PHYS 141

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
 1. SIMPLE D.C. CIRCUITS
ELECTRIC CHARGE (Q) AND ELECTRIC CURRENT (I)

When an object acquires an excess or deficit of electrons, it is said to have an electric charge Q.
Electric charge is measured in units called coulombs (C). The charge on the electron is referred
to as a fundamental charge and it is equal to -1.602 x 10-19 C.

An excess of 6.241 x 1018 electrons = -1 C while

A deficit of 6.241 x 1018 electrons = +1 C.

Moving electric charges constitute an electric current. In metals, these moving charges are
electrons while in ionized gases (plasmas) and ionic solutions the moving charges may include
both electrons and charged ions. In semi-conductor materials such as silicon and germanium,
electrical conduction is partly by electrons and partly by holes (sites of missing electrons).

If a steady flow of 1C of charge passes a given point in a material in 1 s, the resulting current
is 1 A.
Q
i.e I= .
t
The unit of electric current is the ampere (A), and its definition depends on a knowledge of
magnetism. The ampere is defined in Physics Unit PHYS 142, in the magnetism section. In
terms of the flow of charge, 1 A is the electric current when 1 C of charge moves passes a
point in a conductor in 1 s. .
1C
1A=
1s
The direction of current flow in a circuit is chosen as the direction of motion of positive
charge. This is referred to as conventional current flow and will be used throughout this
course.

ELECTRIC CURRENT (I), DRIFT VELOCITY (vd) AND CURRENT DENSITY (J)

Electric current can be expressed in terms of the drift velocity of the moving charge. Fig. 1.1,
shows a conductor of length L and cross-sectional area A carrying a conventional current I. An
electron in the conductor will move in the opposite direction to the current. The drift velocity of
the electron is denoted by vd. All the free-

-2-
 A electrons are assumed to have the same
I vd ο-
L drift velocity.
Fig. 1.1
Let n represents the number of free-electrons per unit volume in the conductor. The total number
of free-electrons in the conductor is nAL. If e represents the charge on the electron, then the
total charge Q in the conductor is give by Q = neAL.

Let t represent the drift time then t = L/vd and the current I is give as

Q neAL
=
I= t L = neV Ad
Vd

I
Current density J= A = nevd .

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (V), POWER (P) AND ENERGY (E)

The potential difference between two points in an electric field is the work done per unit
charge in moving the charge from one point to the other.

W
ie .V =
Q

The unit for potential difference is the volt (V). 1V = 1J/1C.

The electrical energy lost or the work done by a charge Q going through a potential difference
V may be written as

E = QV.

-3-
Using Q = It gives E = VIt

Electrical power is the rate at which energy is supplied or dissipated. That is

VIt
=VI P=
t
RESISTANCE (R), RESISTIVITY (ρ) CONDUCTIVITY (σ) CONDUCTANCE (G) AND
OHMS LAW

Resistance is the property of materials that opposes the movement of charge and makes it
necessary to apply a potential difference to cause a current flow. The resistance of a material or
a device is the ratio of the potential difference across it to the current flow through it. That is

V
R= . The unit for R is the ohm (Ω).
I
In metallic and some other types of conductors, the current is proportional to the applied p.d.
This is Ohms law.

Devices that obey Ohms law are said to be ohmic. Other devices are classified as non-ohmic.
The I-V characteristics for three common devises are shown below.

I I

ohmic
non-ohmic

V V

Fig. 1.2 (a): resistor at constant temperature Fig. 1.2 (b) Filament lamp

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 I
non-ohmic

Fig. 1.2 (c): semiconductor diode

I 1
Conductance, G = = . The unit of G is siemens (S).
V R

Fig. 1.3 shows a material of length L and cross-sectional area A carrying a current I.. The p.d.
across the material is V.
L A

Fig. 1.3

The resistivity ρ of the material is the ratio of the electric field E to the current density J.

E V/L A
ρ= = =R .
J I/A L

L
And R=
σA

Conductivity σ is the ratio of current density to the electric field.

J 1
σ= =
E ρ

The units of ρ are Ω m while the units for σ are Ω-1 m-1.

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TEMPERATURE DEPENDANCE OF R AND ρ

The resistance and resistivity of materials vary with temperature, and provided that the
temperature ranges are not to large, the variations can be represented by linear equations of the
form

R = Ro[1 + α(T - To)] and ρ = ρo [1 + α(T - To).

Where α is the same constant in both cases and is called the thermal coefficient of
resistance/resistivity, and To is often taken as 0 oC or 20 oC.

TYPES OF RESISTORS

Resistor Comments
Cheap but poor stability
Carbon composition accuracy ±10%
Table 1.1. Types of resistors.
Fairly good accuracy and stability
Carbon Film
accuracy ±2%

Wire-wound High accuracy and stability

Variable Rheostats and potentiometers

RESISTOR COLOR CODE

The value of the resistance of a resistor is usually repsented by a color code. Fig. 1.4 illustrates
how to interpret the color code and Table 1.2 shows the numbers allocated to the color bands as
digits and as multipliers.

second digit
first digit

tolerance
multiplier
Fig. 1.4

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 Color value as digit value as multiplier
Black 0 10o
Brown 1 101
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Table 1.2
Green 5 105
The fourth band on the resistor
Blue 6 106
represents the Violet 7 107
tolerance. This is the
possible Gray 8 108 percentage variation
of the White 9 109 resistance about the
nominal value Gold 0.1 that is determined by
the first three bands. See Table1.3.
silver 0.01
Color Tolerance
Gold ±5%
Silver ± 10 %
Missing band ± 20 %
± corresponding
color in table 1.2 value in column 2
of table 1.2 as %
Table 1.3

Example

Determine the resistance of a resistor having the following color bands. Yellow \violet\
\orange\red

Answer

47 x 103 Ω ± 2 %. = 47 kΩ ± 2 %

Another code to indicate the value of the resistance is illustrated in Table 1.4(a) and (b) below.
Here a capital letter is used to indicate a power of ten and the position of the decimal point.
Value Code Value Code Resist./Ω Tolerance
0.68 Ω R68 1 kΩ 1K0 R = 10o F = ±1%
2Ω 2R0 33 kΩ 33 K K = 103 G =
±2%
2.7 Ω 2R7 100 kΩ M10 M = 106 J = ±5%
10 Ω 10R 1 MΩ 1M0 K =
±10%
220 Ω K22 6.8 MΩ 6M8 M = ±
20%
Table 1.4 (a) Table 1.4 (b)

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In this code tolerances are indicated by the addition of a second letter. See Table 1.4 (b). For
example 6K8K = 6.8 kΩ ± 10 %.

CIRCUIT SYMBOLS

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RESISTANCE IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

(i) Series

R1 R2 R3 R

V 1 =IR 1
V3
⇔
V1 V2
V 2 =IR 2 I
I V =IR
V 3 =IR 3

V V

Fig. 1.5 (a) Fig. 1.5 (b)

Fig. 1.5 (a) shows three resistors connected in series to a cell of negligible internal resistance.
Fig.1.5 (b) represents the equivalent circuit, that is R1, R2 and R3 can be replaced by R.

Conservation of energy principle suggests that

V = V1 + V2 + V3 Therefore

IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

and R = R1 + R2 + R3.

In general if N resistors are connected in series their equivalent resistance R is give as

.
N

R = ∑R i
i 1=

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 (ii) Parallel

I1 R1
V
I1 =
R1 I2 R2 R
V
I2 = I3 R3
R2 ⇔ I
V
I3 = I
R3 V V
V

I=
R

Fig. 1.6 (a) Fig. 1.6 (b)

Fig. 1.6 (a) shows three resistors connected in parallel to a cell of negligible internal resistance.
Fig.1.6 (b) represents the equivalent circuit, that is R1, R2 and R3 can be replaced by R.

The principle of conservation of charge suggests that

I = I 1 + I2 + I3

V V V V
That is = + +
RTOT R 1 R 2 R 3

AND

1 1 1 1
= + +
R TOT R1 R2 R3

POWER DISSIPATED BY A RESISTIVE LOAD.

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Consider any circuit load element having a p.d. V across it and a current I flowing through. We
saw earlier that the circuit element dissipate energy at a rate given by

P = VI

For a resistor V = IR and the rate of energy dissipation can be written as

P = I2R

V
Using I = gives another expression
R

V2
P=
R

CONVERSION OF A GALVANOMETER TO AN AMMETER

A galvanometer is a moving coil meter that is traditionally used to measure small currents. To
measure larger currents, a resistor can be connected in parallel with the meter. Such a resistor is
called a shunt.

Consider a galvanometer which has a resistance of 100 Ω and which gives a full-scale deflection
(f.s.d.) when 10 mA passes through it. Fig. 1.6 show how a shunt resistor Rs can be connected to
the galvanometer to convert it to an ammeter with f.s.d. of 0 - 5 A.

Since the resistors involved are in parallel then mA

0.01 x 100 = 4.99 x Rs and 10

0 A
0
5

0.01 100×
100 Ω
Rs = 4.99= 0.200 Ω
0.01 A

4.99 A Rs

Fig. 1.6

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CONVERSION OF A GALVANOMETER TO A VOLTMETER

To convert the same galvanometer above to a voltmeter reading 0-5 V, a resistor of relatively
high value must be connected in series with the galvanometer. Such a resistor is called a
multiplier (Rm) and the process is illustrated in Fig. 1.7.

mA
5 = 0.01(Rm + 100)
0 V
0
Rm + 100 = 500

Rm = 400 Ω
Rm 100 Ω

0.01 A
Examples

1. A light bulb with a current of 0.80 A

passing through it is left 5V burning for 30
min. How much electric Fig.1.7 charge passes
through the filament of the bulb?

Solution

Q = It = 0.80 × 30 × 60 = 1.44 × 103 C

2. Calculate the energy stored in a 9.0 V battery that can deliver a continuous current of
50 mA for 1 day.

Solution

E = VIt = 9.0 × 50 × 10-3 × 1 × 24 ×60 × 60 = 3.89 × 104 J

3. A 600 W electric kettle draws a current of 5.0 A. Find

(i) the resistance of the heating element.

(ii) the p.d. across the element.

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Solution

(i) P = I2 R

P 600 and
=
R = I2 52 = 24Ω

V2
(ii) P= Or using V = IR
R

V = 5 x 24 = 120 V

and V = PR = 600× 24 = 120V

4. To measure the resistivity of a metal, a student takes a wire of this metal of diameter
0.500 mm and length 2.20 m and applies a p.d. of 12.0 V to its ends. He measures a current of
1.40 A flowing through the wire. What is the resistivity of this metal?

Solution

πd2 π× (0.500× 10−3)2

−7 2

Area of cross- section A = =

−7
4 4
ρ= A =
V 12 ×1.96 10
R= = = 8.6Ω R
I 1.4 8.6
L
L 2.20
R=ρA = 1.96× 10 m

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= × −7 Ω 7.7 10 m
5. Find the reading on the ammeter in each of the circuits shown below.

2V
A
V
2
4Ω 4Ω I=
== 0.25A
Re 8

(i)

2V
A 11 1 1 1
2 Re R1 R2 4
4Ω 4 4
4Ω
=
+ =
+ =
Re = 2 Ω

(ii) V 2
I= = = 1A
Re
2 2V
A
Circuit (iii) is the same as Circuit (ii)

Therefore I = 1A
4Ω 4Ω

(iii )

2V
A The 4 Ω resistor on the left is
shorted out.

4Ω 4Ω

(iv) -14-
 V 2
Therefore I = = = 0.5A
Re 4

6. Find the equivalent resistance between the points AB for the arrangement of resistors
shown below.
3Ω

9Ω 6Ω 2Ω
A
R e = 11.6 Ω
Ω 7Ω
B
5Ω

7 The circuit below, shows an arrangement of three resistors across a 12 V battery with
negligible internal resistance. Find

(i) the effective resistance of the arrangement.

(ii) the current flowing through each resistor.

(iii) the p.d. across each resistor.

(iv) the total rate of energy dissipation by the three resistors.

3Ω
(i)
4 Ω in parallel with 6 Ω

12 V1
4Ω
1 1
5
6Ω = + =
Rp 6 4 12

Rp = 2.4 Ω

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 Re = 5.4 Ω

(ii) and (iii)

I/A V/V
I3 = 2.22 V3 = 6.66
I4 = 1.34 V4 = 5.34
I6= 0.89 V6= 5.34
(iv) P = I2 Re = 2.222 x 5.4 = 26.6 W.

2. MORE COMPLEX D.C. CIRCUITS

E.M.F. AND TERMINAL P.D.

The magnitude of electromotive force (e.m.f.) of a source (a battery, generator, etc.) is the
energy converted into electrical energy when unit charge flows through it.

The unit of e.m.f. like the unit of p.d. is the volt.

Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 2.1. A high-resistance voltmeter is connected across the
terminals of the cell and the voltmeter records the terminal p.d. When the switch is open the
voltmeter records the e.m.f. of the cell, since negligible current is drawn by it.

R
Fig. 2.1

When the switch is closed a steady current I flows from the cell through the external resistor R
and the reading on the voltmeter falls to a value V. V is the terminal p.d. of the cell on
closedcircuit, and it is also the p.d. across R. Since V is less than E, then all the energy supplied
per unit charge by the cell is not changed in the external circuit to other forms. Some of this
energy is wasted as heat in the internal resistance r of the cell. Assuming energy conservation
this information can be summarized as

Energy supplied energy changed energy wasted per unit charge

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per unit charge by = per unit charge by + by the internal resistance
the cell the external circuit of the cell

That is E = V + Ir

or E = I(R + r)

POTENTIAL DIVIDER

The potential divider circuit is used to supply variable p.d. A common setup of such a circuit is
to uses the three terminals on a variable resistor (rheostat), as shown in Fig.2.2. This circuit is
often employed to study the I-V characteristics of electrical devices.

output

Fig. 2.2

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE CIRCUIT

The most straightforward method of measuring resistance is to use the ammeter-voltmeter

arrangement shown in Fig. 2.3 (a) and (b). Here the accuracy of the measurement depends on the
quality of the meters. The resistance of the voltmeter must be very large while that of the
ammeter must be extremely small.

A
R A
R

V V

Fig. 2.3 (a) Fig. 2.3 (b)

Referring to Fig. 2.3 (a), if the resistance of the voltmeter is not much greater than R, the
voltmeter will draw a fair amount of current hence the current through R, if taken as the ammeter
reading will be incorrect, even though the voltage across it is correct.

-17-
In Fig. 2.3 (b) the ammeter now gives the true current in R but the voltage used to calculate R
will be incorrect if the resistance of the ammeter is not small enough.

The Wheatstone bridge circuit, shown in Fig. 2.4, enables resistance to be measured more
accurately than by the ammeter-voltmeter method. It involves a so called “null method”.
Adjustments are made to the variable resistor until the galvanometer indicates zero. The
accuracy of the technique is not highly dependent on the meter. However, in the circuit shown
other known resistors are required.

P Q
B
I1
A G C

I2 R S
D

Fig. 2.4
At balance, no current flows
through the galvanometer and therefore the p.d. across BD is zero and
p.d. across AB = p.d. across AD

ˆ I1P = I2R ---------------- (1) similarly

p.d. across BC = p.d. across DC

and I1Q = I2S ---------------- (2)

Dividing equation (1) by (2) gives

P R
=
Q S

Suppose the value of P is to be determined, then Q, R and S must be known accurately. To

reduce this dependance the more practical meter-bridge circuit shown in Fig.2.5 is used. Here
only one standard resistor Q is needed.

Comparing Fig. 2.4 and Fig. 2.5 gives

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 P =resistance ofl ength L 1 of wire
Q resistance of length L 2 of wire
P Q

B
• • • • •
copper strip
G

A L1 L2 C
• •
D

meter-length of wire
on meter rule

Fig. 2.5

P L1
Therefore = .
Q L2

POTENTIOMETER CIRCUIT

The potentiometer circuit is a potential divider circuit used to measure p.d. accurately. Its
simplest form consists of a length of resistance wire laid across a millimeter scale and a driver
cell maintaining a steady current through the wire, as shown in Fig. 2.6.

driver cell

B C
A
L1
G

potentiometer
+ _ wire
X Y
unknownp.d.
applied acrossXY

Fig. 2.6
The potentiometer circuit is usually used to

< measure e.m.f of cells.

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 < measure internal resistance of cells.

< calibrate voltmeters and ammeters.

< comparing resistances.

Consider the first application listed above. The test cell of e.m.f. E1 is connected across XY with
its positive terminal connected to X, and the jockey at B is moved until the galvanometer
indicates zero current. At balance the e.m.f. of the cell is equal to the p.d. across AB and it is
also proportional to the balance length L1.

That is E1 % L1 Y E1 = kL1. ------------- (1)

The test cell is now replaced by a standard cell (a cell whose e.m.f. is known accurately) of
e.m.f. E2 and a new balance length L2 is found.

Here E2 % L2 Y E2 = kL2.. -------------- (2)

Dividing equation (1) by (2) gives

E1 = L1 . E2
L2

The following points should be noted when using the potentiometer

< A large protective resistor is connected in series with the galvanometer. This is
shorted when the approximate balance point is located. This serves to protect both
the galvanometer and the standard cell.

< The circuit is first tested by first placing the jockey on one end of the wire and
then the other. The deflections of the galvanometer should be one way then the
other. If they are not the unknown p.d. is connected the wrong way round of the
p.d. across the whole wire is less than the unknown p.d.

< The balance length is measures from the length A of the wire and should be
reasonably long to reduce the error in measuring the length.

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KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS

Some multi-loop circuits have batteries in each loop and cannot be reduced to a single loop
circuit by applying series-parallel combinations. These circuits are usually analysed using
Kirchhoff’s laws.

First Law

For a give junction or node in a circuit, the currents entering must be equal to the currents
leaving. This is basically a statement of the conservation of charge. The first law is illustrated in
Fig. 2.7.

I1 I3

•
I2 I4 I1 + I2 = I3 + I4
Fig. 2.7

Second Law

As one traces out a closed loop, the algebraic sum of the potential differences encountered is
zero. In this sum, a potential rise is positive and a potential drop is negative. This second law is
basically a statement of the conservation of energy.

Sign Convention

1. The positive terminal of a source of e.m.f. is always the high potential terminal,
independent of the direction of the current through it.

Travel direction Travel direction

E E
_ + + _

rise (+E) drop (-E)

2. Current always flow from higher to lower potential through a resistor. As one traces
through a resistor in the direction of the current, the potential change is a drop and is
negative.

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 Travel direction Travel direction + indicates higher potential

+ _ _ +
I I - indicates lower potential
R R

drop( -IR) rise (+IR)

The procedure for applying Kirchhoff’s laws

(i) Draw large circuit diagram.

(ii) Choose a label and a direction for the current in each branch of the circuit. (If the choice
of direction is correct the current will turn out to be positive . If not, the current will be
negative, which means that the actual current is in the opposite direction)

(iii) Use + and - signs to indicate points of higher and lower potentials across each device.

(iv) Apply kirchhoff’s first law at a junction or junctions. At this stage one of the currents at
the junction can be written in terms of the others so as to reduce the number of equations
to be solved.

(v) Choose directions to traverse each loop (clockwise or counter-clockwise) and apply the
second law around each loop.

(vi) Solve the equations simultaneously to determine the unknowns.

Examples.

1. A dry cell delivers 0.15 A when connected to an 8 Ω resistor. When another 8 Ω resistor
is connected in parallel with the first, the cell delivers 0.25 A to the combination.
Calculate the e.m.f. and internal resistance of the cell.

Solution

For the two resistors in parallel

1 1 1 2
=+= and R = 4 Ω
R 8 8 8

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 When the cell is supplying current

E = IR + Ir

E = 0.15 × 8 + 0.15r = 1.20 + 0.15r.--------------- (1)

Similarly

E = 0.25 × 4 + 0.25r = 1.00 + 0.25r. --------------- (2)

Equation (1) and (2) imply that

1.20 + 0.15r = 1.00 + 0.25r

ˆ 0.20 = 0.10r

and r=2Ω

Substitute for r in equation (1) gives

E = 1.20 + 0.l5 × 2 = 1.50 V

2. Two resistors P and Q are placed in the gaps of a meter bridge. A balance point is found
at a distance of 35.5 cm from the end of the bridge-wire joined to P. When a 10 Ω
resistor is connected in parallel with Q the new balance point is found to be 51.0 cm.
Find the values of the resistances of P and Q.

Solution

P L1 = 355. = 0 551. ---------- (1)

=
Q L2 64 5.

1 1 1
= +
R Q 10

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 10Q
⇒R=
10+ Q
Therefore

P 51.0
= = 1.041---------- (2)
 10Q  49.0
 
 10+ Q 
Dividing equation (1) by (2) gives

10 0.551
= = 0.529
10+ Q 1.041

ˆ 5.29 + 0.529Q = 10

and Q= =8 9. Ω

P = 0.551 × 8.9 = 4.9 Ω.

3. To measure the internal resistance of a battery, a student places the battery in a

potentiometer circuit and finds that it balances at a length AB = 59.2 cm. Without removing
the battery form the potentiometer, the student then connects a 2.0 Ω resistor across the
terminals of the battery and, while a current is flowing through the resistorbattery circuit, he
again balances the potentiometer. The new balance length is 54.1 cm. What is the internal
resistance of the battery? Solution

-24-
 driver cell

B C
A
L1
G

+ _
E r

Fig. 2.8

2Ω

With switch opened E = k × 59.2.

With switch closed V = k × 54.1.

V V
Also V = IR and I = = . R 2

When battery is supplying current

V  r
E=V+Ir Y E = V+ 2 r = V 1+

 r

k × 59.2 = k × 54.1 1 + 2

r 59.2
1+ = = 1.09 And r = 0.18 Ω 2 54.1
4. Find the current in each branch of the circuit shown in Fig. 2.9. The internal resistance of
each cell is negligible.

-25-
 12 V 9V

4Ω

7Ω 8Ω
Fig. 2.9

Solution.
I2
12 V + + 9V
_ _
+
I1 (1) 4Ω
_ (2)
I 3 ( I 1 -I 2)
_ _ +
+
7Ω 8Ω
Fig. 2.10
Applying first law: I1 = I2 + I3 Y I3 = I1 - I2.
Loop (1)
12 - 4(I1 - I2) - 7I1 = 0 Y 12 - 4I1 + 4I2 - 7I1 = 0
Y 11I1 - 4I2 = 12 ---------- (1)
Loop (2)
9 - 4(I1 - I2) + 8I2 = 0 Y 9 - 4I1 + 4I2 + 8I2 = 0
Y 4I1 - 12I2 = 9 --------- (2)

× equation (1) by 3 gives: 33I1 - 12I2 = 36

and 4I1 - 12I2 = 9
29I1 = 27

27
I1 = 29 = 0.93 A

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From equation (2)I2 = = = −0.44 A

I3 = I1 - I2 = 0.93 - (-0.44) = 1.37 A.

5. For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.11, find the current in each branch and the reading on the
voltmeter. Assume that the voltmeter is ideal and the resistance of each cell is negligible.

5Ω
12 V

8V 7Ω
Fig. 2.11
Solution

I1
+
_ _ 5Ω
12 V +

I2 +
(1)
_
_
I 3( I 1- I 2 ) _ +
V
(2) + (3)
_
+ _
+ 8V 7Ω
Fig. 2.12

Applying Kirchhoff’s first law

I1 = I2 + I3 Y I3 = I1 - I2.

Loop (1)

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 20 - 5I1 + 12 - 2I2 = 0 Y 32 - 5I1 - 2I2 = 0
and 5I1 + 2I2 = 32 ---------- (1) Loop (2)
20 + 7(I1 - I2) + 8 - 2I2 = 0 Y and 28 + 7I1 - 9I2 = 0

7I1 - 9I2 = -28 ---------- (2)

× eq. (1) by 9: 45I1 + 18I2 = 288

× eq. (2) by 2: 14I1 - 18I2 = -56
59I1 = 232

and I1 = = 3.93 A

From eq. (1): I2 = = 6.18 A

I3 = I1 - I2

I3 = 3.93 - 6.18 = -2.25 A

The direction chosen for I3 is opposite to that shown on Fig.2.12.

Taking the correct direction for I3 and applying Kirchhoff.s second law around loop 3 gives

20 - 7(2.25) - V = 0 where V is the voltmeter reading.

Therefore V = 20 - 7(2.25)

i.e. V = 4.25 V

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 3. CAPACITORS IN D.C. CIRCUITS
A capacitor is any device which can store electric charge. It is made up of two conductors
separated by an insulator called a dielectric. In most cases of practical interest, the conductors
have charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign, so that the net charge on the capacitor is
zero.

The capacitance C of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the charge Q on
either conductor to the magnitude of the potential difference V between the conductors. That is

Q
C=
V
The unit for capacitance is the Farad (F), which is equal to 1 coulomb per volt. A 1F capacitor is
very large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller values that are in common use.

< microfarad (1 µF = 10-6 F)

< nanofarad (1 nF = 10-9 F)

< picofarad (1 pF = 10-12 F)

USE OF CAPACITORS

< Timing circuits.

< Tuning circuits in communication devices

< Smoothing circuits for variable D.C. voltages.

< Filter circuits

< Preventing sparking in circuits.

TYPES OF CAPACITOR

Capacitor types are named after the dielectric material between the conductors. Thus there are:
air, plastic, paper, mica, ceramic, electrolytic capacitors etc.

-29-
THE PARALLEL-PLATE CAPACITOR

Consider a capacitor with plates of common area A, separated by an insulator of thickness d and
permittivity ε, as shown in Fig. 3.1. The magnitude of the charge on each plate is Q and a
uniform electric field of strength E is maintained between them.

A +Q + + + + + +d E V- - - - - A
- Q Fig. 3.1

It can be shown that the magnitude of the charge stored on either plate is give as

Q = εAE.

Recall that V = Ed
=Q εε
Then V = AE = A .
C Ed d
If vacuum separates the plates, then ε = εo = 8.85 x 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2.

CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

(i) Parallel

Q3 = C3V C3
+Q -Q
3 3
Q2 = C2V C C
2
-Q +Q -Q
+Q
2 2

C
1
+Q -Q
1 1 V
Q Q =CV
V
⇔
Q1 = C1V

Fig. 3.2 (a) Fig. 3.2 (b)

Fig. 3.2 (a) shows three capacitors connected in parallel to a cell of e.m.f. V, while Fig. 3.2 (b)
shows the equivalent capacitor connected to the same cell.

-30-
Applying conservation of charge gives

Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3

That is CV = C1V + C2V + C3V

and C = C 1 + C2 + C3

In general if N capacitors are connected in parallel their equivalent capacitance C is give as

.
N

C = ∑Ci .
i 1=

(ii) Series

Fig. 3.3 (a) shows three capacitors connected in series with a cell of e.m.f. V, while Fig. 3.2 (b)
shows the equivalent capacitor connected to the same cell.

C1 C2 C3 C
+Q -Q +Q -Q +Q -Q +Q -Q

V1 V2 V3 ⇔

V V
Q
Q Q Q V=
V1 = , V2 = , V3 = , C
C1 C2 C3
Fig. 3.3 (a) Fig. 3.3 (b)
As a consequence of conservation of energy,

V = V 1 + V2 + V3

Q Q Q Q 1 1 1 1
Therefore = + + and = + + . C C1 C2 C3 C C1 C2 C3

-31-
In general if N capacitors are connected in series their equivalent C is give as

1 = ∑N 1 .
=C i
1C i

RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY OR DIELECTRIC CONSTANT (εr)

Let Co represents the capacitance of a capacitor with vacuum separating the plates, and let C
represents the capacitance of the same capacitor with a dielectric filling the space between the
plates. Then the relative permittivity of the dielectric is defined by

C
=
εr Co . Note C > Co.
For the parallel-plate capacitor

= =
C εA / d ε εr Co
=
εoA / d εo

Table 3.1 shows the relative permittivity of some of the common dielectrics.
Dielectric εr
vacuum 1
air ~1
polythene 2.3
perspex 2.6
waxed paper 2.7
mica 7.0
pure water 80
barium 1200
titanate

-32-
EFFECT OF DIELECTRIC ON CAPACITANCE

When a dielectric with non-polar molecules is placed in an electric field, the positive nuclei are
urged in the direction of the field and the negative electrons in the opposite direction. As a result
the molecules become slightly polarized. See Fig. 3.4.

non- polar molecules molecules polarized

-+
+- +- -+
-+
+-

without E With E
Fig.3.5
Fig. 3.6 (a) Fig.3.6 (b)
without E With E
Fig.3.4

For dielectrics, like water that have polar molecules, these molecules align themselves along the
electric field lines as shown in Fig.3.5. The effect in both cases is that one surface of the
dielectric becomes positive and the opposite one negative.

molecules
aligning
-+
-+
-+
-+

+Q o +Q
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
- - -
V V
+ + +
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
-Q o -Q

-+

-33-
Fig. 3.5 (a) shows a parallel-plate capacitor in vacuum. The magnitude of the charge on either

Qo
=
plates is Qo and the capacitance Co V . In Fig. 3.5 (b), a dielectric now fills the space
between the plates of the same capacitor. As stated above, the electric field between the plates
will cause the top surface of the dielectric to become negative and the bottom positive. These
charge surfaces tend to reduce the electric field between the plates and hence the effective
charge on the plates. Since the capacitor is connected to a cell more charge will now flow from
the cell to the plates and the new charge on either plates now have magnitude Q where Q > Qo.
The new capacitance is therefore give by

QC= and
C > Co.
V
Hence the effect of a dielectric is to increase the capacitance of a capacitor.

ENERGY STORED ON A CHARGED CAPACITOR

Q QC= Q
and V Also using V = gives
= V C C
1 Q2
A plot of V against Q is shown.
E= 2 C .
V The energy E stored on the capacitor
equal the area under the line

Therefore E QV=

Using Q = CV gives
E = area under
the line
Q E CV= 2

-34-
CHARGING AND DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR

(i) Charging

R
A

B
Q
E C Vc =
C

Fig. 3.7

With the switch, in the circuit of Fig. 3.7, connected to A, a current I flows clockwise through R
charging the capacitor.

Applying Kirchhoff’s second law gives

Q
E − IR − = 0 ------
(1) C

dQ Q
⇒E− R− =0
dt C

dQ Q E
⇒ + − =0 ------ (2)
dt RC R
Solving eq. (2) above gives

Q = CE (1 - e-t/RC)

-35-
 dQ Q
=
UsingI = dt and Vc C give

E −t/RC -t/RC

I= e and Vc = E (1 - e ) respectively.
R
(ii) Discharging

With the switch, in Fig. 3.7, connected to B, a discharge current flows counter-clockwise
through the circuit. Setting E = 0 in equation (1) gives

Q
IR+ =
0C

⇒R dQ =−Q
dt C

Q t

⇒
∫ dQ =−∫ dt
Q RC
Qo=CE 0

Q t
⇒ Ln =−
Qo RC

⇒ Q = Q eo −t/RC

-36-
 dQ Q
=
UsingI = dt and Vc C give

E −t/RC -t/RC

I = − ande Vc = Ee respectively R

Time Constant τ
Consider the charging equation Q = CE (1- e-t/RC). When t = RC, Q = CE (1 - e-1) = 0.63CE. This
suggests that when t = RC, the charge on the capacitor is 63 % of the final value CE. The
quantity τ = RC is called the time constant of the circuit.

Similarly using the discharge equation Q = CE e-t/RC, when t = RC, Q = CE e-1 = 0.37CE. This
suggests that when t = RC, the capacitor has discharged to 37 % of its initial value.

Summary

The equations representing Q, I and Vc for both charging and discharging are shown in Table 3.2
and their sketched graphs are displayed in Fig. 3.8 (a) and (b).

Charging Discharging

Charge Q
Q = CE(1- e-t/RC) Q = CEe-t/RC
E E
Current I I= e−t/RC I=− e−t/RC
R R

-37-
 Capacitor p.d. Vc Vc = E(1- e-t/RC) Vc = Ee-t/RC

Charging Discharging

Q
Q
Vc
Vc
I

Fig. 3.8 (a) Fig. 3.8 (b)

MEASURING C

If C is relatively large the charging or discharging technique discussed above can be used
to t
determine it. Take the discharge voltage Vc, Ln(Vc) = Ln(E) - , and a graph of ln(Vc) vs t is
RC
a straight line with gradient (-1/RC). With a resistor of known resistance, C is then calculated
using the value of the gradient.

If the capacitance of the capacitor is relatively small, the reed-switch technique illustrated in
Fig. 3.9 can be used.

-38-
 magnetnon-
magnetic

~
V 400 Hz

G
C

contactcontact
Enlarged view
magnetic
reedglass100 kΩ
envelop

of reed-switch Fig. 3.9

< On the conducting half-cycle of the diode, the reed-switch and the magnetic
contact become oppositely magnetized and attract. The capacitor charges up to a
voltage V.

< During the non-conducting half-cycle of the diode, the reed and the magnetic
contact are no longer magnetized and the reed springs back to it normal position,
touching the non-magnetic contact. The capacitor now discharges,

< If the frequency f of the A.C. supply is high enough, a steady current I is
observed in the galvanometer

I
I = Qf implying Q=
f

Q I
Therefore C= = .
V fV

-39-
Examples

1. A 5 µF capacitor has a p.d. of 250 V across it. What is the charge on the capacitor and the
energy stored by it?

Solution

Q = CV = 5 × 10-6 × 250 = 1.25 × 10-3 C.

E = ½ CV2 = 21 × ×5 10−6 × 2502 = 0.16J .

2. The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor have areas of 40 cm2 and are separated by 0.3 mm
of waxed paper (εr = 2.7). Find the capacitance.

Solution

C = εdA = εεo rdA = 8.85× 10−0.3 1012

××2.7−×3 40× 10−1 = 0.32nF

3. Fig. 3.10 shows an arrangement of four capacitors. Find the effective capacitance
between the points X and Y.
Solution

5 µF and 4 µF in parallel

Cp = 9 µF
5 µF

1. A 5V battery is connected across the points X and Y in Fig.3.1. Find

-40-
 4 µF
We have now 9 µF, 6µF and 3 µF in series

1 1 1 1 2 3 6 11 6 µF3 µF
∴ =++= + + =
C 9 6 3 18 18 18 18
X Y
Fig. 3.10

C == 1.6µF
(i) the charge stored in each capacitor.

(ii) the p.d. across each capacitor.

Solution

The 9 µF, 6µF and 3 µF are in series, therefore they must each store the same charge as their
equivalent,

ˆ Q9 = Q6 = Q3 = Q1.6 = 1.6 x 5 = 8.0 µC.

V9 = V5 = V4 = = 0.89V
Q5 = C5V5 = 5 x 0.89 = 4.45 µC

Q4 = 4 x 0.89 = 3.56 µC

V6 = = 1.33V

V3 = = 2.67V
5. A 20 µF capacitor is connected in series with a 45 V battery and a 2000 Ω resistor. Find

(i) the final charge on the capacitor.

-41-
 (ii) the time taken for the charge to reach 63 % of its final value.

(iii) the charge on the capacitor after 0.01 s.

Solution.

(i) Qo = CE = 20 x 10-6 x 45 = 9 x 10-4 C

(ii) t = RC = 2000 x 20 x 10-6 = 0.04 s

(iii) Q = CE( 1- e-t/RC ) = 9 x 10-4 ( 1 - e-0.01/0/04) = 2 x 10-4 C

4. INTRODUCTION TO A.C. CIRCUITS

A.C. is an abbreviation for alternating current, but it is often used to describe any electrical
quantity that is oscillating, for example A.C. voltage and A.C. power are commonly used terms
even though they make little sense when taken literally.

It was shown earlier that a D.C. power source supplies current flowing in one direction. An A.C.
power source, on the other hand, supplies an A.C. current that changes direction in regular
intervals. The charge carriers, usually electrons, oscillate about a fixed point. Fig. 4.1 shows
some examples of both D.C. and A.C. currents.

current current

A.C. (sinusoidal)
steady D.C.
time

time

current A.C. (square wave)

Variable D.C.
time

time

-42-
 current

current current
A.C. (triangular wave)
Variable D.C.
time

time

ADVANTAGES OF AC

< Can be produced relatively easy and cheaply.

< Can be stepped up to very high voltages, by transformers. This keeps I2R power
losses to a minimum during transmission over large distances. Stepped down
transformers then reduce the voltage for consumption.

< The conversion of A.C. to D.C is simple and cheap. On the other hand
conversion of D.C. to A.C., to supply a household, involves expensive A.C. invertors.
< Wiring for D.C. is more expensive than for A.C.

DESCRIBING A.C.

Fig. 4.1 represents a sinusoidal A.C..

-43-
 T

+
peak value
AC signal

0 time

The _
Period T
of

an Fig. 4.2 alternating current or p.d. is the time

taken for one complete cycle.

The frequency f is the number of cycles per second. The frequency of the household supply in
Barbados is 50 Hz. Also
1
f= .
T

The peak value is the greatest value of the current or p.d. in a cycle.

The root-mean- square value (r.m.s.) or the effective value of an alternating current or p.d. is
the value of the direct current or p.d. that supply the same heating as the A.C. Most A.C.
voltmeters and ammeters are calibrated to read r.m.s. values. Also the voltage quoted for the
domestic supply is the r.m.s. value.

Alternating sinusoidal currents and voltages are usually represented by equations of the form

I = Io sin ωt and E = Eo sin ωt. Where ω = 2πf.

CALCULATING R.M.S. VALUE

< Square the quantity.

-44-
 < Find the average of the squared quantity

< Then find the square-root of the result.

Example

Find the r.m.s. value of a sinusoidal current or p.d.

Solution

Consider a A.C. current represented as I = Io sin ωt. Squaring gives

I2 = (Io)2 sin2 ωt

<I2> = <(Io)2> · <sin2 ωt>

But <sin2 ωt> = ½

I2
Therefore <I2> = o
2

2
Io Io
I r.m.s. = =
And 2 2 .

Similarly for a sinusoidal voltage

V
o
V r.m.s
2=
MEAN POWER SUPPLIED TO A RESISTIVE LOAD

Consider a sinusoidal voltage, V = Vo sin ωt, applied to resistive load of resistance R. The
current through the load is given by

-45-
 = =V V V
I R Ro sin t = Iω ωo sint , Where Io = Ro . Also

V2 V sino2 2
ωt R R
P= =
P = VI = VoIo sin ωt 2

>= Vo2
2
ωt V Io o <P> = < > <⋅ sin2ωt >

<P> = < V Io o > × < sin 2 R

<P> Vo2 = Vrms2 ×2 = Vrms2

2R 2R R

CAPACITIVE LOAD

Consider a sinusoidal voltage, V = Vo sin ωt, applied to capacitive load of capacitance C.

Q = CV

dQ d
and I= dt = CVo dt (sinω ω ωt) =
t = I0 cosωt

Where Io = ωCVo

Vo = 1
Now
Io ωC

-46-
 Vr.m.s. = V /o 2 = Vo
and
Ir.m.s. I /o 2 I0

Vr.m.s. = 1 = 1 .
Therefore
Ir.m.s. ω πC 2 fC

This expression appears similar to V/I = R which defines resistance, if 1/(2πfC) replaces R. The
quantity 1/(2πfC) = Xc is taken as a measure of the opposition of a capacitor to A.C. and is
= =
called Vr.m.s. 1 . The unit of XC is Ω. the capacitive reactance. Therefore Xc Ir.m.s. 2πfC

RECTIFICATION

Rectification is the conversion of A.C. to D.C. by a diode circuit.

(i) Half-wave rectifier

The half-wave rectifier circuit shown in Fig. 4.3 consists of a diode in series with the A.C. input
to be rectified and the load R requiring the D.C. output. The load is assumed to be resistive.

A.C. D.C.
imput ~ R
output

_
Fig. 4.3

Suppose in the first half-cycle of the input, the diode is forward biased, then a pulse of current
flows round the circuit producing a voltage across R. During the next half-cycle the diode is
now reversed bias and will not conduct, and as a result the current in the circuit and the p.d.
across R is zero. This process is repeated for each cycle. A sketch of the output voltage is shown
in Fig. 4.3. The resulting voltage is in the form of pulses but it is unidirectional as is expected
of D.C.

-47-
 p.d. across R

time

Fig. 4.4

Smoothing

The fluctuation in D.C. voltage, produced by the half-wave rectifier can be reduced by
connecting a sufficiently large capacitor in parallel with the load. Such a capacitor is referred to
as a reservoir or smoothing capacitor. The output with such a capacitor is shown in Fig. 4.5.

smoothp.d.

p.d. before
smoothing

time
Fig. 4.5

During the conducting half-cycle, the capacitor charges up. It then discharges during the
nonconducting half-cycle. The process is repeated for each cycle, maintaining a relatively steady
voltage across the load.

(ii) Bridge rectifier

The bridge rectifier shown in Fig. 3.6 is also called a full-wave rectifier since it allows
conduction for the complete input cycle.

-48-
 B

4 1
A +
A.C. Input ~ D
C
F R
2 3
_

Fig. 4.6
< Suppose A is positive during the first half-cycle, then diodes 1 and 2 are
forward biased and conduct. The current takes the path indicate by the red arrows.

< On the next half-cycle F is now positive and diodes 3 and 4 are now forward
biased and current follows the path indicated by the blue arrows.

< In both half-cycle the current flows in the same direction through the load R,
indicating that the output is D.C.
< As with the half-wave rectifier, a capacitor is employed in parallel with R for
smoothing. The output voltage, without smoothing is shown in Fig.4.7.

p.d. across R

time
Fig. 4.7

-49-
Examples

1. An A.C. power source supplies a voltage V whose value at any time t is given by the
equation

V = 20.0 sin(120πt),

where V is in volts and t is in seconds.

(i) What is the peak value of this voltage?

(ii) What is the r.m.s value of this voltage?

(iii) What is the frequency of the power source?

(iv) What voltage does the power source produce at the instant when t = 5 x 10-3 s?

Solution

(i) Vo = 20.0 V

V 20
o
Vr.m.s. = 2 = 2 = 14.1V
(ii)

(iii)2πf = 120π ˆ f = 120/2 = 60 Hz

(iv) V = 20 sin (120 x π x5 x 10-3) = 19 V 2 An

electric kettle is labeled 240 V 1440 W. Find

(i) the r.m.s. current.

(ii) the peak current
(iii) the peak p.d.
(iv) the peak power
(v) the average
power.

-50-
Solution

The labeled values are always r.m.s values.

r.m.s. Pr.m.s = 1440 = 6.0A

(i) I =
Vr.m.s. 240

(ii) Io = Ir.m.s. × 2 = 6.0× 2 = 8.5A

(iii) Vo = Vr.m.s. × 2 = 240× 2 = 339V

(iv) Po = IoVo= 2Ir.m.s.Vr.m.s.= 2Pr..m..s = 2 x 1440 = 2880 W

Po = 2880 = 1440W
(v) <P> =
2 2

3. A 10 µF capacitor is connected to a 15 V, 5 kHz supply. Find (i) the reactance of the

capacitor and (ii) the current flowing in the circuit.

Solution

1 1
(i) XC = 2πfC = 2× ×π 5000× 10× 10−6 = 3.18Ω

V 15
(ii) I= = = 4.72A

-51-
 XC 3.18

4 A half-wave rectified supply is used to obtain a pd of 40 V DC which must have a ripple

of less than 0.5 V when supplying a current of 40 mA. What value of capacitor is
needed? Mains frequency is 50 Hz. Assume that the current remains constant.

Solution
Time between peaks is 1/f = 1/50 = 0.02 s
Charge lost = It = 40 x 10-3 x 0.02 = 800 µC

C = Q/V = 800/0.5 = 1600 µF

Note: for the same problem with full-wave rectification, time between peaks = 0.01
s.

-52-