTE2B1CE aa ~~ Module 2 Chapter 7 Technikon SA Engineering1.8.4.2 Gasses It should also be noted that other gasses may also be present such as methane in soils containing decomposing organic matter is present Methane can also be present in soils overiying shallow coal deposits In areas where volcanic or geothermal activity occurs other gasses containing sulphur and other compounds are often present 1.9 CLAY SOILS Clay and soils containing clay require special mention 1.9.1. Characteristics of clays To the engineer, clay soils are generally the most problematic Their behaviour can lead to the failure of structures on which they are founded and unless the composition, nature and characteristics of clays and soils containing clays are understood, and measures are taken to design structures to withstand the adverse effects of the movement caused by volume changes due to changes in the moisture content in clays When clay dries out it shrinks When it wets up it expands To understand this phenomenon it is important to understand the composition and characteristics of the compounds from which clays are made Clay minerals are produced mainly from the weathering of feldspars and micas They form part of a group of complex alumino-silicates of potassium, magnesium and iron, known as layer-lattice minerals They are very small in size and very flaky in shape. and so have considerable surface area Furthermore, these surfaces carry a GTEZiceE Module 2 Chapter 7 Technikon SA Engineeringnegative electrical charge, a phenomenon which has great significance in the understanding of the engineering properties of clay soils The composition of clay minerals is generally complex and it would not be of any benefit to go into great detail here when that information is readily available from any good reference work on the subject However chemically, they consist of hydrated alumino-silicates which are formed during the leaching processes to which the coarser particles of primary rock minerals are subjected Physically, the clay particles differ from those in the coarser fractions in that they are flat and elongated, or lamellar, and thus have a much larger surface area per unit weight than would be the case if they were more spherical or cubical in shape The plate-like shape is a major factor causing the plasticity exhibited by clay particles when mixed with water They are thought to become oriented with their planes parallel, and the moisture films surrounding them enable the plates to slide over each other easily A change of particle orientation is thought to be the cause of the differences which are found in the behaviour of undisturbed and remoulded samples of clay The films of moisture surrounding clay particles are particularly im- portant owing to the large specific surface of the clay fraction, and the relatively large quantity of moisture that is consequently associated with it Clay particles are said to be hydrated," that is, the water associated with them is adsorbed on to their surfaces Since the adsorptive forces decrease in intensity as the distance from the particle surface increases, the condition of the water in contact with the particle also changes According to some researchers that nearest to the surface is in a tightly held, solid form, while some distance away in the body of the water, the water is in the true liquid state At points in between, the water will have characteristics intermediate between those of a solid and of a liquid The effects of this adsorbed water on suction, swelling and shrinkage are particularly pronounced in clays ‘GTEDBICE a= Module 2 Chapter 7 Technikon SA EngineeringThe small dimensions of the void spaces that can exist between clay particles result in the permeability of clay soils being very low, and hence they are difficult to drain The impedance offered to the movement of moisture also makes clay soils subject to long-term consolidation effects 1.9.2 Effects of moisture change on clays Swelling An effect associated with increase in moisture content and hence particle hydration is the swelling of clay soils At relatively short distances from the surfaces of clay particles the orienting and adsorbing forces acting on the water molecules are very strong, and the water is believed to be in the solid rather than in the liquid state (adsorbed water) As these adsorbed layers grow during the wetting of a clay, the effective solid volume associated with each particle increases, and if the layers are in contact with each other, the growth of the individual layers will be reflected in an increase in the total volume of the soil structure In practice, the adsorbed water films in clay grow in thickness until the suction pressure in the water becomes equal to the overburden pressure on the soil due either to self-loading or to externally applied loads If, when this equilibrium is reached, the loading is increased, the adsorbed water films are reduced in thickness and settlement occurs Structures built on clay soils liable to moisture changes normally rise and fall with the changing moisture conditions Shrinkage Shrinkage in clays may result from external loading (consolidation) but it is often associated with the loss of moisture due to evaporation or transpiration from vegetation that has taken up groundwater GTEDBICE ~45- Module 2 Chapter 1 Technikon SA EngineeringPlasticity Plasticity refers to a soil's ability to undergo permanent changes of shape without showing signs of rupture or any volume change When a mass of soil is subjected to a stress above its elastic limit, it will be deformed and ruptured If the soil is cohesive, however, and if its moisture content is high enough, deformation is not accompanied by a breaking up of the structure but plastic flow takes place instead Plasticity is a characteristic of all cohesive soils, and the relationship between the plastic properties of a soil and its constitution and mechanical performance are of considerable importance in soil classification Plasticity in soil is due to the lubricating effect of the water films between adjacent particles Thus it is dependent on the factors which influence the area and thickness of these films, ie on the size and shape of the individual particles and the chemical nature of their surfaces However, the thickness of the films is primarily dependent upon the moisture content of the soil, and the plasticity characteristics of soils are therefore generally studied by determining the amounts of moisture required to bring them to arbitrarily defined states of plasticity The methods by which this is done vary in the different branches of soil technology but the methods originally devised by Atterberg for agricultural use have won wide acceptance in soil engineering These are based on the supposed existence of two transition points in the state of the soil as the moisture content is increased from dryness The first, the plastic limit, (PL), is the moisture content at which the soil passes from the solid to the plastic state as defined by a given procedure, while the second, the liquid limit (LL), indicates the moisture content at which it passes from the plastic to the liquid state, also arbitrarily defined The difference between the two limits gives the range of moisture contents over which the soil is plastic, and is referred to as the plasticity index (PI) ——"Wodule 2 Chapter? GTEZICE Technikon SA EngineeringBoth the liquid and plastic limits are dependent on the clay fraction of the soil A soil with a high clay content usually has high liquid and plastic limits, while a less cohesive sandy soil gives low test results Liquid limits below 20 per cent are exceptional and difficult to determine experimentally, while most clay soils have liquid limits of the order of 50 to 90 per cent When a soil contains a high proportion of organic matter, both the limits are higher, although the plasticity index is similar to that of the same soil without an organic admixture Liquid state Semi-| Plastic state Solid state SL P| LL Moisture PL Generally, it may be said that the plasticity index (PI) is a function of the amount of clay present in a soil, while the liquid and plastic limits individually are functions of both the emount and type of clay Consequently, if liquid limits are considered in relation to plasticity indices, any differences in the relationships between them will be due to differences in the type of clay Exceptions to this are soils containing much organic matter, and those whose particles are porous and contain voids, both of which have relatively high liquid limits for a given plasticity index GTE2B1CE 47 Whole 2 Chapter 7 Technikon SA EngineeringAir w Av ; Voids Water “fi. Vs Solids (Gs) Ws I Figure 1.2: Phase relationships For the engineer the properties to be investigated in a soil are * Void ratio * Porosity * Degree of saturation © %air voids Grain specific gravity * Moisture content - this is very important * Density * Relative density When a sample of soil is taken and disturbed, ie reworked, the properties may be very different from those of an undisturbed sample - this is very important to understard and remember The following properties will be dealt with in detail 1) Void Ratio Void Ratio is defined as the volume of the voids to the volume of the solids, irrespective if the voids are filled with water or air V = total volume of sample V = volume of voids oremsice ae. ie 2 Crater 7 Technikon SA EngineeringV = volume of soil particles By definiton M e= Ve Thus v-V, ae V, Associated with the void ratio is the specific volume Specific volume is the total volume of a sample containing a unit volume of solid particles V, =tandV, =e V=V,+V, =t+e Vette 2) Porosity Porosity is defined as the ratio of volume of voids to the total volume of the sample Total volume of voids Porosity n = L@LVOlume of vores Total volume of soil Ww Vv ‘GTEWICE Module 2 Chapter 7 Technikon SA EngineeringConsider a unit volume of soil, VEVs + W =ite then 3) Degree of Saturation This is the ratio of the volume of water to volume of voids Volume of water in voids Degree of Saturation S, = an ‘ *~Total volume of voids For a perfectly dry soil S, = 0 For a saturated soil S,=1 GTE2BiCE Module 2 Chapter 7 Technikon SA Engineering4) Percentage air voids This is known as the ratio of volume of air to the total volume of soil x 100 A Percentage air voids, Vv, = “100 But A, =Vy - Vw and Vw = S: Wy = Se Thus =e-S, e=e(1-S) Thus = 18) 499 tre 5) Grain Specific Gravity This is the ratio of mass density of the solids to the mass density of water grain specific gravity, G, = 2: Pw and p, = the mass density of water and is 1000 kg/m? or 1 g/ml or 1 g/cm? ps = mass density of the solids Then Ws=Gs pw Vs GTE281CE = -51- Module 2 Chapter 7 Technikon SA EngineeringWe=Gs w 6) — Moisture Content A soil can be completely saturated or contain little moisture The moisture content and the void ratio is an indication of the voids filled with water and those filled with air The moisture content is the ratio of mass of water in the sample to the mass of solids Ww, Moisture content, m=——* Ws Moisture content are always expressed as a percentage but used as a ratio in calculations 7) Bulk Density Bulk density, also known as wet density is the density of the complete soil sample, as found on site, consisting of solids, air and water The block diagram shown in fig 9 2 represents a soil sample with these properties GTE261CE _ 52. Module 2 Chapter 7 Technikon SA Engineering= Gru S, OPw tre G48, | 44e oy The Dry density of a sample is the density of the soil with the water removed The volume of the sample will not change Dry Densty Ww, Vv Pa = but and ‘GIEWICE 53 Module 2 Chapter 7 Technikon SA Engineeringand Vette — Ss Pw tre But S. e=m G, This can be written Giru, (Ire) ~ (1+e) (G,+mG,)p, So that a= The Saturated Density is the density of the sample when the voids are completely filled with water The volume of the sample will not change and if the voids are filled with water, the mass of the water, Wu= Vw Pw The saturated density Thus GTEZSICE Be —"Wedule 2 Chapter 7 Technikon SA EngineeringThe Submerged or Buoyant Density is the effective mass per unit volume when submerged When a unit volume of soil is submerged in water it displaces an equal volume of water The net mass of a unit volume of soil, when submerged, is then eat — Pw The Relative Density is as below The actual void ratio of a soil lies somewhere between the possible maximum and minimum values, 1€ €mn and €ma= depending on the state of compaction In the case of sands and gravels there is a good deal of variation between these two extremes A convenient measurement of the state of compaction is provided by a relationship between the void ratio values which is named the relative density Relative Density So when 100% compacted the D, = 1 and loose D, = 0 In science densities of materials are compared with that of water for example the average density of the earth is 5,5 g/cm’ or Mega gram per cubic meter In soils engineering it is sometimes convenient to work in weights, ie Newton per cubic meter or Nm* This is for the calculations of stresses GTEDBICE “55 Module 2 Chapter 7 Technikon SA Engineering1.10 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS 1 Name the three basic rock types from which alll soils originate 2 Name and briefly describe the five factors that control the nature and rate of weathering of rocks to soil 3 Describe the two types of weathering ie Mechanical Weathering and Chemical Weathering 4 Describe the origin, formation and characteristics of the following soil types and give examples of each Residual soil Transported soil Pedogenic soil 5 Name the constituents of a soil that occur in the solid phase, liquid phase and gaseous phase 6 Give the size limits for the following soil particle fractions Gravel Sand Silt Cley 7 Describe in detail the characteristics of the following soil types Coarse soils Fine soils _ GTEWICE -56- Module 2 Chapter 7 Technikon SA Engineering8 White a short essay describing organic soils with the emphasis on the effect of their characteristics on the engineering properties of the soil 9 Explain why water plays an important part in determining the physical properties of a soil 10 Explain in two simple sentences what happens when the moisture content of a clay changes 11 Describe fully the following effects of moisture change on clays Swelling Shrinkage Plesticy 12 Asample of soil was found to have a mass of 67 5 9 and a volume of 39 2 ml The sample lost no weight on drying Determine the volume of the voids if the specific gravity of the solids is 270 What is the density of the whole sample in g/ml? 13 Given mass of container + wet sand = 248,5 g mass of container + dry sand = 231,2 g mass of container = 63,7 9 volume of container = 100 m3 If the specific gravity of the solids is 2 68, find the a) moisture content b) dry density ©) bulk unit weight d) void ratio GTERBICE “57 Module 2 Chapter 1 Technikon SA Engineering14 15 The insitu density of a soil sample was found to be 2100 kg/m® and its water content was 15% The specific gravity of the particles was 2,71 Calculate the dry density, the void ratio, and degree of saturation What would be the water content of this soil if completely saturated at the same void ratio? A soil sample has a mass and volume of 30,6 kg and 18,3 = 10°m* respectively When dried in the oven its mass reduced to 27,2 kg If the specific gravity of the solids is 2,65 determine the 151 bulk density 152. dry density 153 water content 154 saturated density 155 void ratio 156 porosity 157 degree of saturation [Answer: 1672 kg/m*; 1486 kg/m*; 12,5% ; 1923 kgim®; 0, 78; 43,7% ; 42,5%] 16 [Answer:16% ; 0,7: A laboratory test carried out on an undisturbed soil sample with a mass of 1,74 kg and volume of 1 x 10°m* determined the specific gravity of the solids to be 2,70 and the dry density of the soil to be 1500 kg/mJ Calculate the 161 water content 2,2 void ratio 163. porosity 2,4 saturated density 165 submerged density 2,6 degree of saturation 344% ; 1940 kg/m?; 940 kg/m’; 54,5%] GTEQSICE -58- ~ Module 2 Chapter 7 Technikon SA Engineering17 Determine the void ratio and porosity of a dry soil whose bulk density is 1670 kg/m? and specific gravity of the soil particles 2,70 [Answer 0,62; 38,3%] 18 — Asample of saturated soil has a water content of 29,0% and a bulk density of 1930 kg/m? Determine the dry density, void ratio and specific gravity of the sol What would be the bulk density of a sample of this soil if it was compacted to the same void ratio but only 90% saturated? [Answer: 1496 kg/m? ; 0.77 ; 2.65 ; 1889 kg/m*] 19 Asoil sample has a bulk density of 1,730 kg/m? and a void ratio of 0,84 If the specific gravity of the soil particles is 2,70 determine the moisture content, dry density and degree of saturation of the sample [Answer: 17,9%; 1,470 kg/m*; 57,5%] 20 The moisture content of a sample of saturated clay is 32,3%, and the specific grevity of the particles is 2,70 Find the void ratio, bulk density and dry density [Answer: 0.87; 1,910 kg/m?; 1,440 kg/m’] 21 The bulk density of a sample of clay is 1,950 kg/m®, its water content is 25,3% and the specific gravity of the particles is 2,70 Find the degree of saturation [Answer: 92,9%] GTE2BICE -53- Module 2 Chapter 7 Technikon SA Engineering22 Ina test on a soil sample, the following results were obtained Total volume of soil in its natural state 645 ml Total mass of soil after oven drying 1,050 kg Mass of jar 0,040 kg Mass of jar full of water 0,674 kg Mass of jar and dry soil 0,485 kg Mass of jar and soil plus water 0,946 kg Determine the specific gravity and the void ratio of the soil [Answer: 2,57; 0,58] 23 Calculate the dry unit weight, the saturated unit weight and the buoyant unit weight of a soil having a void ratio of 0,70 and a value of Gs of 2,72 Also calculate the bulk unit weight and moisture content of a degree of saturation of 75% (Take 9,81 = 10 m/sec’} [Answer: 16,0 kN/m®; 20,1 kN/m?; 10,1 kN/m®; 19,1 kN/im*; 19,4%] 24 25 Determine whether the following statements are true Explain your answers a) The water content cannot be zero b) The specific gravity cannot be less than 1,0 ) The degree of saturation cannot exceed 100% d) The void ratio cannot exceed 2,0 ) The porosity can exceed 100% f) The saturated unit weight for a given soil can be less than the unit weight of water The dry density of a sand with a porosity of 38,7% is 1600 kg/m? Find the void ratio of the soil and the specific gravity of the soil particles [Anwer: 0,631; 2,61] 60° Module 2 Chapter 7 Technikon SA Engineering26 The dry density of a soil is 1750 kg/m®_ Given G, = 2 66, what would be the moisture content of the soil when saturated? [Answer: 19,55%] 27 ‘A saturated soil has w = 28% and G, = 2,66 Determine it's saturated and dry unit weights [Answer: 19,14 kN/m*; 14,95 kN/m*] 28 Fora given sand, the maximum and minimum void ratios are 0,78 and 0,43 respectively Given G, = 2,67 determine the dry unit weight of the soil when the relative density is 65% [Answer: 16,87 kN/m*] 29 In a compaction test the mass of wet soil in the mould (volume 1 x 10°m‘I was 1,88 kg By drying out a small quantity of the soil, its moisture content was found to be 20,7% The specific gravity of the particles was 2,72 Find the a) dry density b) void ratio c) air content (air void ratio) What would be the water content and dry density of a sample of this soil if completely saturated at the same bulk density? [Answer: 1558 kg/m; 0,75; 10,7%; 34,9%; 1394 kg/m*] 30 An irregular sample of a firm clay was cut from a trial hole and sent to a laboratory for testing In order to determine its bulk density the sample was coated with paraffin wax and its volume found by displacement The following data was collected GTEDBICE - Wiodule 2 Chapter 7 Technion SA EngineeringMass of soil as received 924,2 g Mass of soil after coating with paraffin wax 946,6 g Volume of water displaced 513,1 m¢ Specific gravity of wax 0,9 Determine the bulk density of the soil [Answer: 1 890 kg/m*] 31 A laboratory specimen is to be prepared by ramming soil (G, = 2,68) into a cylindrical mould of diameter 104 mm_ The finished specimen is to have a mcisture content of 16% and an air void content of 5% Determine a) __ its void ratio b) its dry unit weight b) the quantities of dry soil and water required to be mixed together in order to form a specimen 125 mm long (Answer: 0,504; 17,48 kN/m*; 1892 g and 303 mi] U 32 For a soil having a void ratio of 0,750 and degree of saturation of 85% determine the porosity and air-void ratio [Answer: 42,9%; 6,4%] GTE281CE 62. Module 2 Chapter 7 Technikon SA EngineeringMODULE 2 CHAPTER 2 LABORATORY SOIL TESTS CONTENTS PAGE 2.1. INTRODUCTION 65 2.2 METHOD A1 (A): THE WET PREPARATION OF GRAVEL, SOIL OR SAND SAMPLES FOR MECHANICAL ANALYSIS AND DETERMINA TION OF ATTERBERG LIMITS AND GROUP INDEX 66 2.2.4 Scope 66 2.2.2 Apparatus 66 2.2.3 Method 68 2.2.4 Size of test sample 68 2.2.5 Quartering: 69 2.26 Preliminary sieving 69 2.2.7. Boiling and washing 70 2.2.8 Drying and fragmentation of fines: 1 2.2.9 Sieve analysis: 71 2.3. METHOD A2: THE DETERMINATION OF THE LIQUID LIMIT OF SOILS 75 2.4 METHOD A 3: THE DETERMINATION OF THE PLASTIC LIMIT AND PLASTICITY INDEX OF SOILS 84 2.5 METHOD A4(A): THE DETERMINATION OF THE LINEAR SHRINKAGE OF SOILS 93 ‘GTE2BICE 6 Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA EngineeringMODULE 2 CHAPTER 2 LABORATORY SOIL TESTS CONTENTS PAGE 2.6 METHOD A4 (B): THE DETERMINATION OF THE SHRINKAGE LIMIT OF SOILS 91 2.7. METHOD A6: THE DETERMINATION OF THE GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION IN SOILS BY MEANS OF A HYDROMETER 96 GTE281CE -64- Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA EngineeringOBJECTIVE The objective of this chapter is to introduce the leamer to six of the basic laboratory tests carried out to establish certain of the characteristics that are used identify and classify different soil types 2.1. INTRODUCTION In order to measure certain soil properties a series of tests have been devised, most of which have an empirical basis These tests require relatively simple apparatus and if performed correctly in accordance with the laid down procedures they will give reproducible results The standard procedures are given in the publication Technical Methods for Highways Standard Methods of Testing Road Construction Materials (TMH1) This chapter contains summaries extracted from TMH1 of the following tests generally carried on soils to determine certain basic characteristics that are required to determine the nature and behaviour of the material This chapter is based on Stabilisation of Soils - by Ballentine R W and Rossouw A J published by PPC Lime (1989) ISBN 0 620 14212 with their kind permission GTERBICE “65- ~~“Wiodule 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA Engineering2.2 METHOD A1(A): THE WET PREPARATION OF GRAVEL, SOIL OR SAND SAMPLES FOR MECHANICAL ANALYSIS AND DETERMINA TION OF ATTERBERG LIMITS AND GROUP INDEX (Extracts - Modified) 2.2.4 Scope The preparation of a gravel or soil sample involves the quantitative separation of the soil fines portion, ie the material passing the 0,425 mm sieve, from the coarser portion, as well as the sieve analysis of the coarser portion The soil fines are required for the mechanical analysis and for the determination of the Atterberg limits, the linear shrinkage and the group index 2.2.2 Apparatus (a) Avtiffier or sample divider with 25,4 mm openings (coning and quartering may be used but is subject to error) (b) Sieves A 19,0 mm sieve, recommended diameter 450 mm A 75,0 mm, 53,0 mm, 37,5 mm, 26,5 mm and 19,0 mm sieve, recommended diameter 300 mm, with a pan A 75,0 mm, 53,0 mm, 37,5 mm, 26,5 mm, 19,0 mm, 13,2 mm, 4,75 mm, 2,0 mm, 0,425 mm and 0,075 mm sieves, recommended diameter 203 mm with pan and cover (c) Mechanical sieve shaker (optional) 2 4 A scale with a scoop to weigh up to 5 kg sensitive to 1g (d) Basins and pans A tinned or galvanised iron basin, about 500 mm in diameter Tinned or galvanised iron basins, about 350 mm in diameter Square tinned or galvanised iron pans, about 300 mm square at the top, tapering to 250 mm square at the bottom (e) A180 mm iron mortar and pestle and rubber-tipped pestle GTERBICE “5 Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA Engineering(f) — Hetplates or ring gas burners (9) A drying oven, thermostatically controlled and capable of maintaining a temperature of 105 to 110°C (h) Brushes A brass or copper wire brush, measuring about 50 mm x 25 mm with bristles not more than 25 mm long A hard bristle nail brush, measuring about 80mm x 25 mm () — Asupply tank of distilled water fitted with 13 mm diameter rubber tubing and a pinch cock () Paper bags of 1 kg capacity (kK) Asteel bladed spatula, with blade of about 100 mm long GTE2BICE or Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA EngineeringDRYING OVEN 2.2.3 Method The method is shown as a flow diagram on the following page 2.2.4 Size of test sample The size of the test sample will depend on the amount of soil fines (ie the portion passing the 0,425 mm sieve) present in the material At least 300 9 of soil fines are required for the mechanical analysis and for the determination of the soil constants and the linear shrinkage In the case of a soil which consists mostly of soil fines, a test sample of about 400 g should prove adequate, whilst in the case of a gravel containing say only about 10% soil fines, the required quantity of material would be approximately 3 000 to 4 000 g The sample received from the field should, therefore, be divided down to the required mass ‘GTERBICE ete 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA Engineering2.2.5 Quartering: The method of subdivision known as coning and quartering consists of forming the material into a cone which is pressed flat and divided into four quadrants The two opposite quadrants are rejected The remainder is then re-formed into a cone and the process is repeated as often as necessary until the remaining test sample is of the required size Note Coning and quatering gives about 6 times the error of riffling The riffling method may sometimes be impracticable because of particle size The test sample should be representative of the field sample which should consequently be dry enough to ensure that the clods and clay lumps are friable If necessary, therefore, the field sample should be dried sufficiently in the sun or in an coven at a temperature not exceeding II0°C to meet this condition Difficulties arise in the case of field samples containing aggregate, clods or lumps of clay larger than 19 mm When this occurs the field sample should, after drying if necessary , be screened on the 19 mm screen, any clods or clay lumps remaining on the screen should be lightly broken down in the mortar so that they pass, and any larger aggregate and lumps that will not break easily should be collected aside Then both fractions, ie the under 19 mm and the over 19 mm, should be coned and quartered the same number of times, the final quarters of both factions being combined to give the required size of a representative test sample of the soil 2.2.6 Preliminary sieving The test sample should be sufficiently dry to enable it to be screened on the 0,425 mm sieve without clogging Therefore if the quartered test sample is too damp, it should be dried in an oven at a temperature not exceeding 110°C The mass of the sample is then determined and screened on a 0,425 mm sieve It is desirable to place a 2,0 mm or a 4,75 mm sieve above the 0,425 mm sieve to act as a guard for the finer sieve The material retained on the 0,425 mm sieve is transferred to a GTE2BICE Technikon SA Engineering Module 2 Chapter 2mortar and by rubbing with a rubber-tipped pestle, most of the soil aggregations are fragmented and at the same time most of the soil adhering to the aggregate is dislodged The material is again screened on the 0,425 mm sieve The minus 0,425 mm soil fines fraction obtained in the sieving operations is washed on a 0,075 mm screen ard the suspension of the undersize fraction passing is reserved for drying (in 3 5 below) The fractions remaining on the 0,425 mm and 0,075 mm screens are further treated (in 3 4 below) 2.2.7 Boiling and washing The material retained on the 0,425 mm and 0,075 mm sieves in 33 is transferred to a tin basin, covered with distilled water and brought to the boil (see 53 of this Method) It is boiled vigorously for about one minute and then allowed to coo! If necessary , the material should then be worked thoroughly by hand in the water so as to ensure that all soil aggregations are fragmented and that all the soil adhering to the aggre- gate has been loosened The larger aggregate is removed and washed with distilled water on the 0,425 mm and 0,075 mm sieves held over a clean basin until the wash water runs through clear It is again desirable to protect the 0,425 mm sieve by fitting a coarser sieve above it The clean aggregate is transferred to a square pan The finer material remaining in the "boiling" basin is stirred up vigorously and the mass is poured quantitatively on to the 0,425 mm and 0,075 mm sieves held over the second basin Both the sieves and the basin from which the material is poured should be agitated vigorously whilst pouring over The basin is washed clean with a jet of distilled water whilst still holding it over the sieves The material passing the 0,425 mm sieve is washed onto the 0,075 mm sieve by directing a jet of distilled water onto the material The material on the 0,075 mm sieve is washed separately after no more material passes the 0,42,5 mm sieve onto it and transferred quantitatively to a dish for drying (in § 5 below) The material passing through the 0,075 mm sieve in suspension is retained in the basin for drying (in 5 5 below) The sieves should be agitated whilst washing If the soil is very clayey, the 0,075 mm sieve should be placed in the water and the material on the sieve agitated by running with the fingers against the side of the sieve as this will speed-up the washing GTERBICE -70- Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA Engineeringprocess The sieve should also be raised and lowered in the wash water as this facilitates washing and keeps the amount of wash water required to a minimum The washed material on the 0,425 mm sieve is transferred to the square pan by inverting the sieve and washing down with water The water in the pan is poured off carefully and the material dried in an oven at a temperature of 105 to 110°C 2.2.8 Drying and fragmentation of fines: The material containing the fines washed through the 0,425 mm sieve and retained on the 0,075 mm sieve in 3.4 above is dried in an oven at a temperature of 105 to 110°C (see 54 of this Method) The dried soil in the bottom of the basin is loosened with a stiff wire brush or with a spatula in the case of clayey soils The material adhering to the sides of the basin is brushed down and the slurry particles are fragmented as far as possible with the brush The material is sieved on the 0,425 mm sieve and clods retained on the sieve are fragmented in the mortar with a rubber-tipped pestle, or if too hard, with the iron pestle It is unnecessary to crush finely, but sufficient to enable all the material to pass the 0,425 mm sieve The suspensions containing the minus 0,075 mm material (obtained in 33 and 3 4 above), are combined and boiled down to a slurry which is dried in an oven at 105 - 110°C to constant mass Record the mass The dried material is retained for mixing as described (in 3 6) below 2.2.9 Sieve analysis: After drying, the material retained on the 0,425 mm sieve is sieved through a nest of sieves consisting of the following 75,0 mm, 53,0 mm, 37,5 mm, 26,5 mm, 19,0 mm, 13,2 mm, 4,75 mm and 2,0 mm The sieving should be thorough and can be done either by hand or, preferably by means of a mechanical sieve shaker On no account should any sieve be overloaded as some of the fine material may be kept back if the layer on the sieve is too deep If ‘GTE2BICE Te Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA Engineeringnecessary, the material should be divided into fractions which are sieved separately After sieving, the mass of the material retained on each sieve is obtained The two fractions of soil fines, ie -0,425 mm to +0,075 mm and minus 0,075 mm, are thoroughly mixed together and retained for further tests GTEZBICE ~ “Te Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA EngineeringSAMPLE NO/MONSTERNR OY MASS/OROE MASSA. INE WERTURE SFO WSS RETARED Sueascr 5 serene @ 0 8 265 180 82 <5 cas 4 a DESCRIPTION BESKRYWING ATE /oaTUM PAN MO/ NR: SAMPLE No/MONSTERNR. ORY MASS /OROE MASSA: — [seve aPeRTURE/SFOPENNG ae = acteneuy | ar acieneey ams 2.0 0425 =04es ‘TOTAL / TOTAAL DESCRIPTION BESKRYWING. FORM At(ay/1 Recording sheet for sieve analysis ‘Stancars Test Metoce Fu, Prt, Suan 2 GTE281CE Technikon SA 7 Module 2 Chapter 2 EngineeringFORM At(a}2 Sarr Tet ass "Pron, Suh he, 008 Module 2 Chapter 2 Tas Engineering & Ele 5] citoal este] eave nna 28) g Soran waa Poaows ]840°9] 20] o'z| cu'v| ater | 0°61 | stez| suc] ores] o'ca fA - einem 2/8 Efrmssim| dh | sdarco L mao itay| OW SUAS ge ouvs [Seon kg) S203 onisgva SOVANASUE pein ‘OwlaaTUNOAIS / SIEATWRY 3A316 Fee rexryny WeLWON OS Pees "aaweonrosoe Data sheet for steve analysis and Atterberg constants GTEDBICE Technikon SAKUMULATIENE PORSENTSE EUR gg eg g ¢ g ge. 7s a: se oaee 1H 2S so HHL SS sn oars 7 I is 2 ad gS cell fF “Fw a om GTewice 15. ite 2 Captor 2 Technikon SA Engineering2.3. METHOD A2: THE DETERMINATION OF THE LIQUID LIMIT OF SOILS (Ex ‘tracts - Modified) (a) Definition The liquid limit of a soil is the moisture content, expressed as a percentage of the mass of the oven-dried soil, at the boundary between the liquid and plastic states The moisture content at this boundary is arbitrarily defined as the liquid limit and is the moisture content at a consistency determined in accordance with the procedure set down below (b) Apparatus ‘GTE2B1CE "Standard Methods" gives full details of the apparatus used for this test This is standard equipment and is available in the Republic Essentially, it consists of a brass bow! 27 mm deep cut from a hollow sphere of 108 mm 1D and 2 mm thick This bowl is hinged at one edge and a cam device enables it to be tapped by being dropped exactly 10 mm onto an ebonite base at a rate of 2 taps per second A dividing tool used in conjunction with the bowl consists of a handle to which is attached one end of a blade in the form of a quad- rant of a machined ring, 44 mm internal diameter, with an equilateral triangular section having 13,5 mm faces, one flat being on the inside of the ring, the outer edge having been machined off to produce a flat surface 2 mm wide In addition, the apparatus includes A calibrating plate with a thickness of 10mm + 0,1 mm ‘A porcelain evaporating dish with a diameter of about 100 mm A spatula with a slightly flexible blade about 100 mm long and 20 mm wide ~Te- Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA EngineeringA burette with a capacity of 50 ml or 100 mi Suitable containers, such as weighing bottles with capacities of 30 ml to 45 mi, or matched watch glasses which will prevent the loss of moisture during mass measurements - Abalance to measure up to 100 g, sensitive to 0,01 g = A drying oven, thermostatically controlled, and capable of maintaining a temperature of 105 to 110°C a i lel Piri ome LIQUID LIMIT APARATUS ‘GTEDICE Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA Engineering(c) Method ‘GTEDBICE Calibration of the liquid limit device. The height to which the bowl is raised on rotating the handle is adjusted by means of the 10 mm calibrating plate The plate is placed on the hard rubber base and the bow! is allowed to rest on the plate The hinged support of the bowl is now moved backwards or forwards by means of the thumbscrew until the cam, on rotation, just raises the bowl free of the plate The lock-screw is then tightened and the fall again checked The device should preferably be checked daily Test procedure for plastic soils 48 g of the thoroughly mixed soil fines (je the material passing the 0,425 mm sieve), obtained in accordance with the prescribed standard method of preparation (Method A1), is measured out and transferred to a porcelain dish Distilled water is added by means of a burette and the moist material is then thoroughly mixed for 10 minutes with a spatula (see 51) To facilitate mixing, the water should be added in small quantities When sufficient water has been mixed with the soil to form a stiff consistency, approximately three-quarters of the wet soil is transferred to the brass bow! of the liquid limit device, mixed slightly and flattened out in the front portion of the bowl with the spatula The material is then divided into two equal portions with one cut of the grooving tool The groove should fall along the centreline drawn through the cam-follower attached to the bowl The device is then operated at a speed which results in two taps per second being applied to the soil, until the lower parts of the faces of the two soil portions have flowed together and made contact across a distance of about 10 mm_ The number of taps required to close the groove across the distance is recorded and a sample of approximately 2 to 3 g, representative of the total thickness of the layer, is transferred to a Te Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA Engineeringtared weighing bottle (or other suitable container) for the determination of its moisture content The procedure is repeated for two additional determinations on the soil in the bowl of the liquid limit device However, before each test 2 to 3.g of material from the porcelain dish is added to the material in the bowl, to ensure that the quantity of material in the bow! is approximately the same for all the determinations Sufficient distilled water is added each time in order to obtain three samples of varying consistencies, so that at least one determination will be made in prefer- ably each of the following ranges of taps, 28 to 35, 22 to 28 and 15 to 22 The test shou'd preferably proceed from the drier to the wetter condition of the soil The moist material which has been left over in the porcelain dish is set aside for the determination of the plastic limit (see Method A3) and the shrinkage limit (see Method A4b) The masses of the containers with the soil samples are measured, after which the samples are oven-dried to constant mass at 10SoC to 110°C As a rule the material is dried overnight When the containers are removed from the oven, the lids are replaced to prevent the absorption of moisture, and after to cooling, their masses are obtained again The loss in mass is the mass of water which is expressed as a percentage of the oven dried mass of the soil - Test procedure for slightly plastic or non-plastic soils The procedure is the same as for plastic soils, except that special care should be taken in the cutting of the groove After the wet material has been transferred to the bowl, it is again mixed slightly and then bedded down in the bowl by pressing it down with the spatula and tapping the GTE281 ~ Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA Engineeringbowi a few times before grooving The groove should be cut in the material in a manner such as to avoid tearing of the sides of the groove or slipping of the soil cake in the bowl Instead of making one clear cut, a succession of light cuts which gradually result in the required cut, may be found to work better When tapping, the operator should ensure that the soil portions actually flow together and do not slide together If the soil portions slide together, the material should be remixed slightly and the test repeated If it continues to slide, it must be accepted that the liquid limit cannot be determined (4) Calculations and reporting - Moisture content The moisture content of the soil is expressed as a percentage of the mass of the oven-dried soil and is calculated as follows Moisture content ( % ) = 100 x Mass of water / mass of dried soil The calculations should be carried out to the first decimal place = Liquid Limit A “Flow curve" representing the relationship between moisture content and corresponding number of taps is then drawn by plotting the moisture contents as ordinates on a linear scale and the number of taps as abscissa on a logarithmic scale The flow curve should be a straight line drawn as nearly as possible through the three plotted points The moisture content corresponding to 25 taps is then read off the curve and is taken as the liquid limit of the soil and reported to the nearest whole number GTE2BICE -80- Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA Engineering(e) Note ‘GTESBICE It has been found that the liquid limit of certain materials is influenced by the time of mixing There is a tendency, particularly noticeable in the case of decomposed dolerites and certain calcretes for the liquid limit to increase as the time of mixing is increased, although this increase will, of course, not continue indefinitely One-point method The liquid limit may also be determined by means of the one-point method, which is considered to be a derivation of the flow curve method described above In the one-point method, the test is carried out at one consistency of the soil sample and the liquid limit is calculated by means of a formula The test procedure is the same as for the first determination in the flow curve method, except that the number of taps (N) for groove closure should be restricted to between 20 and 28 After the moisture content has been determined, the liquid limit (LL) corresponding to 25 taps is calculated by the following formula LL = Wn x Nf Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA EngineeringWhere Nf = a factor read off the table below corresponding to the number of taps N to close the groove at the moisture content Wn fy. NON 22 | 0,985 23 | 0,990 24 | 0,995 | 25 26 | 4,005 }27 | 4,009 The test is duplicated by adding 2 to 3 g of material from the porcelain dish to the material in the bowl of the liquid limit device and repeating the procedure The calculations should be carried out to the first decimal place and the average of the two determinations is taken as the liquid limit, which is reported to the nearest whole number on a suitable form ‘The remainder of the moist material in the porcelain dish is set aside for the determination of the plastic limit (see Method A3) and shrink- age limit (see Method Adb) = Two-point method Whereas in the one-point method the soil sample is tested at one consistency only, in_the two-point_method it is tested at_two ‘GTEQBICE -B2- Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA Engineeringconsistencies The test is done at a moisture content that closes the groove after about 28 taps, and is then repeated at a higher moisture content, as described in the method, so that the groove closes at about 22 taps In both cases the liquid limit corresponding to 25 taps is calculated as for the one-point method The average of the two calculated values is then recorded as the liquid limit Thereafter the linear shrinkage and plastic limit are determined as previously stated This method is regarded as being more accurate than the one-point method since an adjustment is made for the slope of the flow curve, whereas in the one-point method this slope is taken as being constant 50 = = 40) 3 8 aq 5 S = 20) ” 10 s 2 ~~25~C«S MO NUMBER OF TAPS FIGURE Ax Exarele of fow cave GTE281CE 83 Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA Engineering2.4 METHOD A 3: THE DETERMINATION OF THE PLASTIC LIMIT AND PLASTICITY INDEX OF SOILS (Extracts-Modified) (a) Definition The plastic limit of a soil is the moisture content, expressed as a percentage of the mass of the oven-dried soil, at the boundary between the plastic and semi-solid states The moisture content at this boundary is arbitrarily defined as the lowest moisture content at which the soil can be rolled into threads of about 3 mm in diameter without the threads crumbling The plasticity index is the numerical difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit and indicates the magnitude of the range of the moisture contents over which the soil is in a plastic condition (b) Apparatus = Aground-glass plate measuring some 150 mm x 220 mm - Suitable containers, such as weighing bottles with capacities of 30 mi to 45 mi’, or matched watch glasses which will prevent the loss ~f moisture during weighing A balance to measure up to 100 g, sensitive to 0,01 g ‘GTEQBICE Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA Engineering- A drying oven, thermostatically controlled, and capable of maintaining a temperature of 105 to 110°C. Method Approximately 2 to 3 g of the moist soil set aside from the liquid limit determination is kneaded with the fingers to an ellipsoidal shape It is then rolled into a thread of uniform diameter throughout its length As a rule the roling is done between the palms of the two hands, or, when dealing with cohesion less or only slightly cohesive materials, between the finger of one hand and the palm of the other hand, so as to reduce the pressure on the thread This is considered to be a satisfactory and convenient procedure and oniy in the case of highly plastic soils with very tough threads, is the rolling done on the ground glass plate, using either the fingers or the palm of the hand When the diameter of the thread had been reduced to about 3 mm, the thread is rolled up into a ball and again kneaded to an ellipsoidal shape and rolled out This process is continued until the crumbling caused by drying out of the soil prevents the formation of a thread 3 mm in diameter This means that the crumbling occurs when the thread has a diameter slightly greater than 3 mm, but this is regarded as a satisfactory end point, provided that just prior to that, the soil had been rolled into a thread 3 mm in diameter The operator should ensure that the thread is not broken up or crumbled by applying slightly excessive pressure, but crumbles on account of a lack of plasticity The crumbled soil thread is transferred to a tared weighing bottle (or other suitable container) for the determination of its moisture content A duplicate determination should be carried out in precisely the same manner The masses of the containers with the soil samples are obtained, after which the samples are oven-dried to constant mass at 105 to 110°C As a rule the material is dried overnight When the containers are removed from the oven, the lids are replaced to prevent the absorption of moisture, and after allowing to cool, their masses are obtained again The loss in mass is the mass of GTEDBICE “ae Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikan SA Engineering(d) weter evaporated, and this is expressed as a percentage of the oven-dried mass of the soil Duplicate determinations should not vary by more than 1,5 units Calculations and reporting results - Plastic limit The plastic limit is expressed as the percentage by mass of moisture contained in the oven-dried soil and is calculated as follows Plastic limit = 100 x mass of water mass of dried soil The calculation should be carried out to the first decimal place, and the average of the two determinations is taken as the plastic limit - Plasticity index The plasticity index is obtained by subtracting the plastic limit from the liquid limit It is customary to report only the liquid limit and the plasticity index, omitting the plastic limit The plasticity index is reported to the nearest whole number on the same form as used for the liquid limit Where the liquid limit cannot be determined, both the liquid limit and the plasticity index are reported as S P (slightly plastic) if there is slight shrinkage according to Method A4, or as NP (non-plastic) if there is no shrinkage at all Notes - In the case of plastic soils, a considerable amount of kneading and rolling is required in order to reduce the moisture content from the liquid limit to the plastic limit This is time consuming, and therefore it is suggested that the moist material from the liquid limit determination be spread out in a thin layer on the table and left to dry out appreciably before rolling is GTEDsICE a edule 7 Chapter? Technikon SA Engineeringcommenced The moisture content should not be reduced by the admixture of the dry soil If it is found impossible to determine the liquid limit, the determination of the plastic limit is not attempted - All masses should be accurate to the nearest 0,01 g Wiedule 2 Chapter 2 GTEICE Technikon SA Engineering25 (a) (b) (co) METHOD A4(A): THE DETERMINATION OF THE LINEAR SHRINKAGE OF SOILS (Note these tests are not included in TMH tas standard tests) Definition The linear shrinkage of a soil for the moisture content equivalent to the liquid limit, is the decrease in one dimension, expressed as a percentage of the original dimension of the soil mass, when the moisture content is reduced from the liquid limit to overdry Apparatus A shrinkage trough with inside dimensions of 150 mm long (+/- 0,25 mm) x 410 mm « 10 mm and made of 16 gauge tinned copper or stainless steel! - Assmall thick-bristle paint brush, about 5 mm wide - Paraffin wax - Assmail enamel dish or other suitable container in which to melt the wax - A spatula with a slightly flexible blade about 100 mm long and 20 mm wide = A drying oven, thermostatically controlled, and capable of maintaining a temperature of 105 to 110°C - A pair of dividers and a millimetre scale Method - Waxing the trough A clean dry shrinkage trough is first warmed to prevent premature setting of the wax The inside of the trough is covered completely within a thin layer of molten wax applied by means of a small paint brush Any excess of molten wax is shaken out by tapping trough lightly in an inverted position The layer of wax is chilled by rubbing the outside of the trough with a damp cloth This prevents the tendency to crack on cooling, leaving the surface of the trough GTEDICE “88 Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA Engineeringpartly exposed The film of wax in the trough should have a mass of 0,1 to 0,2 g to obtain satisfactory results Before using, the trough should be inspected carefully to ensure that there are no patches without any wax Filling the trough The test should be run immediately after the liquid limit test so that the moist material left over can be used for filling the trough without further mixing If for some reason it is required to carry out only the shrinkage test, about 40 9 of sol fines would first have to be mixed with water and brought to the liquid limit in accordance with Method A2 Fill one half of the waxed trough with the soil at its liquid limit by taking small pieces of soil on the spatula and pressing the soil down against the one end of the trough and working along the trough until the whole side is filled and the soil forms a diagonal surface from the top of one side to the bottom of the opoosite side The trough is now turned round and the other portion is filled in the same menner The hollow along the top of the soil in the trough is now filled so that the soil is raised slightly above the sides of the trough The excess material is removed by drawing the blade of the spatula longitudinally once only from one end of the trough to the other while exerting sufficient pressure with the forefinger on the blade of the spatula to ensure that the blade moves along the sides of the trough leaving it exactly full of the soil During this operation the wet soil may pull away from the end of the trough, in which case it should be pushed back gently with the spatula NB The soil surface should on no account be smoothed or finished off with a wet spatula Drying the wet material The trough with wet material is placed in a drying oven and dried at a temperature of between 105 and 100°C until all shrinkage has stop- ped As a rule the material is dried out overnight - though three hours should be GTemicE SSB Module 2 Chapter Technikon $A Engineering(d) (e) sufficient time in the oven The trough with material is taken out and allowed to cool in the air Measuring the shrinkage It will be found that the ends of the dry soil bar have a slight lip or projecting piece at the top These lips must be removed by abrading with a sharp narrow spatula, so that the end of the soil bar is parallel to the end of the trough If the soll bar is curved, it should be pressed back into the trough with the finger-tips so as to make the top surface as level as possible The loose dust and sand removed from the ends, as well as loose material between cracks, should be emptied out of the trough by carefully inverting the trough whilst the material is being held in position with the fingers The soil bar is then pressed tightly against the ‘end of the trough It will be noticed that the soil bar fits better at the one end than at the other end The bar should be pressed tightly against the end at which there is a better fit The distance between the other end of the soil bar and the respective end of the trough is measured by means of a good pair of dividers, measuring on a millimetre scale Caleulation and reporting - The shrinkage is expressed as a percentage of the original wet length of 150 mm and is calculated as follows Linear shrinkage = shrinkage (in mm) x 100 150 The calculation should be carried out to the first decimal place - The results shall be reported to the nearest 0,5 per cent on the same form as used for the liquid limit and the plasticity index GTERBICE -50- Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA Engineering(f) Notes = The troughs should be examined for dents and distorted sides, which faults should be corrected before using - After testing, the soil bar should be examined to ensure that the corners of the trough were filled properly, and that no air pockets were contained in the soil bar 2.6 METHOD Aé4 (B): THE DETERMINATION OF THE SHRINKAGE LIMIT OF SOILS Caution This test must be done only by experienced laboratory staff as working with mercury is extremely hazardous (a) Definition The shrinkage limit of a soil is the water content below which no further shrinkage takes place as the soil is dried Alternatively it is the smallest water content that can occur in a clay soil which is completely saturated (b) Apparatus - A petrie dish of inside dimension of approximately 50 mfi di- ameter and 10 mfi depth The top rim of the dish is ground to a smooth plain surface = A glass cover plate which can completely cover the petrie dish and into which has been set 3 equally spaced pins on a diameter of 40 mm, the pins to project 1 mm from the glass surface These pins will submerge a dry pat of soil below the mercury in the petrie dish = Freshly boiled mercury of approximately 30 ml in volume (400 g) ~ Assmall thick bristle paint brush about 5 mm wide - Paraffin wax = Asmall enamel dish or other suitable container in which to melt the wax ‘GTERBICE “a Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA Engineering- A spatula with a slightly flexible blade about 100 mm long and 20 mm wide - Abalance to measure up to 100 g sensitive to 0,01g - A crucible of approximately 100 mm diameter and one of approximately 50 mm diameter A drying oven, thermostatically controlled and capable of maintaining a temperature of 105 to 110°C (©) Method - Waxing the petrie dish The petrie dish is lined with a layer of wax as for lining the trough described in 3.1 of Method Ad(a) - Determination of the volume of the petrie dish Fill the petrie dish with mercury after placing in a crucible to collect any spillage Cover the petrie dish with the glass plate with the pins pointing downwards into the mercury Carefully squeeze down the glass plate onto the ground rim of the petrie dish so as to exude all excess mercury Ensure that no air space is captured between the mercury and glass plate Remove the glass cover plate and pour the mercury left in the petrie into the smaller crucible which has been previously tared Determine the mass of this mercury to an accuracy of 0,2 9 (HW) Return ail mercury to its original container - Filling petrie dish with soil sample Obtain about 40 grams of soil fines ( -0,425 mm) of the soil to be tested and prepare by mixing with water in the crucible as would be done for the liquid limit in accordance with Method A2 Tare the petrie dish with its wax lining ‘GTEDBICE aE Wodule 2 Chapter? Technikon SA Engineering(a) Carefully fill the petrie dish with the wet soil, using the spatula to press the soil well into the dish, ensuring that no air bubbles are in the soil during filling Carefully strike off all excess soil so that the petrie dish is completely but exactly filled with the wet soil fines Obtain the mass of the wet soil placed in the petrie dish to an accuracy of 029 - Drying out the soil Place the petrie dish with its soil in a drying oven at the temperature of between 105° and 110°C until no further loss in mass is observed Twelve hours is generally accepted for this purpose Obtain the mass of the soil to an accuracy of 0,2 g after removal of the petrie dish from the oven and allowing to cool - Determination of dry volume The dried pat of soil is removed from the petrie dish and mercury is again poured into the empty ( except for the wax coating) petrie dish until it is well filled The dried soil pat is now immersed in the mercury, using the glass cover plate with the pins pressing against the pat Ensure again that all excess mercury is excluded, carefully avoiding the capture of any air This process may be performed in the large crucible to capture all mercury spillage Remove the glass cover plate and the soil pat and again obtain the mass of mercury left in the petrie dish as in 3 2 above, to an accuracy of 0,2 g (HD) Replace all mercury in its original container Calculations and reporting - Calculate the shrinkage limit of the soil as follows - GTE2ICE “ae Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA Engineering(e) SL= (MW- MD) - PW (VWV- VD) x 100 MD Where SL= Shrinkage limit of the soil (%) MW = Mass of the wet soil in the petrie dish (g) MD = Mass of the dry soil pat (g) PW. Density of water (g/ml) WW = Volume of the wet soil in petrie dish (ml) (mass of mercury to fill petrie dish) (g) / 13,6 = HW/13,6 VD = Volume of the dry pat of soil (mi) (Mass of displaced mercury) (g) / 13,6 = (HW- HD)/13,6 = The shrinkage limit should be reported to the nearest whole percent on a suitable form Notes Alternative methods using the Linear Shrinkage may be employed provided two additional mass measurements are obtained during the performing of Method A4(a) which are (i) The wet mass of the soil placed in the trough (WW), the trough should be tared after waxing but prior to filling with soil, and (ii)the mass of the dried material in the trough after removal from the oven (WD) The shrinkage limit (SL) is calculated as follows (WW - WD) -15 (1- (1- LS)® - 1) x 100 wo Where ‘GTE281CE - “34- —~"Wodule 2 Chapter2 Technikon SA EngineeringSL= Shrinkage limit WW = Mass of wet soil in trough (g) WD= Mass of dried soil in trough (g) LS= Linear shrinkage (as a fraction - not % ) - Alternatively, since the linear shrinkage is done with a moisture content virtually at liquid limit SL = LL - 1500 x (1- (1-LS)°) wo Where LL = Liquid limit (2% ) in which case the wet mass WW is omitted - A rapid but fairly accurate method may be used by employing the Casegrande plasticity chart method adapted to formula form as follows SL=PI-0,73LL + 35 Where PI = Plasticity index (% ) LL = Liquid limit (% ) (a negative value for SL is taken as 0) ‘GTEZICE “55 Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA Engineering2.7. METHOD A6: THE DETERMINATION OF THE GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION IN SOILS BY MEANS OF A HYDROMETER (Extracts - Modified) (a) Scope The method covers the quantitative determination of the distribution of particle sizes in soils by hydrometer and is based on Stokes’ law, which relates the rate at which particles of different sizes will travel through a suspending medium to their sizes The following assumptions are made () the particles are spheres and are dispersed (i) the particles have a specific gravity of 2,65 (ii) the specific gravity of water is 1,00 The relationship reduces to, T=01/d where T = _ the time in seconds during which all particles of diameter smaller than d in mm will have settled out NB_ The standard test in TMH1provides for temperature corrections of the suspending medium due to its change in viscosity, but in view of the above assumptions and the fact that grading analyses of soils are always expressed only to the nearest whole percent, these corrections are irrelevant Temperature corrections as detailed in TMH1 have therefore been omitted from this text ‘GTEQBICE — -6- Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA Engineering(b) Apparatus Aalance to measure up to 200 g sensitive to 0,1 g A canning jar, wide mouth about 1000 ml capacity - A Bouyoucos cylinder, graduated at 1 130 and 1205 ml - A Bouyoucos hydrometer (ASTM 152 H) = A dispersing apparatus with a 60 mm paddle The paddle is attached to a 120 to 150 mm shaft which is rotated at approximately 1 500 rpm If such a dispenser is not available, an egg whisk with four vanes may be used - A table spoon A stop watch - A water bath suitably insulated to maintain a reasonably constant temperature at about 20°C - Awash bottle = Adish or small basin about 150 mm diameter - A thermometer 0 - 50°C = Apipette, 10 ml in capacity - Sodium silicate solution to be prepared as follows, Dissolve sodium silicate (preferably the waterglass solution) in distilled water until the solution gives a reading of 36 at 20°C on the standard soil hydrometer Filter the solution GTEDICE “oT edie Chapter 2 — Technikon SA EngineeringConstant temperature bath, Bouyoucos cylender And hydrometer High speed mixer - Sodium oxalate solution - this consists of a filtered saturated solution of sodium oxalate, freshly prepared Method = Preparation of sample Measure out 100 9 (50 9 for samples containing a reasonably high percentage of the silt and clay fractions) of the soil fines as prepared in accordance with Method Al Transfer the sample to a canning jar, add about 400 mé of distilled water (see 51 of this Method) and 5 mE each of the sodium oxalate and sodium silicate solutions (See 5 2 of this Method) If an egg whisk is used for dispersing, use a small basin about 150 mm diameter instead of the canning jar Stir the soil water mixture well with a glass rod and leave it to stand for at least two hours (preferably overnight) After the mixture has been allowed to stand, it is dispersed for 15 minutes with the standard dispersing paddle or for five minutes at a rate of three revolutions per second if an egg whisk is used The paddle or egg whisk is GTe2BiCE -38- ; Wodule 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA Engineeringwashed clean with distilled water, allowing the wash water to run back into the container Filling the cylinder and controlling the temperature The suspension is poured into the Bouyoucos cylinder, the canning jar is rinsed with distilled water from the wash bottle and all the suspension is transferred quantitatively to the cylinder The cylinder is then filled with distilled water to the 1 205 ml mark (1130 for a 50 g sample) with the hydrometer inside The hydrometer is removed, the cylinder inverted a few times using the palm of one hand as a stopper over the mouth of the cylinder It is then placed in the water bath which is kept as near to 20°C as possible When the contents of the cylinder are approximately at the same temperature as the water in the bath (see 5 4 of this Method), the cylinder is again inverted a few times, until a homogeneous suspension is obtained The cylinder is returned to the water bath and the time recorded The water in the bath should come almost in line with the contents of the cylinder but should not be any higher as it will then not be possible to read the hydrometer - Taking of hydrometer readings Sixty minutes after the cylinder has been placed in the bath, the hydrometer is. inserted and a reading taken to give the percentage of the -0,005 mm particles (The fine silt and clay fraction) The hydrometer is removed and the cylinder is shaken again as previously described It is placed on a table and the stopwatch started At about 10 seconds the hydrometer is inserted and a reading taken at 18 seconds to give a percentaye of the -0,075 particles (The fine sand silt and clay fraction) A reeding at 40 seconds gives percentage of -0,05 mm material (silt and clay fraction) For the clay only fraction (-0,002 mm) and colloid fraction (-0,001 mm) readings after 7 hours and 24 hours respectively may be taken GTE2B1CE 3 Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA Engineering(4) Calculations and reporting The following table gives the maximum diameter of the particles which are accounted for by the hydrometer after different intervals (see 94 of this Method) | Hydrometer | Sieve opening | Common term Common term reading at in mm as defined in as preferred | Method A6 78 seconds | 0,075 “l Material passing __| Material passing | the 0,075 mm sieve | the 0,075 mm sieve 40 seconds 0,050 | Silt= clay Silt clay 4minutes | 0,020 Silt - clay Medium & fine silt & clay 1 rour 70,005 | Clay” ~|Fine silt & clay [7 hours 10,002 - Clay 24hours | 0,001 5 Colloidal clay = If a 50g sample is used, the readings must be doubled The remaining calculations are then the same as set out below = The material smaller than 0,075 mm (18 second reading) is always expressed as a percentage of the total sample The material smaller than 0,05 mm is expressed as a percentage of the total sample and also as a percentage of the soil mortar (je the fraction passing the 2,0 mm sieve ) The material smaller than 0,005 mm is expressed only as a percentage of the soil mortar - The soil mortar is divided into 4 fractions viz Coarse sand passing 2,0 and retained on 0,425 m ( as in Method A 1) Fine sand passing 0,425 and retained on 0,05 mm (or 0,075 mm) Silt passing 0,05 (or 0,075) and retained on 0,005 mm (or 0,002mm) Clay passing 0,005 mm (or 0,002 mm) aresice “00. wredule 2 Chapter? Technikon $A Engineering(e) The test results shall be reported to the nearest whole number on a suitable form and grading analysis graph In view of the confusing definitions of sand, silt and clay it is recommended that particle distributions should always be in the form of a graph or table relating percent passing and particle size Notes = Demineralised water or clean rain water and sometimes even tap water may be used instead of distilled water If any water other than distilled or demineralised water is used it is necessary to carry out comparative tests with the water to be used and distilled water = An experienced operator will be able to make up the suspension in the cylinder so that the temperature is very near to the required 20°C by using warm water and/or cold water when filling up the cylinder It will then not be necessary to leave the cylinder with suspension in the water bath to acquire the right temperature This procedure is, in fact, commonly followed - If the correct temperature cannot be obtained it is better, theoretically, to have a slightly high temperature than a slightly low one - The percentage passing the 0,075 mm sieve, which is obtained from the 18 second reading, can also be determined by wet sieving The procedure is fully described in Method A1(a) which is considered to be a more accurate method In the case of dispute, Method AS of “Standard Methods" (not included in this manual but incorporated in 3 3, 34 and 35 of the modified Method A1(a) of this Chapter) shall be regarded as the referee method GTEDBICE “107 Module 2 Chapter? Technikon SA EngineeringGTERBICE The maximum particle sizes after 40 seconds and one hour are those given by Bouyoucos in his paper The maximum particle size after 18 seconds has been obtained form Stokes’ equation, with the assumptions enumerated in 1 above, assuming the average test conditions as far as length of particle travel and Specific gravity of particles are concerned The hydrometer method for determining particle size distribution as detailed above does not give absolute results, but gives data which are comparable and consistent, provided the method is followed in detail The method is rapid and the calculations have been reduced to a minimum The hydrometer should be kept in a soap solution (about 10% mv) when not in use, as this removes all traces of grease which may be present through handling and which would result in incorrect readings Calcareous materials and some materials containing soluble salts cannot always be tested, as the suspension flocculates If excessive flocculation occurs, the one hour and 7 hour readings are not taken - only the 18- second and 40-second readings (or 4 minute reading) - All masses should be measured to the nearest 1 g and hydrometer readings to the nearest 0,5 “0 ~Wiodule 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA EngineeringOUTCOMES After reading this chapter the learner should have an understanding of the laboratory tests that are carried out in order to establish the parameters on which the classification of soil types are based As part of the practical component of this subject the learner will be required to carry out the tests under supervision and assessment in a laboratory approved by TSA Details of the practical requirements appear in a separate document “Practicum for Geotechnical Engineering II", attached to the tutorial letter for this course GTE2B1CE ~103- Module 2 Chapter 2 Technikon SA EngineeringCHAPTER 3 SOILS FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF SOME SOILS CONTENTS. PAGE 3.1. INTRODUCTION 105 3.2 FIELD TESTING 106 3.2.1 Hand tests 106 3.2.3 Summary of identifying clues 108 3.3. SOIL NOMENCLATURE 108 3.4 SELF EVALUATION EXERCISES 110 GTEICE ~ Module 2 Chapters Technikon SA EngineeringOBJECTIVE This chapter is intended to put to the leamer some practical methods of quickly identifying soil types in the field by applying the simple tests described This is an extremely valuable skill for those engineers and technicians involved in the construction of earthworks projects such as roads, dams ete 3.1. INTRODUCTION This chapter is based on Stabilisation of Soils — by Ballentine R W and Rossouw A J published by PPC Lime (1989) ISBN 0 620 14212 with their kind permission Before considering the more formal soil classification and identification systems it may be beneficial to look at some simple tests that can be carried out quickly in the field to identify soil types However, field conditions vary widely and a quick, simplified method for determining soil types and moisture ranges for best treatment is highly desirable This should not be approached as a substitute for proper inspection or laboratory testing, but can save otherwise wasted time and effort when an unexpected change in soil or in compaction characteristics is discovered In its simplest terms, soil is considered to consist of particles of earth smaller than 60 mm in diameter From that size to 2,00 mm is gravel, and from that size down is sand, as long as particles are visible to the naked eye Particles too small to be seen individually are silt or clay fines The aim is to identify the latter in various combinations by simple hand tests Almost everyone can identify gravel or sand, so compaction problems usually centre on identifying the fine fractions comprising silt or clay whose grains are too small to be identified individually with the naked eye GTEDICE “105- ‘Module 2 Chapter 3 Technikon SA Engineerng3.2 FIELD TESTING 3.2.1 Hand tests The following simple hand tests will sort out these soil types, and should be more widely used and appreciated The fact that they can be applied to a wide range of soil types has been verified by charting the results of nearly a thousand such tests, in which a high degree of correlation was obtained Figure 3.1 “06: ——“wedule 2 Chapter — ‘GTEQBICE Technikon SA Engineering(a) Shaking test Pick out a lump of soil the size of a golf ball Knead it together and work out the larger grains Mix in a few drops at a time of water until the sample becomes mushy Jiggle the sample around in the palm and tap the back of this hand with the fingers of the other hand Observe whether the specimen gets shiny and wet on its surface Then squeeze the lump and note whether the wetness appears and disappears almost instantly, in a few seconds, or not at all Fine sands and silts have a rapid reaction Clays have almost no reaction and simply get messy (b) Toughness test To substantiate the shaking test indications, use part of the above lump of soil Alternately knead and roll it between the hands or on a flat surface into a thread or worm Continued working of the sample will gradually dry it out The object of the test is to gauge the “toughness” of the soil when it is so dry that it begins to crack and break when itis rolled into a worm 3 mm diameter The soil is too wet if it will roll into a worm having less than 3 mm diameter without breaking Pinch the worm to note its toughness or resistance Also, pick up a 75 mm piece of the worm after it breaks at the proper diameter, and hold it horizon- tally by one end A "tough" worm will support its own weight horizontally while a "weak" worm will droop Most clays wil form a tough worm High-silt mixtures will either form a weak worm or will crumble and not form a worm at all (©) Drystrength test For further confirmation, leave the soil remnants on the hands for a little while until they dry and crust If the soil contains so much sand or gravel that the firsr two tests, could not be per- formed, it is still useful to put some water on, knead it in the hand to get the hand muddy, and then let the mud dry_ If the fines are silts the fingers will feel dusty or faintly gritty and rubbing the fingers together will almost clean them When clays are handled, a hard crust will form on the skin that cannot easily be rubbed off completely when dry GTEZBICE “07 Module 2 Chapter 3 Technikon SA Engineering(d) Hand cleaning test Water fiowing gently from a tap will rinse silt soils off the hand by itself Even swishing the hand in a puddle will clean it Dried clay cannot be rinsed off by water alone and the hands must be rubbed together under the water to cleanse them A greasy feeling is characteristic of clays 3.2.3 Summary of identifying clues Clays - No reaction to shaking test, a tough worm that dries out slowly, a crusty dry residue that is hard to remove from the hands This group includes sand and gravels containing enough clay fines to readily scrape together a sample large enough for a toughness test Silts - Rapid reaction to shaking test, a weak or crumbly worm, a powdery residue that is easily rubbed or washed off the hands Lime- treated clays fall into this group Silt and Clay Mixtures - Intermediate or conflicting reactions to hand tests Sand or Gravel with few Clay Fines- Enough clay to soil the hand if a wet sample is kneaded, but not enough to allow a lump of clay to be readily scraped together Sand or Gravel with Silt Fines - Any mixture with dusty or faintly gritty fines Some other soil types exist dark-coloured, earthy-smelling soils containing high percentages (above 5%) of decayed vegetable matter (humus) These are not compactable and should be removed 3.3. SOIL NOMENCLATURE The following chart will be useful as a guide to the nomenclature of the various sizes of soil components It is based on the terminology and sizing most commonly accepted in the Republic of South Africa by most Road and Transport Authorities - GTE28iCE 08 Technikon SA Engineering| Particle Nomenclature Size | Sizing | Detection | (mm) | Method | Boulders 60,0 Coarse gravel 19,0 Medium gravel Mechanical | Particles 67 Sieves | Visible to the Fine gravel Naked eye r 20 Coarse sand | 0,425 Fine sand 0,075 Coarse silt Optical 0,005 | Hydrometer | Microscope Fine silt Analysis = Scanning Clay | 0,002 Electron (Colloids, 0,001mm) Microscope ‘GTEQBICE Module 2 Chapter 3 Technikon SA Engineering3.4 SELF EVALUATION EXERCISES 1 Collect a number of samples (say six) of apparently different types of soil Each sample should weigh about 5 kg 2 Use some of the soil to carry out the hand tests described in this chapter and record your findings (results) Store these results together with the remainder of the samples in a place where you will be able to find them at a later time 3 When you do your practical component of this subject, use the remainder of the samples that you have saved on which to carry out the Atterberg limits tests (LL, PL, Pl, Sieve (grading) analysis and compare these with the results of the hand test, OUTCOMES After studying this chapter and carrying out some of the exercises suggested in the self evaluation questions the leamer should be able to quickly identify the three basic common fine soil types viz sand(y), silt(y) and clay(ey) GTEZ1CE i Module 2 Chapter 3 Technikon SA EngineeringMODULE 2 CHAPTER 4 FIELD INVESTIGATION, PROFILING AND SAMPLING CONTENTS PAGE 4.1 INTRODUCTION 112 4.2. CHOICE OF INVESTIGATION METHOD 113 4.3. PROFILING 119 4.4 SAMPLING 127 4.5 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS 128 GTEDICE Te Module 2 Chapter 4 Technikon SA EngineeringOBJECTIVES The objective of this chapter is to instruct the learner in the methods employed in field investigations, the profiling of the various soil horizons and the taking of samples for submission to a laboratory for testing 4.1 INTRODUCTION The site on which any engineering structure, whether it be a building, dam, road, railway, pipeline, solid waste disposal site, effluent treatment works, power station, housing complex, domestic dwelling or the like is to be erected, the whole site must be investigated so that the nature and characteristics of the underlying soils and rock formations (where they may occur) have been fully identified to the full depth of influence of the loading to be applied by the completed structure There can be no doubt whatsoever that the success of any engineering project founded on the earth's surface is very dependent on the thoroughness and competency of the geotechnical exploration carried out on the site Geotechnical investigations must be carried out by persons fully trained and competent in the art and science of geotechnical engineering Geotechnical investigations comprise the following aspects Identification of geological data (formations, rock types, strata, etc from available information ie geological maps, soil data bank information etc ) Field investigations (Visual surface investigations, trial holes, auger holes, rotary drilling in hard material) Taking of representative samples in the manner prescribed and submitted to a competent laboratory for testing GTE2B1CE Te Module 2 Chapter 4 Technikon SA EngineeringInterpretation of the test results with respect to the expected loading to which the material will subject Recommendations as to the type(s) of foundations that will be suitable for the intended structure 4.2 CHOICE OF INVESTIGATION METHOD The choice of the investigation to be carried out will depend largely on the following + Type and size of structure * Geological formations prevailing on the site Investigation methods Test pi Test pits are generally the most commonly employed method of opening up a hole large enough for a person to enter in order to observe the profile the soils underlying the surface This may either be dug by hand (pick and shovel) but is a slow method and is restricted to a depth of 1 to 1,5 m in depth depending on the nature of the soil, water table and of course safety Alternatively, as is usually the preferred method, a tractor, back actor, loader (TLB) or a larger back actor machine may be used These machines will increase the depth of excavation to 2,5 - 4,5 m depending on the size of machine GTERBTCE = ATE ~ Module 2 Chapter 4 Technikon SA EngineeringIn view of cost advantages, test pits are often used as a preliminary o* first phase of the investigation Where a competent soil or rock stratum occurs close to the ground surface, the profiling and sampling of test pits may provide sufficient information for design purposes and no other form of testing is required If, on the other hand, the excavation of test pits discloses a much deeper soil profile, then it is essential to follow up the first phase with additional investigation work This is normally carried out using techniques which can reach to greater depths, such as auger trial holes and boreholes It is extremely important to follow the correct safety procedures when profiling and sampling in test pits, and the South African Institution of Civil Engineers (SAICE) Code of Practice for the safety of persons working in small diameter shafts and test pits for civil engineering purposes (1990) should be strictly adhered to at all times Experience has shown that test pits are far more prone to collapse than auger trial holes, due to the fact that a rectangular pit is less stable than a circular trial hole Even highly experienced engineers and geologists find it difficult o assess the stability of a test pit and serious accidents have been reported Drilling of auger holes Auger holes of a diameter of 750 mm are drilled using a suitable rig such as the one illustrated GTE2BICE 114 Module 2 Chapter 4 Technikon SA EngineeringThis allows a qualified person to be lowered into the hole so that he/she may profile and take the necessary samples for testing Plate 2 LA Moline rg for deing auger rial holes Figure 4.1: Auger drilling rigs (From A Guide to Practical Geotechnical Engineering in Southern Africa — Franki) GTEZBICE IE Module 2 Chapter 4 Technikon SA EngineeringRotary drilling and core recovery Where hard material that cannot be penetrated by trial pit or auger methods is encountered, rotary drilling needs to be resorted to and cores of the hard material recovered for identification and testing where necessary GTE2B1CE ~ “116 Module 2 Chapter 4 Technikon SA EngineeringPlate 2.2.8.1 - Skid Mounted Rotary Core Drilling Rig Figure 4.2: Core drilling rigs (From A Guide to Practical Geotechnical Engineering in Southern Africa - Franki) GTE2BICE i Module 2 Chapter 4 Technikon SA EngineeringSeismic investigation Seismic investigation relies on the speed of shock waves travelling through materials of a particular density and that these shock waves will reflect off the interfaces between layers of material that have different densities ‘Such shock waves may be generated by a hammer striking a steel plate (small scale investigations at relatively shallow depth) or by the detonation of an explosive charge) for To the new share the larger scale investigations to a greater depth The shock viaves transmitted through the strata that are reflected back to the surface are received by instruments that record the time of travel through the strata This data can then be interpreted and translated into the density of the material and the depth below the surface at which the change in density occurred This information can then be used to classify the material into the three commonly used categories of material hardness, ie soft, medium and hard, for excavation purposes Recording apparatus Geophones co Figure 4.3: Schematic of Seismographic method GTERSICE TE Module 2 Chapter 4 Technikon SA EngineeringThis method is often used in the preliminary investigation of road and/or rail route determinations in order to obtain estimates of intermediate and hard material depths for quantities and cost comparisons 4.3 PROFILING ‘An extremely important aspect of the geotechnical investigation is the accurate recording of the observable characteristics of the materials that are discernable on the face of the excavated trial hole or auger hole It is important that the soil profile be described in the systematic manner based on the work of Jennings, Brink and Williams as outlined hereafter | Designation [Heading | Example (MT Moisture [Moist © [Colour | Reddish | brown , ¢ Consistenc | Stiff ———e a s Structure | Intact ~ S {Soiltype [Clay | a) Origin Residual | | _ [shale Moisture The moisture content is assessed as dry, slightly moist, moist, very moist and wet The assessment at the moisture content is dependant on the soil type With a moisture content of say 20%, sand will probably be described as wet, whilst clay will probably be described as slightly moist GTEZICE 7 9 Module 2 Chapter Technikon SA EngineeringColour Colour is important for description and for correlation Colour is described from the soil in profile and also from a small sample of soil made into a creamy paste with water A profile is mottled when small exposures of different colours occur A profile is blotched when larger exposures (say 75 mm and larger) of different colour occur Colour charts obtainable from the South African Institution of Civil Engineers illustrate the main colours as well as variations in hue and lightness of each colour These charts illustrate the following colours Blue Dusky Red Dusky, Dark Pale Pale, Light Green Dusky Grey Dark Pale Light Olive Dark Orange Dark reddish Light Light reddish Bown Dark Dark yellowish Light Light yellowish Dark reddish Yellow Dak Light reddish Light Figure 4.4: Consistency Consistency is a measure of the strength or density of the soil Observations are based on the effort required to dig into the soil or to mould it with the fingers The consistency of cohesive soils is based on the undrained shear strength and described as very soft, soft, firm, stiff and very stiff Non-cohesive soil consistency described as very loose, loose, medium dense, dense and very dense Structure The presence and type of discontinuities in the soil mass define the structure Structural characteristics are generally related to cohesive soils in the following terms ‘GTERICE “120: Module 2 Chapter Technikon SA EngineeringINTACT Absence of fissures and joints, though tension cracks may occur in firm samples when broken with a pick Presence of closed joints. SLICKENSIDED | Highly polished fissures, usually indicative of expansive soils. SHATTERED | Indicates fissures which have opened up and allowed entry of air, often associated with expansive soils. MICRO- Shattering on a small scale with shattered fragments the size of SHATTERED | sand grains. If well developed, the soil appears granular when cut, but the grains break down into clay and/or silt when wetted and rubbed. Indicates the presence of a highly expansive soil. LAMINATED | Indicates that the soils show the laminated, foliated or stratified FOLIATED | structure of the parent rock or geological process from which they STRATIFIED were derived. The soil type is described on the basis of the grain size of the individual particles. The basic grain size classes are given below Most natural soils occur as a combination of these classes e g Silty clay or gravelly sand GTEBICE “aT Module 2 Chapter 4 Technikon SA EngineeringBOULDERS Fragments of rock > 200 mm 60mm - 200mm GRAVEL, COBBLES ARS 20men - 60mm. MEDIUM — | 6mm - 20mm FINE 20mm - 6mm The mage of sizeof boulders and gravel, the shape, te proportion by woe ofthe na | andthe deserpion ofthe mati ae important ‘SAND COARSE — | 06mm Omm MEDIUM — | 02mm-0 6mm FINE 006mm - 0 2mm Sand particles are visible to the naked eye SILTS (0.002mm - 0.060mm Silts are barely gritty between fingers and thumb ‘when wet, but ae gritty on tongue against teeth Silts are not easily rolled into threads when moist Silts exhibit dilatancy when moulded with water into a pat, (ie it increases its volume when shearing occurs which is illustrated by the ‘lm of ‘water on the surface being absorbed if the pat is distorted ) Silts dry moderately quickly and can be dusted off the fingers Dry lumps rossess cohesion but powder easily in the fingers fcuay articles fess than 0 002 mm Ciny pace me ky 00 pode) when broken and wil sfen nthe ion ost They have a soapy o1 greasy feel when wetted amirbbed one pm of i and Cy sis tinge an ie Sov There v0 Say Origin In any soil profile there are four basic categories of origin Rock Residual soil Pedogenic material Transported soil In the South African context, the demarcation between residual soils and overlying transported soils is often defined by the "pebble marker" This horizon is generally characterised by a gravel layer overlying the residual soil ‘GTERICE =z Module 2 Chapters Technikon SA EngineeringRock Materials described as rock comprise igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary (not pedogenic) horizons with unconfined compressive strengths of the intact or unjointed material in excess of 1000 KPa Residual Soil A residual soil is formed from in-situ decomposition of rock Decomposition can be caused by chemical weathering or mechanical disintegration which is a function of potential evaporation (temperature, humidity , wind) and average annual precipitation Pedogenic Material Description | _Cementing Agency Ferrierete Tron oxide [ Caleete Calcium carbonate Silerete Silica Pedogenic material is residual or transported soil that has become strongly cemented or partially replaced by one of the cementing agencies Subsurface Water Condition The water table is that level or those levels in the soil where the water in the pores of the soil occurs at atmospheric pressure, ie the level to which the water finds its own way in a borehole The perched water table is a table which is only present in the soil temporarily It will disappear and sometimes re-appear depending upon seasons or drainage conditions of the site The permanent water table is the water table which persists throughout the seasons of the year with only minor seasonal fluctuations of level GTERICE “aE Module 2 Chapter 4 Technikon SA EngineeringTransported Soil This is soil which has been transported by a natural agency (water, wind, gravity) during relatively recent geological times (Pleistocene or Tertiary) and which has not undergone lithification into a sedimentary rock or cementation into a pedogenic material Type Agency Source Resulting Soil Talus (seree and | Gravity Rock outerops ‘Unsorted angular coaisecolluviuin) ravel and boulders Millwash (fine | Run-off ‘Acid crystalline | Clayey sand colluviurm) Basic ciystaline | Clay Ainaceous Sand sediment Clay or silt Argillaccous sediment Alluvium Rivers, steams and | Various rocks and | Boulders wash) gulleys soils Gravels Sands sins Clays Lacustiine Deposits | Sueams Various rocks and | Sand terminating in lake, | soils sil pan ot pool Clay Estuarine Deposits | Tidal rivers and | Mixed Sand waters sit Clay Lintoral Deposits | Waves Mixed_____| Beach sand _ Acolian Deposits | Wind Mixed Sand and clayey sand ‘GTE281CE -124- Module 2 Chapter 4 Technikon SA Engineeringa rams | [RTs Treo 2,5 Ae ene esely jointed "Festdual Shei sey 5 foies ‘stains on joincs very set Shale [AE stove but pockets of very soft shignely wolse Lishe yellow brow ver weep Seif? clayey STLT with layers of ve och SHALE. PROFILE SHEE ms Poul s014/09 THI i Typical soil profile ‘GTERBICE Technikon SA Engineering ‘Module 2 Chapter 4Soils o 6 | Gravel 3 2 S| Gravelly Sond (2) sandy silt silty Clay Clayey Ferricrete Ferruginised aT = > S| catcrete I colerete Nodutes , [] wi Silerete Silorete Nodules | Made Ground 7] shottered Clay Y Permanent ~ Water Table ZY Perched Water Table Fissured and/or iz Slickensided Clay Typical soil symbols GTESICE ~126- Module 2 Chapter 4 Technikon SA Engineering4.4 SAMPLING When a number of trial holes or auger holes have been opened up on a site the first action is to make a reasonably accurate sketch plan showing the location of the holes and to give each one a number The soil samples taken for laboratory testing must be representative of the horizon from which it came and should not be contaminated by different soil types from other sources The samples must be taken from the face of the trial pit as soon as possible after opening the trial pit or auger hole so that there is no drying out of the material Samples must be placed in plastic bags and closed as quickly as possible to preserve the moisture content Bags containing soil samples must be clearly marked with the following information Site location TriaV/auger hole number Sample number Depth below surface Type of test(s) to be carried out The location and type of sample must be shown on the profile log sheet for that hole The taking of samples in the field falls into two categories Disturbed samples As the name implies, disturbed samples have their original grain structure and orientation rearranged Such samples are generally used to determine the grain particle size by sieve analysis and the Atterberg limits Greweice OSS le 2st Technikon SA EngineeringUndisturbed samples The taking of undisturbed samples involves the careful cutting of a block of material out of the wall of the trial hole or auger hole in such a way that its grain structure and orientation is not disturbed in any way The handling and transportation of such samples must ensure that the sample is not disturbed in any way whatsoever Undisturbed samples are used in shear box, odometer or triaxial tests to determine such properties as collapse potential, compressibility, heave, shear strength 4.5 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS 1 What could be the consequences resulting from geotechnical investigations being carried out by persons not trained and fully competent in the science and art of geotechnical engineering? 2 Describe briefly five aspects comprising geotechnical investigations 3 Name and describe the three methods of invest gating the nature of soils occurring below the surface 4 Describe the 6 discernable characteristics used to describe a soil type, giving examples of each 5 What are disturbed and undisturbed samples and for what purposes would they be taken SrEsicE “a6 ——"woue 2 Chapter a — Technikon SA EngineeringOUTCOMES After studying this chapter the learner should understand and know the methods employed in geotechnical field investigations, profiling of soil horizons, the taking and submitting of samples to a laboratory for testing GTE2B1CE —128- ~ Module 2 Chapter 4 Technikon SA EngineeringMODULE 2 SOILS CHAPTER 5 CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS CONTENTS PAGE 5.1 INTRODUCTION 131 5.2 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION 132 5.3 ATTERBERG LIMITS 135 5.4 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS 136 GTEDBICE : ~130- Module 2 Chapter 5 Technikon SA EngineeringOBJECTIVES The objectives of this chapter are to instruct the learner in the various methods of classifying or grouping soils having similar characteristics into various types or categories Such classification methods allow the learner to quickly identify soils that are suitable for use in particular applications such as road pavement materials, earth dam embankments etc Also they can also serve as warnings to the engineer that the insitu materials may be unsuitable to support the structure that may have been intended for that site 5.1. INTRODUCTION A soil classification system provides a framework of soil groupings, data for the identification of the different soil types being given a few simple tests are used on which to base the classification It furthermore provides a guide to the expected behaviour of the different types in the classification under various engineering conditions There have been a number of classification methods developed in the last century That originally devised by Coulomb and subsequently modified and now referred to as the Unified System is widely used The Highway Research Bureau (HRB) or American Association of State Highway and Traffic Officials (AASHTO) system is favored by the designers of road works The classification systems to be discussed use the results of the laboratory tests outlined in chapter 2 of module 2 of this study guide, mainly the sieve size (grading) analysis (Partical size distribution) The Atterberg limits (liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index) GTERICE ~~ iat —~~S*S~*~*~*~*~*S* Chapter Technikon SA EngineeringThese tests are often referred to as the indicator tests It will be advantageous to look at some of the characteristics of these tests 5.2. PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION The particle size distribution is obtained from test methods A1 and A6 Method A1 using the sieve analysis will determine the grading of the gravel and sand particles larger than 0,075 mm whereas the particle grain sizes smaller than 0,075 mm need to be determined by hydrometer analysis as set out in Method A6 If the particle size distribution is plotted to a log scale similar to form A1(a)/3 in TMH1 various samples would plot as in the following example The hydrometer analysis is based on the principle of sedimentation of soil grains in water When a soil specimen is dispersed in water, the particles settle at different velocities, depending on their size, weight and the viscosity of the water For simplicity it is assumed that all the soil particles are spheres and the velocity of soil particles can be expressed by Stokes law according to which -- Particle-Size Distribution Curve The results of the sieve and hydrometer analyses are often presented by semi- logarithmic plots known as particle size distribution curves or grading curves Due to the extremely wide range of particle diameters they are plotted in log scale, and the corresponding percent passing, in natural scale GTEDBICE aE Module 2 Chapter 5 Technikon SA EngineeringFigure 5.1: Particle size distribution curve Grading Characteristics The particle-size distribution curve is also used to determine three basic soil parameters which are used to classify granular soils These parameters are a Effective size a Uniformity coefficient 2 Coefficient of curvature (or gradation} First of all, three points are located on the grading curve to give the following characteristic sizes dy do = Maximum size of the smallest 30 per cent of the sample Maximum size of the smallest 10 per cent of the sample deo = Maximum size of the smallest 60 per cent of the sample GTEZBICE ~ =133- Module 2 Chapter 5 Technikon SA EngineeringZ— grading curve Percentage finer yy ey Particle size (ment Figure 5.2: Grading characteristics From these characteristic sizes, the following grading characteristics are defined Effective size = Uniformity coefficient, Cy = deo/dyo Coefficient of gradation (or curvature, Cg= (ds0)"/deo x dio iomm Both Cu and Cg will be unity for a single-sized soil, while Cu < 3 indicates uniform grading and Cu > 5 a well-graded soil The coefficient of curvature provides a measure of the smoothness of the distribution Extremely large values of Cc suggest that the soil is gap graded A well graded sand or gravel will have a Cc value between 1 and 3 Grading Modulus The Grading Modulus of a soil is an empirical number derived from the grading analysis of the soil and serves as an indication of the coarseness or fineness of the material The Grading Modulus (GM) can in theory vary from 0 for an extremely fine material to 3 for a very coarse gravel with no fines at all A good gravel may have a GM of 2,5 maximum and a fine silty-clayey soil may have a GM of 0,5 or less GtexeicE 2 Cater 5 Technikon SA EngineeringThe grading modulus (GM) gives an indication of the coarseness of the soil 300 —(Paon +Pouas +Ppors ee ee ee Where P20 ete denotes the percentage retained on the relevant sieve size GM The higher the grading modulus the coarser the material and vice versa Examples (1) Agravel for a foundation course contains 40% less than 2 mm, 24% less than 0,425 mm and 10% less than 0,075 mm_ Its Grading Modulus is as follows P2o= 40 Poazs = 24 Poors = 10 Thus com 300=40-24-10 100 = 2,26 (2) A soil grading shows that the material has 30% larger than 0,075 mm, 12% larger than 0,425 mm and nothing larger than 2mm The Grading Modulus may be calculated thus P2000 = 100 - 0 = 100 Po.4zs= 100 - 12 = 88 00 - 30 = 70 Poors = _ 300-100-88-70 7 100 cM =42 5.3. ATTERBERG LIMITS When clay minerals are present in a fine grained soil, it can be remoulded with water without crumbling This putty-like behaviour is caused by the adsorbed water surrounding the clay particles In the early 1900's a Swedish scientist named GTEQSiCE ~135- Module 2 Chapter & Technikon SA EngineeringAtterberg developed a method to describe the consistency of fine-grained soils with varying moisture contents Atterberg originally proposed six limits against which the water content of fine grained soil can be compared The Atterberg limits are water contents taken at critical stages in soil behaviour These limits of consistency are 1) Upper limit of viscous flow 2) Liquid limit 3) Sticky limit 4) Cohesion limit 5) Plastic limit 6) Shrinkage limit In current geotechnical engineering practice the term Atterberg limits refers only to the The Liquid limit (LL), the Plastic limit (PL) and the shrinkage limit (SL) Referring to figure 3 the liquid limit represents the lower limit of viscous flow whereas the plastic limit represents the lower limit of the plastic state and the shrinkage limit represents the lower limit of volume change Atterberg also defined a very important parameter called the Plasticity index (PI) which is the difference between the liquid and plastic limits, ie PI = LL- PL, Liquid Limit (LU Two methods are available for determining the liquid limit, these are the "traditional" method using the Casagrande apparatus, and the more recently developed cone penetrometer method Both methods utilise approximately 200 g of soil passed through the O,425mm sieve The Casagrande procedure is covered in TMH1 Method A2 The Cone Penetrometer Method is discussed below The cone penetrometer apparatus is illustrated in figure 5 3 ‘GTEmsICE SE Technikon SA Engineering7 ‘manual oe i weosetaree | [I | __ Sie dial gauge (CO) device Ree sr ay ee — iy angle 30° eae heavy base eer Figure 5.3: Cone penetrometer apparatus Briefly, the soil is placed in the cup, scraped level with the top using a palette knife, and the cup placed on the standard apparatus A standard metal cone on a shaft is clamped with the tip just touching the surface of the soil It is then released for five seconds and clamped again The distance the cone has penetrated the soil is measured to the nearest 0,1 mm using the dial gauge The test is repeated The soil is removed from the cup, a sample taken for moisture content determination and the remaining soil mixed with a little more water This process is repeated for at least four different moisture contents The amounts of water mixed with the soil should be such as to give an even spread of results between about 15 mm and 25 mm penetration Liquid limit By plotting the cone penetration against the moisture content (linear scales) the percentage moisture content corresponding to 20 mm penetration can be determined This is the liquid limit GTEZBICE “137 Module 2 Chapter Technikon SA EngineeringPlastic Limit (PL) The plastic limit is determined in accordance with TMH1 Method A3 Shrinkage Limit (SL) Soil shrinks as moisture is gradually lost from it With continuing loss of moisture, a stage of equilibrium is reached at which more loss of moisture will result in no further volume change The moisture content, at which the volume of the soil mass ceases to change, is defined as the shrinkage limit The shrinkage limit test is not offered as a routine test in most commercial laboratories in Southern Africa Linear Shrinkage (LS) Although not an Atterberg limit test, the linear shrinkage is often determined for the purpose of providing a rough check on the results of the Atterberg tests and also to gain some idea of the volume change characteristics of the soil The test is carried out by preparing about 150 g of air-dried material passing the 0,425 mm sieve and mixing it with water to bring the moisture content to about the liquid limit The sample is then placed into a standard mould and levelled off with the top of the mould using a palette knife The mould is placed in an oven at 105 - 110°C until the sample has dried and the length after drying is measured The linear shrinkage (LS) is expressed as LS = original length - final length x 100% original length ‘As a rough check PI = (2 to 3) x LS Liquidity Index (LI) The liquidity index provides insight into expected soil behaviour For a given soil sample it is possible to determine whether the soil behaviour will be liquid, plastic or brittle If the LI is negative the soil will behave as a brittle material GTEWICE ae Module 2 Chapter 5 Technikon SA EngineeringIf the LI is between one and zero then the soil will behave as a plastic material If the LI is greater than one the soil will act as a viscous liquid _W-PL PI the natural or in situ moisture content u Where W Activity (A) Since the plasticity of soil is caused by the adsorbed water that surround the clay particles, we can expect that the type of clay minerals and their proportional amounts in a soil will affect the liquid and plastic limits Skempton (1953} observed that the plasticity index of a soil linearly increases with the percent of clay-size fraction The correlations of Pl with the clay-size fractions for different clays plot as separate lines because of the type of clay minerals present in each soil On the basis of these results, Skempton defined a quantity called activity (A) which is the slope of the line correlating Pl and % finer than 0,002 mm % of clay size by weight Soil activity may provide information relative to swelling potential and stability Soils are generally, but not always, classified as inactive (A< 0,75), normal (0,75 > A< 1,25 ) and active (A > 1,25) The activity for sodium montmorillonite is 7,2 and for kaolinite 0,38 GTEsICE a Hi 2 Crap S Technikon SA Engineering5.4 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS 1] CT SIEVE ANALYSIS. 7 Percentage passing sieves (by mass) ~*~: ‘Sample ui 37.5 | 265] 19.0] 182] 475] 20 10.425) 0075) | 2 eae |imm | mm jam jm frm |mm mm | 3 ES x TI 00-8] 78 Ysa i on te Le tame pe fe Cc ~ | 100 [at | 6 142 (36 (24 [18 (14 | 10 8 2 0 |D T 100 | 84 63 45/3 15 a9 E0828 ST ~ 25 4 On form A1(a)/3 given in chapter 3 plot the particle size distribution for each of the materials given Calculate the Plasticity Index (Pl), the grading modulus, the effective size, the uniformity coefficient and the coefficient of gradation for each material OUTCOMES Having studied this chapter the learner is required to be able to plot the particle size distribution from the laboratory data, caloulate the plasticy index, determine the effective particle size and to calculate the grading modulus, the uniformity coefficient and the coefficient of gradation for a particular soil ‘GTEMBICE a0 Module 2 Chapter 5 Technikon SA EngineeringCHAPTER 6 SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS CONTENTS PAGE 6.1. INTRODUCTION 142 6.2 THE UNIFIED SYSTEM 142 6.3. AASHTO OR HRB SYSTEM 144 6.4 THE TEXTURAL METHOD 149 6.5 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS 150 ‘GTEWICE “a Module 2 Chapter 6 Technikon SA EngineeringOBJECTIVES The objective of this chapter is to demonstrate some of the more commonly used soil classification systems 6.1 INTRODUCTION The object of soil classification systems is to group soils having similar characteristics, based on the results of the commonly used tests such as the particle size distribution and Atterberg limits There have been quite a number of soil classification systems developed over the years however only three will be dealt with in this course These are * The Unified system * The AASHTO or HRB System + The textural system 6.2 THE UNIFIED SYSTEM The unified system is based on the work done by Casagrande on airfields during the Second World war This method was subsequently modified to the present Unified system which is in common use in many countries throughout the world GTERBICE “az Wiodule 2 Chapter Technikon SA Engineeringak ht ry re hy, | hall Hi; [EL re ay fe ii i ay Plasticity hort roquits perp Suprbss sores ep20g eased 21 01 as'NS 48'S 40"MO ‘enoiig ve payer 26y mos paul ws009 eae am uns 510" vm some Uort>8g) veuy Jo sBemDaId vo Forpusdady ‘nue ann ured wog janedl pus pom jo eBnzaied muTULIA usosed 23 UI 0H) asauad § Ue 9877 W203) 40 $060 70 60 90 100 0 eR xopuy Ai °| USI gad tnt Hil. ti yay Plaga ea GEE Fe i iif tu Hn i ii GC |Chayey prove. gaveleandctey SO | Chaya ak adc aoa LUNGFIED SOM CLASSTFICATION SYSTEM (ASTM D-2487) (After USAWES {1967)) (or sane una gy on ‘8 vompegy otro Jo Jy OMG 22044) 98850 “TF aaa FT RR onze manes et or 8H) &) 3 3 (eva jo migcum (19 0 vane aiguonddy) | cay ou our | arqnoesidy) waysqienenniy | puri | suymmmns | tos on piney eke pur a Ten anor a Fp oN a ~ Gonay waw 5.070 Figure 6.1: Unified soil classification system a GTEDBICE Module 2 Chapter 6 Engineering Technikon SAThe soil type is represented by two letters The first letter is the main soil type The second is the subdivision MAINSOILTYPES ———=

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