MODULE 8: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Content Standard The learners demonstrate understanding of the quantitative research design,
description of sample, instrument of the study, validity and reliability of the
instrument, and the statistical tools to be used to analyze the data.
Performance Standard The learners should be able to describe adequately quantitative research designs,
sample, instrument used, validity and reliability of the instrument, and
the statistical tools to be used to analyze the data.

The design process, at its best, integrates the aspirations of art, science, and culture. – Jeff Smith

INTRODUCTION
Understanding data starts with collecting them. There are various ways of collecting data. Many
textbooks and research experts incorporate this essential part of a research document in Research
Methodology which addresses the question, “How does the researcher answer the questions stated in
Chapter I?”
Research methodology is the specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process,
and analyze data about a certain topic. In a research paper, the methodology section allows the reader to
critically discuss the research design, describe the target population and the sample frame, make a
research instrument that must pass the validity and reliability tests before it is utilized, and select
appropriate statistical tool to be used.

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 MODULE 8: Quantitative Research Design

Learning Competency Chooses appropriate quantitative research design.

WHAT I KNOW

IDENTIFICATION: Rearrange the letters to form words that refer to what is being described in each item.

1. This design utilizes the principle of research known as the method

of difference.
RXEEPMIELNAT SIGEND
2. This happens when the experiment is conducted beyond a longer
period of time during which most of the subjects undergo physical
emotional and psychological changes.
IOAMUTNART
3. There is a threat to validity when one or more subjects die, drop out,
or transfer as in the case of a student who has not completed his/her
participation in the experiment.
IAYTOMTRL
4. This occurs when the respondents or the subjects respond artificially
to the treatment because they know they are being observed as part
of a research study.
HHWOANRET FECFET
5. In the procedure of experimental design, this is the meaning of X.
NEIVIENTORNT
6. The researcher collects data from the same people at different
times. This study is conducted over a longer period of time.
NAIUDLNOGILT
7. This group does not receive the treatment.
OONTCRL POGRU
8. The design is used to investigate the direction and magnitude
of relationships among variables in a particular population.
AARECLROLITNO

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 OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

1. Compare the different quantitative research designs; and
2. Chooses appropriate quantitative research design.
3. Cite different sample researches which uses the enumerated research design in the field
of science and technology, education, business, and innovations.

LET’S INVESTIGATE!
Observe the pictures carefully. Encircle their differences.

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 GUIDE QUESTIONS

1. How many differences have you identified in each set of pictures?

2. What is your specific goal in doing the activity?

3. What strategy/ies have you used in identifying the differences in the illustrations?

4. Do you think observation skill is needed in conducting research? Explain.

5. What other skills are needed in conducting research? Explain each.

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 WHAT SHOULD I KNOW?

This shows how the problem will be investigated and discusses the following elements: research
design; respondents, sample, and sampling methods; instruments used; and statistical treatment.

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1. Research Design. It is very important aspect of research methodology which describes the
research mode, whether it is qualitative research or quantitative research or if the researcher will
use a specific research type e.g., descriptive, survey, historical, case or experimental.
2. Respondents of the Study. This describes the target population and the sample.
3. Instrument of the Study. It describes the specific type of research instrument that will be
used such questionnaire, checklist, interview schedule, teacher-made test and the like.
4. Establishing the Validity and Reliability. The instrument must pass the validity and
reliability tests before it is utilized.
5. Statistical Treatment. One of the ways of establishing the objectivity of research findings is
by subjecting the data to different by appropriate statistical formulas and processes.

The following table presents the two major designs in quantitative research, namely the experimental
and non-experimental designs.
Experimental Designs Non-experimental Designs
True Experimental Designs Action Studies
Pretest-posttest control design Comparative Studies
Posttest only control group Correlational Studies
Solomon four-group Developmental Studies
Quasi-experimental Designs Evaluation Studies
Non equivalent Meta-analysis Studies
Time series Methodological Studies
Pre-experimental Designs Needs Assessment Studies
One-shot case study Secondary Analysis Studies
One group pretest-posttest Survey Studies
Source: Nieswiadomy, Rosemarie (2004). Foundations of Nursing Research, 4th Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, p. 127

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

It is concerned primarily with cause and effect relationships in studies that involve manipulation
or control of the independent variables (causes) and measurement of the dependent variables (effects).
This design utilizes the principle of research known as the method of difference. This means that the
effect of a single variable applied to the situation can be assessed and the difference can be determined
(Mill as cited by Sevilla, 2003).
In this kind of research, there are variables that are not part of the study but are believed to influence
the outcomes. These are called intervening or extraneous variables. These variables are part of the study
limitations. These are labeled threats to internal or external validity (Campbell & Stanley, as cited by
Nieswiadomy, 2004). Internal validity is the degree to which changes in the dependent variables can be

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attributed to the independent variables. External validity, however, is the degree to which the changes in
the dependent variable can be attributed to the extraneous variable.
As validity is defined as the ability of a certain tool to measure what it intends to measure. It is,
therefore, expected that an experimental research should come up with accurate results. The accuracy of
the results of an experimental research is hindered internally and externally.

THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY

1. Selection Bias. This results when the subjects or respondents of the study are not randomly
selected. In this case, the requirements of objectivity are not met since there is subjectivity in the
selection of the subjects. For example, a researcher wants to experiment on the best method in
teaching home science and technology. The researcher assigns the students from the higher
section to be in the experimental group and the students in the lower section to be in the control
group. Obviously, the students in the higher section will perform better.
2. Maturation. This happens when the experiment is conducted beyond a longer period of time
during which most of the subjects undergo physical emotional and psychological changes.
Maturation is to be avoided if such changes are not desired. For example, a researcher
implemented an experiment with Grade 10 students as his subjects. The researcher, however,
became busy and was unable to follow up the results of the experiment. When he was able to
resume his study two years later, the subjects had already matured and were in Grade 12.

3. History. This refers to a threat to internal validity which happens during the conduct of the study
when an unusual event affects the results of an experiment. For example, while a research on the
effectiveness of a method in stopping smoking was ongoing, news broke out about students who
were diagnosed with lung cancer because of smoking. The subjects who heard the news
frightened and decided to stop smoking not because of the intervention but because of the news.
4. Instrumentation change. The instrument used in gathering the data must not be changed or
replaced during the conduct of the study. The instrument must also be applied to all respondents.
For example, if a researcher uses an open-ended questionnaire during the initial period of his data
gathering, then replaces the research instrument with a close-ended survey form later, this change
in research instrument will have an effect on the data gathered As such, the validity and reliability
of the data will be put into question.
5. Mortality. There is a threat to validity when one or more subjects die, drop out, or transfer as in
the case of a student who has not completed his/her participation in the experiment.
6. Testing. The testing threat may occur in a study when a pretest is given to the respondents who
have knowledge of baseline data. Testing bias is the influence of the pretest or knowledge of
baseline data on the posttest scores. Subjects may remember the answers they put on the pretest
and will put the same answers on the posttest. The time of the conduct of the test should also be
considered. For example, the pretest was given during daytime and the posttest was given during
nighttime. Thus, the time of testing becomes an extraneous variable.

THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY

1. Experimenter Effect. This threat appears when the characteristics of the researcher affect the
behavior of the respondents. For example, a known personality like Ms. Karen Davila conducting the
interview or survey may cause the subjects to be starstruck and give answers which the believe

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 will please the interviewee. Such answers tend to be superficial or may not truly reveal the ideas,
opinions, and thoughts of the subjects.

2. Hawthorne Effect. This occurs when the respondents or the subjects respond artificially to the
treatment because they know they are being observed as part of a research study. This
phenomenon is traced to a research study done in Hawthorne Works in Illinois which looked into
the effects of improved lighting and introduction of breaktimes and shorter work hours on worker
performance. The original researchers concluded that these changes to the workplace resulted in
better worker performance. Later interpretations by Landsberger, however suggested that the
novelty of being research subjects and the increased attention caused the increased productivity of
workers. This interpretation gave rise to the term “Hawthorne Effect”.
3. Measurement Effect. It is also called the reactive effects of the pretest. It occurs when subjects
have been exposed to the treatment through taking the pretest. This exposure might affect the
posttest results. If there is a prior announcement of the conduct of the study, the subjects might
prepare and this will give a superficial result.

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS

1. True Experimental Designs. A design is conducted a true experiment when the following
criteria are present: the researcher manipulates the experimental variable i.e., the researcher has
control over the independent variables as well as the treatment and the subjects; there must be one
experimental group and one comparison or control group; and the subjects are randomly assigned
either to the comparison or experimental group. The control group is a group that does not receive
the treatment.
a. Pretest-posttest Controlled Group Design
1. Subjects are randomly assigned to groups.
2. A pretest is given to both groups.
3. The experimental group receives the treatment while the control group does not.
4. A posttest is given to both groups.
The procedure is summarized below:
R 01 X 02 (experimental group)
R 01 02 (control group)
Where: R stands for random selection 02 stands for posttest
01 stands for pretest X stands for intervention

b. Posttest only controlled group design

1. Subjects are randomly assigned to groups.
2. The experimental group receives the treatment while the controlled group does not
receive the treatment.
3. A posttest is given to both groups.
The procedure is summarized below:
R X 02 (experimental group)
R 02 (control group)
Where: R stands for random selection
02 stands for posttest
X stands for intervention

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 c. Solomon four-group design. It is considered as the most reliable and suitable
experimental design. It minimizes threats to both internal and external validity.
1. Subject are randomly assigned to one or four groups.
2. Two of the groups (experimental group 1 and control group 1) are pretested.
3. The other two groups (experimental group 2 and control group 2) receive the
routine treatment or no treatment.
The procedure is summarized below:
R 01 X 02 (experimental group)
R 01 02 (control group)
R X 02 (experimental group)
R 02 (control group)
2. Quasi-experimental Design. A design in which either there is no control group or the subjects
are not randomly assigned to groups.

a. Non-equivalent controlled group design. This design is similar to the pretest-posttest

control group design except that there is no random assignment of subjects to the
experimental and control groups.
The procedure is summarized below:
01 X 02 (experimental group)
01 02 (control group)
b. Time-series Design. The researcher periodically observes or measures the subjects.
01 02 03 X 04 05 06
where 01, 02, 03 stand for pretest (multiple observations)
04, 05, 06 stand for posttest (multiple observations)
3. Pre-experimental Design. This experimental design is considered very weak because the
researcher has little control over the research.
a. One-shot Case Study. A single group is exposed to an experimental treatment and
observed after the treatment.
The procedure is summarized below:
XO
b. One-group Pretest-posttest Design. It provides a comparative description of a group of
subjects before and after the experimental treatment.
The procedure is summarized below:
O1 X O2

TYPES OF NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS

1. Survey Studies. The investigations are conducted through self-report. Survey generally ask
respondents to report on their attitudes, opinions, perceptions, or behaviors. Thus, survey studies
aim to at describing characteristics, opinions, attitudes and behaviors as they currently exist in a
population (Wilson, 1990).
Surveys can be categorized according to:
1.1 whom the data is collected from
a. Sample – a representative of the total population

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 b. Group – can be smaller than a mass
c. Mass – larger than a group
1.2 methods used to collect data
a. Telephone
b. Text Messages
c. Snail Mail
d. E-mail or other social media modalities like twitter, facebook
e. Face-to-face interaction – This is still the best method of survey due to its high rate of
retrieval. It also allows immediate clarification of issues and offers practical advantages
which are not provided by other methods.
1.3. Time orientation
a. Retrospective. The dependent variable is identified in the present and an attempt is made
to determine the independent variable that occurred in the past.
b. Cross-sectional. The data are collected at a single point in time. The design requires
subjects who are at different points, phases or stages of an experience. The subjects are
assumed to represent data collected from different time periods. For example, if the
researcher wants to determine the psychological experience of students in different grade
levels, he/she will gather data from a specific number of subjects from each grade level.
c. Longitudinal. The researcher collects data from the same people at different times. In the
same study determining the psychological experience of students in the different grade
levels, the researcher will have enough number of subjects in the first grade level and
they will be observed as they pass through the different stages. Compared to the cross-
sectional survey, this study is conducted over a longer period of time. In the same
1.4. Purpose or Objectives
a. Descriptive. This design is utilized for the purpose of accurately portraying a population
that has been chosen because of some specific characteristics. It is also used to determine
the extent or behaviors. This design aims to gather information on certain characteristics
within a particular field of study. The purpose is to provide a picture of a situation as
naturally happens. It may be used to develop theories, identify problems with a current
practice, justify current practices, aid in making professional judgments, or determine
what other practitioners in similar situations are doing. No manipulations of variables is
involved.
b. Comparative. This design is used to compare and contrast representative samples from
two or more groups of subjects in relation to certain designated variables that occur in
normal conditions. The results obtained from these analyses are frequently not
generalized in a population.
c. Correlational. The design is used to investigate the direction and magnitude of
relationships among variables in a particular population. It is designed to study the
changes in one characteristics or phenomenon which correspond to the changes in another
or with one another. A wide range of variable scores is necessary to determine the
existence of relationships.
d. Evaluative. This design involves making a judgment of worth or value. It allows the
researcher to delineate, obtain and provide information that is useful for judging decision
alternatives when conducting a program or service. It can be formative (process) or
summative (outcome).

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 WHAT I LEARNED

MULTIPLE CHOICE: Write your answer on the space provided before each item.
1. This part of research discusses how the problem will be investigated.
A. Research Methodology C. Instrumentation
B. Respondents D. Statistical Treatment
2. What research design that is concerned primarily with cause and effect relationship in studies that
involve manipulation or control of the independent variables and measurement of the dependent variables?
A. Experimental Design C. Quasi-experimental Design
B. Non-experimental Design D. Pre-experimental Design
3. This results when the subjects or respondents of the study are not randomly selected. What is the
threat to internal validity?
A. Experimenter Effect C. Selection Bias
B. Maturation D. Mortality
4. This occurs when the respondents or subjects respond artificially to the treatment because they
know they are being observed as part of a research study. What threat to external validity is being shown?
A. Experimenter Effect C. Measurement Effect
B. Hawthorne Effect D. Instrumentation Change
5. What is the group that does not receive the treatment in experimental research design?
A. Experimental Group C. Post Test Group
B. Pretest Group D. Control Group
6. In an experimental research, what is the procedure for experimental group using the posttest
only controlled group design?
A. Random Selection, Pretest, Intervention, Posttest
B. Random Selection, Pretest, Intervention
C. Random Selection, Intervention, Posttest
D. Random Selection, Posttest
7. What type of non-experimental research design that the investigations are conducted through self-
report?
A. Survey Studies C. Comparative Studies
B. Descriptive Studies D. Evaluative Studies
8. What is the best method of survey due to its high rate of retrieval?
A. Text Messages C. Telephone
B. Snail Mail D. Face-to-face Interaction
9. If the researcher wants to determine the psychological experience of students in different grade
levels, he/she will gather data from a specific number of subjects from each grade level. What type of non-
experimental research design is being described?
A. Retrospective C. Longitudinal
B. Cross-sectional D. Descriptive
10. This design is used to compare and contrast representative samples from two or more groups of
subjects in relation to certain designated variables.
A. Descriptive C. Correlational
B. Comparative D. Evaluative
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 WRITING

Supply the necessary information based on the knowledge gained from the discussion. You
may use additional references.
1. How do you describe the general methodology you will utilize in your proposed study?
What are your references?

References:

2. Why did you choose this general methodology?

3. What specific methodology will you utilize in your proposed study? What are your
references?

References:

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 4. What did you choose this specific methodology?

ANSWER KEY
Pretest Post Test
1. Experimental Design 6. Longitudinal 1. A 6. C
2. Maturation 7. Control Group 2. A 7. A
3. Mortality 8. Correlational 3. C 8. D
4. Hawthorne Effect 4. B 9. B
5. Intervention 5. D 10. B

REFERENCES

Cristobal, A. Jr. & De La Cruz-Cristobal, M., (2017). Practical Research 2 for Senior High School. Quezon
City: C & E Publishing Inc.

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