Class 12 Surface Chemistry (4Marks)

(SHARMA CHEMISTRY CLASSES, DADRI)

(9818531477)
It is the branch of chemistry which deals with the study of phenomenon occurring at the surface is called
Surface Chemistry.

Adsorption -: In this phenomenon the certain molecules are attached over a surface of a substance so that high
concentration of molecule take place over the surface is known as Adsorption. [2013]

• The molecules which are adsorbing over the surface are called adsorbate and the surface is considering
adsorbent.

Desorption :- The process of removal of adsorbate molecule from adsorbent surface with the help of external factor
such as temperature, pressure etc. is called Desorption.

Occulsion :- The adsorption of gaseous molecule over the surface of metal is called occlusion.

eg :- The adsorption of H 2 gas over Pd surface is consider occlusion.

Sorption :- In some cases adsorption as well as absorption both process take place simultaneously which is
consider as sorption. eg :- When colourful dye applied over cotton fibre then sorption occur.

Absorption :- It is a bulk phenomenon in which the molecules are uniformly distributed in to the substance so that
concentration of molecule remain same throughout the substance is called Absorption.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ADSORPTION AND ABSORPTION [2010C]

ADSORPTION ABSORPTION
1.It is the surface phenomenon i.e molecules only It is the bulk phenomenon i.e occurs throughout the
adsorb at the surface of adsorbent. substance.

2. In this phenomenon the concentration of In this phenomenon the concentration remain same
molecules over adsorbent is higher than the throughout the substance.
bulk.
3. Its rate is high in the beginning and then Its rate remains same throughout the process.
decrease till equilibrium is achieved

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 4. eg .Silica gel, Charcoal, etc are adsorb the eg. Anhydrous CaCl 2 absorb the moisture.
moisture

Adsorption is an exothermic process :- [2009,10]

When the gaseous molecule adsorb over the surface of solid then the entropy is decreased and changed in entropy(∆S)
comes (-ve).Adsorption is a spontaneous process and for spontaneity ∆G should be (-ve) . The value of ∆G is given by

∆G = ∆H -T∆S

From this equation it is clear that the value of ∆G comes (-ve) only when ∆H is (-ve) and should be greater than
T∆S. That’s why adsorption is considered as an exothermic process.

Heat of adsorption or Enthalpy of adsorption:-

The amount of heat is released when one mole of gas is adsorb over the surface of adsorbent is called Heat of
adsorbtion.

Factors affecting the adsorption of gases on solid:-

(a) Nature of adsorbent: - Those adsorbent surfaces which are porous, rough, powdered form or finally divided
substance having large surface area that’s why they will be considered as good adsorbent and undergo large
extent of adsorption. eg :- Silica gel , Charcoal are considered good adsorbent because of large surface area.
[2011C]

(b) Nature of adsorbate: - Different gases have different extent of adsorption; Those gases which can be easily
liquefy makes strong force of attraction with the adsorbent surface and undergo large extent of adsorption.
The liquefiable nature of gases is directly depends upon the critical temp. Those gases which have high critical
temp can be easily liquefy that’s why it makes strong force of attraction and undergo large extent of adsorption.
eg :- Out of NH 3 & CO 2 , NH 3 has high critical temp so that it easily liquefy than CO 2 & that’s why NH 3 will be
adsorb more easily than CO 2.

(c) Effect of Temperature :-

Gas + Solid ⇌ Adsorption + Heat

[Gas/solid]
Adsorption of gases over the surface of solid is an exothermic process. According to Lechatlier’s principle , on
increasing the temp the reaction goes into the backward direction which means the gaseous molecules remove
from the surface and that’s why adsorption process will be decrease on increasing the temperature.

(d) Activation of Adsorbent: - The methods which are used to increase the adsorbing power of adsorbent by
increasing their surface area are called activation of adsorbent.
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 This can be achieved by:-
(i) Converting the smooth surface into rough or porous surface.
(ii) By converting the crystalline substance into the finally divided or powdered substance.

(e) Effect of pressure: - At constant temp. the adsorption of a gas increase with increase of pressure

Adsorption Isotherm :-[2010]

At constant temp , the graphical relation between the number of gas molecule [or mass of gas ] adsorb per unit
mass of adsorbent [extent of adsorption] and pressure is known as adsorption isotherm.
𝑥𝑥
= extent of adsorption, where , x = no. of molecules adsorb per unit mass of adsorbent
𝑚𝑚

m = mass of adsorbent
Freundlich Adsorption Isotherm :-[2010]

At constant temp, on increasing the pressure the extent x/m of adsorption is also increased and reaches the max
value . This pressure is considered as saturation pressure and after this the value of extent of adsorption become
constant with respect to pressure..
(i) At low pressure :-
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
αP , = KP
𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚

(ii) At high pressure :-

𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
α (P)⁰ =K
𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚

(iii) At intermediate pressure :-

𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
α (P )1/n , = K(P)1/n
𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚

1
Where 0 < < 1 , K and n are Freundlich parameters
𝑛𝑛

𝑥𝑥
= K(P)1/n
𝑚𝑚

𝑥𝑥 1 𝑥𝑥 1
Taking log on both sides, log = log K + log P [OR] log = log P + log K
𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛 𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛

On comparing with line equation Y = m x + C

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From this graph, we can predict the value of K from intercept and 1/n from slope which gives the exact relation
between x/m and pressure at any condition.

Freundlich adsorption isotherm for liquid adsorption solid :-

When the liquid molecule adsorb over the surface of solid then the extent of adsorption is depends upon concentration
𝑥𝑥
. = K(C)1/n
𝑚𝑚

Where C= Concentration of solution (liq)

𝑥𝑥 1
log = log K + log C
𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛

Type of Adsorption : Two type :-

On the basis of force of attraction between adsorbent and adsorbates.

Physical Adsorption [or] Physisorption [or] Vander wall Adsorption

When the gas molecules are held over the surface of adsorbent with the help of weak physical forces such as Vander
Wall forces, are known as Physical adsorption.

Characteristics of Physical adsorption :-

1. No surface Product :- As physical adsorption involves weak Vander wall forces [physical force] so that no
chemical interaction take place between surface and molecule that’s why no surface product is formed.
2. Reversible in Nature :- In physisorption no surface product is formed that’s why on increasing the temperature ,
the gaseous molecule removed as is it from the surface that’s why it is reversible in nature.
3. Low Enthalpy of adsorption :- As the physisorption involved only weak Vander wall forces which means less
amount of energy released during adsorption [20-40 KJ/mol] so they have low enthalpy of adsorption . [2008,13]
4. Multimolecular layer of Adsorption :- In physisorption, universal vander wall forces takes place between
molecule and surface which can also exist between molecule and molecule and that’s why it occur
multimolecular layer of adsorption.

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5. Non-Specific in Nature :- As Vander wall force are universal on every solid adsorbent every gas is adsorb, only
the extent of adsorption may vary . It means the surface of solid doesn’t have any specific priority for a particular
gas, that’s why it is non – specific in nature.
6. Nature of adsorbate: - Those gases which have high critical temp can be easily liquefy and undergo physical
adsorption easily by making strong Vander wall forces.

Chemical Adsorption [or] Chemisorption :-

When a gas is held on the surface of solid by chemical forces which is similar to chemical bond is called chemical
adsorption.

Characteristics of Chemical adsorption :-

1. Formation of surface product :- As chemisorption involve chemical bond between gaseous molecule and surface
that’s why formation of surface product take place.
2. Irreversible in Nature :- As Chemisorption involve formation of surface product as the efforts to free the
adsorbed gas will release the surface product instead of gas. That’s why it is irreversible in nature.
eg:- O 2 gas adsorb on tungeston will release as tungeston oxide in place of oxygen.
3. High Enthalpy of Adsorption :- As chemisorption involve formation of strong chemical forces between gaseous
molecule and solid adsorbent so that large amount of heat is released [200-400KJ/mol ] that’s why they have high
heat of Adsorption.
4. Unimolecular layer of Adsorption :- As chemical bond can be formed between gas molecule and surface and
such type of bonds cannot take place between molecule and molecule that’s why it form unimolecular layer of
adsorption.
5. High specific in Nature : - This type of adsorption is only if there is a chance of formation of chemical bond
between adsorbate and adsorbent.
6. Nature of adsorbate :- The adsorbate molecule should be in such a way that they have ability to form chemical
bond with adsorbent.

Effect of Temperature [Adsorption Isobar] :-

(a) In Physisorption :-

Gas + Solid ⇌ Gas/solid + Heat

According to Le chatlier’s principle on increasing the temp the reaction goes into backward direction so that the
gaseous molecule remove from the surface .Thus physisorption is decreased on increasing the temperature.

Adsorption isobar :-

At constant pressure the graphical relation between mass of gas adsorb per unit mass of adsorbent (x/m) and temp. is
called Adsorption Isobar.

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(b) In Chemisorption :-In Chemisorption as the temp increased then initially it provide activation energy for the
formation of chemical bond between adsorbate and adsorbent so that rate of chemisorption increases . After reaching
the maximum adsorption, then according to Le chatlier’s principle reaction will be shifted in backward direction and
extent of adsorption will decrease.

Q. Write 3 distinctive features of chemisorption which are not present in physisorption. [2012]

Difference between Physical Adsorption and Chemical Adsorption [2010C,15]

Physical Adsorption Chemical Adsorption

1. No surface product is formed Surface product is formed
2. It is reversible in nature It is irreversible in nature
3. It has low enthalpy of adsorption It has high enthalpy of adsorption
4. It is non- specific in nature. It is highly specific in nature.
5. Physisorption is decrease on increasing the temp. Chemisorption on increase temp initially the rate of a
adsorption increase and then decrease.
6. Molecules of gases undergo adsorption by The molecules have the ability to form chemical
making weak vanderwall bonds. bonds with adsorbent.
Similarities between Physical Adsorption and Chemical Adsorption are both are surface phenomena
and both are directly depending on surface area.

Types of Adsorption :-

(a) Positive Adsorption :- In this adsorption , the solute is adsorb on the surface of adsorbent so that the
concentration of solute increase on the surface of adsorbent then in bulk and after adsorption concentration of
solution is decreased is called positive adsorption . eg :- When concentrated solution of KCl is shaken with
animal charcoal, it show +ve adsorption .
(b) Negative Adsorption: - In this adsorption, the solvent from the solution are adsorbed so that after adsorption
concentration of solution will be increased in the bulk is called negative adsorption. Eg :- When dilute solution of
KCl is shaken with animal charcoal , it show negative adsorption .

Application of Adsorption : [Any 2 application of adsorption(2012)]

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1. In removing moisture from air in the storage of delicate instrument: - Instrument may be harm by contact
with moist air so that to remove the moisture from air Silica gel is used which act as Dehumidizer as it remove
the moisture from air .
2. In clarification of sugar :- In cane sugar solution various impurities coloured substances are present which are
adsorbed by mixing the sugar solution by charcoal powdered. It makes the sugar solution colourless.
3. In gas mask :- The gas mask contain suitable adsorbent so that the poisonous gases present in the atmosphere are
preferentially adsorb and the air for breathing is purified.
4. In Heterogeneous catalysis: - In heterogeneous catalysis solid catalyst provide surface for the adsorption of
gaseous molecules so that the concentration of molecule over the surface is increased due to which the molecules
collide to form the product.

CATALYSIS

Those chemical substances which can change the rate of reaction [mostly increased] without consuming in the
reaction are called catalyst and this phenomenon is known as Catalysis .

∆, 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀2
Eg :- 2KClO 3 �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� 2KCl + 3O 2

Types of catalysis: 4 types

1. Positive Catalysis : - Those chemical substance which can increase the rate of reaction are called Positive
catalyst and phenomenon is known as positive catalysis .
Eg (i) In contact process – Manufacturing of H 2 SO 4
𝑉𝑉2𝑂𝑂5
2SO 2 (g) + O 2 (g) �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� 2SO 3 (g)

𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
(ii) Vegetable oil + H 2 �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� Vegetable ghee

2. Negative Catalysis: - Those chemical substances which can decrease the rate of reaction are called Negative
catalyst and phenomenon is known as Negative catalysis.
(i) Decomposition of H 2 O 2 in presence of glycerol.
(ii) The oxidation of chloroform in presence of alcohol.
3. Auto Catalysis: - In certain chemical reaction the product which is formed will behave as catalyst for the reaction
and it increase the rate of reaction is called autocatalyst and this phenomenon is known as autocatlysis.
Eg : - Q. Why the ester hydrolysis is slow in beginning and become faster after sometime?

RCOOR’ + HOH ⇌ RCOOH + R’OH

(Ester) (Carboxylic acid act as auto catalyst)

The carboxylic acid thus form will act as autocatalyst . Hence, the reaction become faster after sometime.

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4. Induced catalysis :- When a reaction affect the rate of another reaction which may not otherwise occur under the
same condition , is called Induced catalysis.
Eg :- Sodium Arsenate [Na 2 AsO 3 ] is not oxidised by air if it combined with sodium sulphite [Na 2 SO 3 ] then both
undergo oxidation.
5. Homogeneous catalysis :- Those chemical reaction in which the reactant molecule and catalyst both are present
in same phases, are called Homogeneous catalyst and phenomenon is called Homogeneous catalysis.
𝐻𝐻+(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)
Eg:- (i) C 12 H 22 O 11 (aq) + H 2 O (l) �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� C 6 H 12 O 6 + C 6 H 12 O 6 (aq)
(Sucrose) (Glucose) (Fructose)

𝐻𝐻+(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)
(ii) CH 3 COOC 2 H 5 (aq) + H 2 O (l) �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� CH 3 COOH (l) +C 2 H 5 OH (l)

𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁(𝑔𝑔)
(iii) 2SO 2 (g) + O 2 (g) �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� 2SO 3 (g)

6. Heterogeneous catalysts:- Those chemical reaction in which the reactant molecule and catalyst are present in
different phases, are called Hetreogeneous catalyst and phenomenon is called Heterogeneous catalysis. [2013]
Eg :- (i) In contact process :- Manufacturing of H 2 SO 4

𝑉𝑉2𝑂𝑂5 (𝑠𝑠)
2SO 2 (g) + O 2 (g) �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� 2SO 3 (g)

(ii) Manufacturing of vegetable ghee:-

𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁(𝑠𝑠)
Vegetable oil + H 2 �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� Vegetable ghee

(iii) In Ostwald’s process :- Manufacturing of HNO 3

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃.𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 (𝑠𝑠)
4NH 3 (g) + 5O 2 (g) �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� 4NO (g) + 6H 2 O

(iv) In Haber’s process :- Manufacturing of NH 3

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠)
N 2 (g) + 3H 2 (g) �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� 2 NH 3

Catalyst Promoter :- Those chemical substances which increase the working efficiency or activity of catalyst so
that the rate of reaction is increased are called catalyst promoter.

Eg:-Mo act as catalyst promoter for Fe in manufacturing of NH 3 by Haber’s Process..

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
N 2 (g) + 3H 2 (g) �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� 2 NH 3
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀(𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜)𝐾𝐾2𝑂𝑂 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

Catalyst Inhibitor or Catalyst poison :- Those chemical substances which destroy the working efficiency or
activity of catalyst so that the rate of reaction is decreased are called catalyst Inhibitor.

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Eg:- The presence of Co in the manufacturing of NH 3 by Haber’s process act as catalyst poison for Fe catalyst so that
it is necessary to remove CO from the Haber’s process as soon as possible.

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠)
N 2 (g) + 3H 2 (g) �⎯⎯� �⎯⎯⎯� 2 NH 3 (g)
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

Role of Adsorption in Heterogeneous catalysis:- [2008C]

In Heterogeneous catalysis , mostly the reactant molecule are in gaseous state and the catalyst present in solid state
when this solid catalyst is added in the reaction mixture then it provide the surface for the reactant molecules. That it
is also surface catalyst, now the gaseous molecule diffuse around the surface and finally they get adsorb over the
surface. Due to this Adsorption the reactant molecules comes closer and they collide to each other to form product.
Role of Desorption in Heterogeneous catalysis:-

After the formation of product over the surface of catalyst desorption process would occur. By the desorption process
the product molecules are removed from the surface and the surface become free for the adsorption of new reactant
molecules which leads to form New product.
Shape selective catalysis :- [2009,11,12]
The process in which the activity of a catalyst is depends upon the shape and size of reactant molecules and product
formed are known as shape selective catalyst and phenomenon is called shape selective catalysis.
Eg:- Zeolites are the hydrated salts of sodium/ Potassium alumino silicate which having honey comb like structure.
Before using zeolite as a catalyst it is heated so that all the water molecule will be evaporated and zeolite become
porous. Now this zeolite only catalyse such molecule whose shape and size in such a way that they easily enter into
the pores to form product and the product molecule easily leave the pores.

In this way, the activity of zeolite is depends upon the shape and size of reactant molecules that's why it is categories
as shape selective catalyst.

Eg:- ZSM -5 [zeolite sieve of molecular porosity -5 ] is used petroleum industry.

𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍−5
Alcohol �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� Hydrocarbon
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷ℎ𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦

Eg:- Various drugs can be used as enzyme Inhibitor which block the enzyme active sites.
Q. Why are substances like Pt and Pd often used for carrying out electrolysis of aqueous solution?
Ans . This is because Pt and Pd provide large surface area and moreover they are very less reactive (almost inert) so
that they are most widely used as electrode in various electrolysis process.

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 Colloids [or] Collidal state [or] Collidal solution:-

Less than 1 nm In between 1 to 1000 nm more than 1000 nm

The colloids are the heterogeneous mixture of two substances in which the substance which is dispersed in the
dispersion medium are called Dispersed phase (or) Collidal partials and the medium in which these substances get
dispersed is known as Dispersion medium.

• The heterogeneous mixture of colloid is not filter by ordinary filter paper but it can be filter through Parchment paper
(or) animal or plant membranes. This is because through these membranes it cannot passes.
Q. Comment on the statement that " Colloid is not a substances but it is the state of substance"?.
Ans. The given statement is true. This is because the same substance may exist as a Colloid under certain condition
and as an electrolyte under certain other condition.
eg:- NaCl in water behave as electrolyte whereas NaCl in benzene behave as colloids. It means every substance can
behave as colloid if it's particle range is between 1nm to 1000nm.
Classification of colloids:-
(a) On the basis of Physical state of dispersed phase and Dispersion medium.

DISPERSED PHASE DISPERSION MEDIUM TYPE OF COLLOIDS EXAMPLE

1. Solid Solid Solid Sol Gem Stone

2. Liquid Solid Gel [2014,17]] Butter, Cheese

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 3. Gas Solid Solid foam Rubber foam
4. Solid Liquid Sol [2014] Starch sol,
albumin sol
5. Liquid Liquid Emulsion [2014,15 C] Milk, butter
6. Gas Liquid Foam [2017] Soap leather
7. Solid Gas Solid Aerosol Dust, Smoke
8. Liquid Gas Liquid Aerosol Fog, Mist

• When dispersion phase and dispersion medium both of them are gas then it forms homogeneous mixture that's why
they are not considered as colloid.

SOL
[D.P--Solid, D.M-- Liquid]

WATER[Aquasol or
ALCOHOL[Alcosol] BENZENE[Benzosol]
hydrosol]

• Colloidal solution of graphite in water is called aquadag.

• Colloidal solution of gold in water is called purple of cassious.
(b) On the basis of force of attraction between dispersed phase and dispersed medium [Two type] :-

(i) Lyophilic colloid [liquid loving colloids]:- [2013]

When the certain substance such as gum , rubber , starch, protein, gelatin etc. are mixed with a suitable liquid then
they directly convert into the colloidal solution are called lyophilic colloids.
• These colloids are simply prepared by shaking these certain substance in suitable liquids.
• They are quite stable in nature because of strong force of attraction between dispersed phase and dispersion medium.
• Being stable in nature they cannot convert into precipitate by small amount of electrolyte but if excess of electrolyte
is added then it will convert them into precipitate of Coagulation process. If this precipitate is remixed with suitable
liquid then they again convert into colloidal sol that's why they are considered reversible sol. [2010]
• They are highly hydrated in nature.
(ii) Lyophobic collides [ Liquid hating collides]:- [2011,13]

When certain substance such as metals (Ag, Au, Fe, etc),their sulphides when simply mixed with liquid they do not
form colloidal sol. These colloidal sols can be prepared by some special method.

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• These colloids are very less stable in nature because the dispersed phase and dispersion medium particle do not like
to each other.

•Being less stable in nature these colloids can be easily precipitate [Coagulated] by the addition of small electrolytes,
further this precipitate is formed do not give back colloidal sol by remixing with suitable liquid that's why they are
considered as irreversible sol.

• They are not much hydrated.

Difference between Lyophilic colloid and lyophobic colloid [2014]

LYOPHILIC COLLOID LYOPHOBIC COLLOID

1. Prepared by directly by mixing/ Shaking Prepared by some special methods
2. Quite Stable Less Stable
3. Highly Hydrated Less Hydrated
4. Reversible sol Irreversible sol
5. These sols are usually formed by organic These sols are usually formed by inorganic material like
substance like starch, gum etc. metals, Sulphides.
6. Their viscosity is much higher than that of Their viscosity is almost the same as that of medium
medium

(c) On the basis of particle size of dispersed phase [ Three types]:-

(i) Multimolecular colloids:-

In certain substance the particle size is less than 1 nm so firstly these particles aggregate to each other to form a
species which having size in the colloidal range(1 to 1000 nm) the species thus produce are called multimolecular
colloid and when these colloids are dissolved in suitable dispersion medium then they form colloidal sol.

eg:-The colloidal sol of gold, sulphur (S 8 molecule are held together by vanderwall force )etc.

(ii) Macromolecular colloids:-

When certain substance having large size molecule [more than 1000nm ]called macromolecules, the molecules of
these substances firstly get dispersed to form the particles in colloidal range(1 to 1000 nm) which are known as
Macromolecular colloids and when these substance dissolve in suitable dispersion medium then they form colloidal
solution.

eg:-Naturally occurring macromolecules such as Starch, Protein, Enzyme cellulose etc. are considered
macromolecular colloids.

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(iii) Associated colloids [or] Micelles:- [2012]

Certain substances at low concentration behave normally as a strong electrolytes but at higher concentration the
particles of these substance associated together to form colloid which are known as Associated colloids or Micelles.

eg:- At high concentration the soap molecules and synthetic detergents behave as associated colloids.

Critical micelles Concentration [CMC]:-

The formations of micelles take place above a particular concentration which is known as critical micelle
concentration [CMC].

Kraft temperature [Tk] :-

The formations of micelles take place above a particular temperature which is known as kraft temperature.

Mechanism of Micelles formation:-

Let us considered a soap molecule.

RCOONa [Sodium salt of higher fatty acid]

Eg ;- (i) If R = C 17 H 35 then, (C 17 H 35 COONa –Sodium stearate)
(ii)If R = C 15 H 31 then, (C 15 H 31 COONa ----- Sodium Palmitate )

When soap molecule dissolves in water then it will dissolve into their ions.

RCOONa ------------→ RCOO- + Na+

(Soap)

•when soap molecule dissolve in water at low concentration than it behave normally as a strong electrolyte and it form
solution.

• At high concentration the ions of soap molecule associate together in a spherical form to produce ionic micelles
[associated colloid]

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Cleansing action of soap:- [2012]

When we applied the soap solution over the dirty clothes then the soap molecule arranged themselves around the dirt
in such a way that the tail part will be embedded in the dirt while the head part remain in water . In this way a pulling
force is generated towards the tail part which help to detached the dirt from the cloth surface which is permanently
remove by rubbing and flowing the water.

Preparation of colloids [lyophobic]:-

Method of preparation

Dispersion method Codensation

(Disintegration method) Method(Aggregation)

1.Mechanical dispersion 1.Double Decomposition

2.Electric dispersion 2.Oxidation
(Bredig's arc method) 3.Reduction
3.Peptization 4.Hydrolysis

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1. Dispersion method:-

This method is used for breaking the large particles into the Colloidal range [1 -1000nm] for this purpose various
method are used these are:-

(i) Mechanical dispersion:-

In this method a colloid mill is used which consists of two steel disc with a little gap and they are capable of rotating
in opposite directing with a very high speed [7000RPM].

This collide mill crush the particle into the colloidal range which dissolve in suitable dispersion medium to form
colloidal solution.

(ii) Electrical Disintegration [or ] Bredig's arc method:-

• This method is used for the preparation of colloidal sol of Ag, Au, Pt etc.

• In this method the metal electrode is dipped in dispersion medium and connected through a high voltage electric
source. When current is passed through these electrode than an electric arc is produced which generate a large amount
of heat . This intense heat convert the metal into vapours which are immediately condensed in ice water bath and
formed the particles of colloidal site those particles dissolve in suitable dispersion medium to form a colloidal sol.

(iii) Peptization:- [2012]

The process of converting the freshly prepared precipitate into the colloidal SOL with the help of suitable electrolyte
which are known as peptizing agent and this process is known as Peptization.

eg:- when a freshly prepared precipitate of Fe(OH) 3 is mixed with a suitable electrolyte FeCl 3 ( peptizing agent )then it
will form the positively charged colloidal SOL of Fe(OH) 3 . [2008,11,18]

Cause of peptization:- When a suitable electrolyte is added in freshly prepared precipitate then preferential
adsorption take place due to which certain type of ion get adsorb over the surface of molecules of precipitate. In this

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way the molecule gets charged (some charges) which create force of repulsion so that these molecules that dispersed
to form colloidal SOL.

2. Condensation method:-

This method involves for such particles whose particle range less than 1 nm so that they aggregate to each other to
form colloidal particles.

(i) By double decomposition :-

This method is used for the preparation of colloidal SOL of As 2 S 3 [ Arseneous sulphide]

Eg :- As 2 O 3 + 3H 2 S �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� As 2 S 3 + 3H 2 O
[Arseneous oxide ] [-vely charged colloidal partical]

(ii) By oxidation:-

By this method colloidal sol of sulphur is obtained.

H 2 S + Br 2 �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� S + 2HBr
[colloidal sol]

Q. Explain why when H 2 S gas is passed through the transparent solution of HNO 3 then it become turbid.

Ans. This is because of the formation of colloidal SOL of sulphur which makes HNO 3 solution turbid.

H 2 S + 2HNO 3 �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� S + 2H 2 O + 2NO 2

[colloidal sol]

(iii) By reduction:-

By this method colloidal SOL of gold is formed.

2AuCl 3 + 3HCHO + 3H 2 O �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� 2Au + 3HCOOH + 6HCl

[auric chloride] [colloidal sol]

(iv) By hydrolysis:-

By this method positively charged colloidal SOL of Fe(OH) 3 is obtained.

FeCl 3 + 3HOH �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� Fe(OH) 3 + 3HCl

[+vely charged colloidal sol]

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Purification of colloidal SOL:- The methods which are used to reduce the concentration of impurities
[crystalloids] from the colloidal solution upto minimum level and convert the impure colloidal sol into the pure form
are known as purification or refining of colloidal SOL.

There are three methods which are used for purification of colloids these are:-

(i) Dialysis:-

• The process of separating the impurities from the colloidal SOL by the diffusion process through parchment paper
bag is known as dialysis.

•In this process a parchment paper bag filled with impure sol is suspended into the distilled water after sometime the
impurities are removed from the colloidal SOL and pure colloidal particles remain in the bag.

• The apparatus which is used during this process is called dialyser.

•This dialysis process is very slow and it takes long time for the completion .This drawback can be solved when the
dialysis process is carried out under the influence of electric field so that the charged electrodes attract the oppositely
charged impurities very rapidly so that the process become very fast this is known as electrodialysis and apparatus is
called electro dialyser.

(ii) Ultrafiltration:-

Ordinary filter paper is not used for purification of impure colloidal solution when this ordinary filter paper is dipped
in a solution of colloidian [ a mixture of 4% nitrocellulose in alcohol and ether]. This colloidian reduce the size of
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pores so that ordinary filter paper become ultra filter paper and this filter paper is used to filter the impure colloidal
solution by the process of ultrafiltration.

(iii) Ultra centrifugation :-

In this method the impure sol is taken in a tube which is placed in a device i.e ultra centrifuge in this machine the tube
is rotate at a very high speed. As a result. the colloidal particles settle down at the bottom while the impurities remain
in solution. This solution is the decanted off and the colloidal particles remain in the tube which are remixed with
dispersion medium to form pure colloidal solution.

Properties of colloids

1. Tyndall effect:- [2009C,10,11,13]

When a beam of light is passed through the colloidal solution then the colloidal particles absorb the light ray and they
have the tendency to scattered it .Thus the scattering of light by the colloidal particles in the form of cones which are
known as Tyndall cones and phenomenon is known as Tyndall effect.

• The particles of true solution do not exhibit this effect because a true solution particles having small size so that they
can absorb the light ray but do not scattered it.

•The sky appears blue due to the scattering of sunlight by the dust particles [colloidal particles]

2. Brownian movement:-

When colloidal sol is placed under the ultra -microscope then it is observed that the colloidal particles move in zig
Zag way inside the dispersion medium. This zig-zag movement of colloidal particles inside the dispersion medium in
a colloidal sol is known as Brownian movement.

Cause :- It is based on the fact that the dispersion medium particles strike the colloidal particles from all sides with
different forces.

3.Electrophoresis :- [2008]

when the colloidal sol is placed under the influence of electric field then the movement of charged colloidal particles
towards the oppositively charged electrode take place which is known as electrophoresis.

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• When the charge colloidal particle reaches the oppositively charged electrode then they get neutralized to form
precipitate.

• for +ve colloidal particles movements is called → cataphoresis

• for -ve colloidal particles movements is called → Anaphoresis

4. Electroosmosis :-

On placing a colloidal SOL under the influence of an electric field the particles of dispersion medium move towards a
oppositively charged electrode through SPM whereas the colloidal particles are not allowed to move is, called electro
osmosis.

5. Coagulation [or] Flocculation [or] Precipitation:- [2009]

When an electrolyte is added to the colloidal SOL then the oppositely charged ion of electrolyte with respect to
colloidal particles are known as Coagulating ion or effective iron are neutralize the charge colloidal particles which
aggregate to each other to form precipitate . This phenomenon is called coagulation or precipitation.

Coagulation value or Flocculation or Precipitation value :-

The minimum amount of an electrolyte in millimoles that must be added to 1 litre of colloidal SOL so as to bring
about complete Coagulation is called Coagulation value . Smaller is the coagulation value of an electrolyte greater it is
Coagulation power.

1
Coagulation value α
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

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Hardy - Schulze Law :-

According to this "when an electrolyte is added to a colloidal solution then the oppositely charged ion of electrolyte
with respect to colloidal solution is responsible for coagulation is called Coagulating ion . The Coagulation power of
an electrolyte is directly depends upon the charge or valency present over the Coagulating ion ".

Eg:- 3 electrolytes NaCl, Na 2 SO 4 and Na 3 PO 4 are added in same kind of positively charged colloidal SOL separately
.These electrolytes provide Cl-, SO4 -2 and PO 4 -3 ions respectively with behave as coagulating ion so according to
Hardy schulze law Na 3 PO 4 has maximum coagulation power than other.

Na 3 PO 4 ˃ Na 2 SO 4 ˃ NaCl

----Decreasing Coagulation power of electrolyte--→

Similarly for negative colloidal all we hhhhh added NaCl, BaCl 2 , AlCl 3 separately they provide Na+, Ba2+, Al3+ and
Al3+has maximum coagulation power than others.

AlCl 3 ˃ BaCl 2 ˃ NaCl

----Decreasing Coagulation power of electrolyte--→

Q .Which of the following electrolyte is more effective for the Coagulation of Fe(OH) 3 sol and why?

Ans . Fe(OH) 3 is a positively charged colloids SOL which means negative ion from the electrolyte will act as
effective iron so out of this electrolytes PO 4 3- has maximum valency so according to Hardy-schulze law Na 3 PO 4 is
more effective electrolyte.

Q. Out of KI and K 2 SO 4 which is better electrolyte for coagulation? ( Ans K 2 SO 4 ) 2020

Methods of coagulation (4methods) 2020

(i) By addition of electrolyte

(ii) By electrophoresis

(iii)By mutual Coagulation:-

In this process equal amount of two oppositively charged colloidal are mixed together so that the oppositely charged
colloidal particles neutralised to each other and they form precipitate is known as mutual Coagulation.

Eg:- when positively charged colloidal SOL of o Fe(OH) 3 is mixed with negatively charged colloidal SOL of As 2 S 3
then mutual Coagulation will occur and it will form precipitate.

(iv) By persistent dialysis for prolonged Dialysis:- [2018]

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when a colloidal SOL undergo prolonged dialysis than all the impurities get removed from the colloidal SOL due to
which the colloidal SOL become highly unstable then it will form precipitate.

Protective colloid:-

Lyophobic colloids are unstable and get easily precipitated by addition of electrolytes however it is observed that
addition of certain lyophilic colloid [starch ,gum ,gelatin etc ] will protect the lyophobic colloids from electrolyte. This
process is called protection and lyophilic colloids are known as protective colloids.

Gold number :-

It is the minimum amount of protective colloid in milligram which must be added to 10 ml standard red gold SOL so
that no coagulation takes place when 1 ml of 10 % NaCl solution is added to it is called gold number.

The protective action of protective colloid is reciprocal of gold number.

1
Gold No. α
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

Eg:-Gold number of Gelatin is 0.005 whereas starch 20-25 that's why Gelatin is better protective colloid than starch.

Application of colloids:-

1. Medicine :-

Most of medicines are used in colloidal form because they are more easily assimilated due to large surface area and
hence they are more effective. [2019]

Eg:-(i) Argyrol is the colloidal SOL of silver used in eye lotion.

(ii) colloidal SOL of gold is used as an intramuscular injection.

(iii) Milk of magnesia used as an antacid

2. Delta formation:- [2015]

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A river water contain charge colloidal particles of clay , sand and others sea water contain various electrolyte such as
NaCl etc. when river water comes in contact with sea water than electrolytes present in sea water coagulate the
colloidal particles which are settle down at the junction point in the shape of delta which is considered as delta
formation.

3. Purification of water :-

The impure water contain various charge colloidal particles when the suitable electrolyte such as potash alum
(K 2 SO 4 .Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 .24H 2 O) is added to water then it neutralize the colloidal particles(which behave as impurity) and
coagulation will take place so that colloidal particles will be settle down in the form of precipitate which can be easily
filtered off and makes the water pure for drinking purpose.

4. Artificial rain :-

Clouds are the collides in which water droplets act as charged colloidal particles which dispersed in the air [liquid
aerosol].Artificial rain can be caused by spraying oppositely charged colloids or suitable electrolytes (such as NaCl)
over a cloud then the colloidal water particles will get neutralize and coagulate to form bigger water droplets which
fall down and cause artificial rain.

5. Smoke precipitation :-

Smoke is the colloidal solution in which charged particle of carbon act as a colloidal particles which are present in air
(solid aerosol) precipitation of smoke is carried out by cottrell's precipitator which is based on the principle of
electrophoresis.

smoke is allowed to pass cottrell's precipitator which earthen having number of charged plates attached to a metal wire
connected with high source of voltage so that charged particles of carbon attract by oppositely charged plate get
precipitate after losing their charge and only the hot air passes out through their chimney thus the problem of smoke in
big industry can be avoided.

6. Rubber industry:-

Latex is the colloidal solution of negatively charged rubber - colloidal particles from latex rubber can be done by
adding the suitable electrolyte or by placing the opposite charge electrolyte. [By electrophoresis]

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7. Tanning /leather industry. :-

The process of hardening of leather is known as tanning. Tannin obtained from plants contains negatively charged
colloidal particles. Animal hides contain positively charged colloidal particles when they are mixed together then
mutual Coagulation will occur which makes leather hard.

Origin of charge on the colloidal particles:- 2020

In colloidal SOL the origin of charge over the colloidal particles is because of the selective Adsorption [preferential
adsorption] of certain kind of ions over the surface of colloidal particles.

Eg:- (i) Let us considered the formation of colloidal particles of AgI with the help of AgNO 3 (dispersion medium)
and KI solution. (dispersed phase)

(a)

AgNO 3 + KI �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� AgI + KNO 3

(Excess) (colloidal particles ) (Remain in D.M)

AgI + AgNO 3 �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� Ag+/AgI /Ag+

Ag+→[+ve charged colloidal sol]

When KI (Preferential adsorption) is added in excess of AgNO 3 then colloidal particles of AgI is formed over which
due to preferential adsorption of Ag+ ions get adsorb .In this way a positively charged colloidal SOL of AgI is formed.

(b)

AgNO 3 + KI �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� AgI + KNO 3

(Excess) (colloidal particles ) (Remain in D.M)

AgI + KI �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� I- /AgI /I-

(preferential adsorption) I- →[-ve charged colloidal sol] (2020)

• When AgNO 3 is added in excess of KI solution then colloidal particles of AgI is formed over which due to
preferential adsorption I- ion get adsorb. In this way negatively charged colloidal particles of AgI get formed.

(ii) If FeCl 3 is added to hot water a positively charged colloidal SOL of hydrated ferric oxide is formed due to
preferential adsorption of Fe3+ ions.

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However if FeCl 3 is added to NaOH solution a negatively charged SOL of hydrated ferric oxide is obtained due to
-
preferential adsorption of OH ions.

Electro Kinetic potential or Zeta potential :-[2018]

During the formation of colloidal particles certain kind of ion are prefrentially adsorb over the surface of colloidal
particles and make a layer called fixed layer .These ions will attract the oppositely charged ions [counter ion] from the
dispersion medium and make another layer called Diffused or mobile layer. These two layers are known as electrical
double layer and the potential difference exist between these two layers is known as electrokinetic potential or zeta
potential.

AgI Ag+ NO 3 -

AgI Ag+ NO 3 -

AgI Ag+ NO 3 -

(colloidal particles) [Fixed layer] (Diffuse layer or mobile layer)

[Electrical double layer]

Q. How does BF 3 act as catalyst in most of industries?

Ans. Boron has 6 valence electron it is electron deficient compound and behave as Lewis acid that's why it act as
catalyst in industries.

Q. Considered a graph:-Find out the variation in extent of adsorption when:-

(i) Temperature increase at constant pressure

(ii) Pressure increase at constant temperature

(iii) Name the catalyst and catalyst promoter used in Haber process

Q. Why the presence of equal and similar charges on colloidal particles provide stability? (2020)

Ans:- Due to repulsion between the dispersed particles.

(SHARMA CHEMISTY CLASS ES, DADRI)

Amit Sharma

(9818531477)

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