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Agriculture Extension and Communication

CHAPTER 3: THE PRACTICE OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

A. Role and Functions of the Extension Worker

Nature of Change Agents

Change Agents, also called community organizers (CO)/Filed facilitator, is usually a

professional who influence or facilitate innovation-decisions in a direction deemed desirable.

Professional Requirement of the EW

1.Good knowledge and understanding of his/her client system

2.Recognition of the effects of the biophysical factors along production activities
3.Sound knowledge of the agricultural production
4.Sound knowledge of farm management and economics
5.Good communication skills
6.Skill in the operation of basic farm equipment or machinery
7.Good public relations

Roles and Functions of EW

1.Initiator of change (initiative, leadership and jugdement)

2.Source of knowledge and technology (reliability, ingenuity, prudence)
3.Special teacher (empathy and commitment)
4.Organizer and coordinator (interest, patience and good public relations)
5.Researcher (reliability, patience and ingenuity)
6.All purpose-person (good public relations, patience)

In development, Change agents primarily function as:

 Teacher
 Community organizer
 Planner
 Farm management adviser
 Linker
 Facilitator/Catalyst
 Researcher

Take note:

A professional EW is one that help farmers improve their living standards, help farmers achieve
their long and short term objectives, make practical suggestions which will enable farmers to attain their
goals, act as link between farmers, researchers and planners, help farmers devise methods of
overcoming their problems. They will assist with the implementation of national policies and with the
organization of farming structures.

JUN REL C. CHAVEZ

STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY
DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines
Course Instructor
 Page |2
Agriculture Extension and Communication

B. Principles of Extension

Extension is considered a process which starts from analyzes of the situation to provision of
information, application and evaluation of results of practices. It involves in helping farmers analyze
their present and expected future situation; helping farmers become aware of problems that arise in
such an analysis; increasing knowledge and developing insights into problems and helps to structure
farmers’ existing knowledge; helping farmers acquire specific knowledge related to certain problem
solutions and their consequences so they can act on possible alternatives; helping farmers make a
responsible choice which in their opinion is optimal for their situation; increasing farmers motivation to
implement their choice, and helping farmers evaluate and improve their own opinion-forming and
decision-making skills.

Extension education is a science which deals with strategic questions associated with the
extension process. It collects and integrates, where possible, existing knowledge about the extension
process from other scientific disciplines and add to knowledge thru extension research.

Extension is a non-formal education providing information needs to farmers. Non-formal education

is an organized, systematic educational activity, carried on outside the framework f the formal system to
provide selected types of learning to subgroups in the population and to augment informal learning
processes to facilitate certain valued types of learning.

Essential Elements of Extension

1. Communication – process of sending and receiving messages through channels which

establish common meanings between a source and a receiver.
2. Intervention – process of manipulating existing social system to a condition deemed desirable
by the intervening party.
3. Voluntary Change – effectiveness of the extension program depends on the willingness of the
people to be persuaded to the extent to which the see extension as serving their interest and
benefits. The nehavorial change should include changes in knowledge, attitude, skills, aspiration
and practice (KASAP).
4. Targeting Process – it may target group or individual participants and the kind of change it
needs to effect.
5. Profession – extension is employed by an agency or institution which provides an
administrative structure in its practice.

Alternative words for EXTENSION in other parts of the world

JUN REL C. CHAVEZ

STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY
DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines
Course Instructor
 Page |3
Agriculture Extension and Communication

COUNTRY WORD MEANING

Dutch Voorlichting Lighting the pathway ahead to people
find their way
Indonesia Penyuluhan Lighting the way ahead with a torch
Malaysia Perkembangan
Great Britain Beratung Advisory work
and Germany
Germany auflärung Enlightenment; to stress the
importance of knowing clearly where
we are going Source: AW
Erziegung Education, teaching people to solve van den Ban &
problems themselves HS Hawkins,
Austria Förderung Furthering; stimulating one to go in a 1996
desirable direction
France Vulgarization Need to simplify the message for the
common man Basic
Spain Capacitacion Improving people’s skills, training Principles of
Extension
Thai, Lao Song-Suem To promote
Education

1. Extension service is democratic.

2. The human being is a center of any development effort.
3. Extension promotes self-help in learning by doing better things.
4. Cooperativism is essential for extension works.
5. Extension considers the farm and home as one fundamental unit.
6. Extension believes that agriculture is profitable.
7. Extension personnel are commited and development-oriented.

Purpose of Extension

 Emancipatory
 Extension intends to free and uplift the poor, to correct structural problems and to
achieve society’s goals. It is also called ‘Pedagogy of the oppressed’ (Paolo Freire).
 Formative
 Extension emphasizes the information or enhancement of the peoples’ capacity to
make decisions, to learn, to communicate with others, to analyze the environment and
to be a leader. This is also known as ‘human resource development’ or ‘capability
building’.
 Informative
 Extension helps people make well-considered choices among alternatives offered by
extension so they can achieve their goals.
 Persuasive
 Extension aims to achieve societal objectives and collective utilities by including
preventive behavior in the interest of society as a whole or of future generation.

JUN REL C. CHAVEZ

STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY
DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines
Course Instructor
 Page |4
Agriculture Extension and Communication

Goals and Objective of Agricultural Extension

Agricultural extension aims to:

1. To act as intermediary between agricultural development institutions and target groups, making
available to farmers the latest results of research for understanding and application.
2. To aid in the transfer and adaptation of research results to/by the farmers as target
groups/clientele.
3. To establish/structure new institutions whether state-organized or self-help institutions that can
influence the whole agricultural production system.
4. To mobilize all the necessary resources in extension work including farm inputs, concerned
agencies/institutions, funds, facilities and experts/people involved in the dissemination/adoption
of innovation in the rural environment.

C. Extension Teaching Methods and Techniques

Extension teaching is the art of stimulating, directing and guiding the learning process. It is a
process of guided interaction designed to help people develop and become capable of guiding
successfully their own destinies; and a process of providing effective learning situations that create new
learning experiences for people. Extension methods are educational techniques employed by the
extension system.

Laws/Theories of Learning

1. Law of Readiness – states that when the individual is ready to act, to do so is satisfying and not
to do so is annoying.
2. Law of Exercise – states that the more a given connection is exercised, the stronger the
connection becomes, when the connection is not practiced, the strength of the connection
decreases.
3. Law of Effect – connections which are pleasant tends to be repeated and strengthened, and
those that are unpleasant tend to be avoided or weakened.

The interrelated factors in choosing a suitable extension teaching method:

 Source and receiver

 The desired changes
 Learning theories
 Availability of the method
 Primary function of the method
 The need and time factor

2 CLASSIFICATION OF EXTENSION TEACHING METHOD

1. According to forms

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STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY
DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines
Course Instructor
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Agriculture Extension and Communication

A. Written
B. Spoken
C. Objective or Visual
D. Spoken and objective or visual

2. According to use
A. Individual contacts
 It provides the most meaningful and effective means of influencing people to
accept and adopt new practices.
B. Group methods
 It is advantage in getting people to discuss the information obtained and in getting
common agreements for action.
C. Mass methods
 It helps reach large number of people simultaneously, but with little opportunity for
interaction and to provide feedback.

A. Individual Method of Extension

I. Mutual Discussion also refers as dialogue or one-on-one discussion. It is the most
important method of individual method. Example: Diagnosis-prescription model,
Counseling model and Participation model.
II. Farm and Home Visit is a method where the extension worker visits the home and/or
farm of the farmer/homemaker or youth.
III. Office calls are made by the farmer who is usually seeking information.
IV. Telephone calls are made use whenever it is necessary to get in touch with the
regional or national office quickly.
V. Personal letters are valuable in giving/getting information, enlisting cooperation, giving
recognition for good work and thanks for cooperation, giving instruction.
VI. Result demonstration is a method of teaching which establishes proof that an improved
practice is applicable locally.
B. Group Method of Extension
I. Lecture is a process whereby the resource speaker or facilitator delivers prepared talk
and may distribute handouts and use audio-visual aids. It is used to describe and
explain a subject matter, present new information and explain procedure.
II. Demonstration could be method demonstration, result demonstration and action
demonstration.
i. Action Demonstration show that a large section of the population desire
changes in government policy or in their society which is not commonly used.
ii. Method Demonstration is a short – time demonstration given by an extension
worker or trained leader to teach skills to a group or to show a better way to
carry out a practice.
III. Meetings are the oldest and most important group method of extension teaching.

JUN REL C. CHAVEZ

STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY
DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines
Course Instructor
 Page |6
Agriculture Extension and Communication

i. Leader Training Meetings whereby the person who uses local leaders is able
to multiply by the number of leaders one trains and uses.
ii. General Meetings include all kind of meetings held by extension worker other
than method demo leader training meetings, tours or field days.
IV. Tour and Field Trips also called mobile meetings which move from place to place. It is
effective ways of imparting knowledge as it provide actual observation of practice is
done with opportunity o experience or examine the operation, stimulate informal
discussion and seeing several places doing the same practice stimulates action.
V. School or Short Courses it has duration of on to six weeks depending on the subject
matter. These are more or less informal but series of well-planned and organized
lesson are given in the regular school system. It requires more time and concentration
to develop a skill or technique that can be accomplished in a meeting or conference.
VI. Field Days are usually opportunities to hold method or result demonstrations on a
slightly larger scale, and are usually run in a more informal and less highly structured
manner. The purpose is to introduce a new idea and a new crop and to stimulate the
interest of as many farmers as possible, can be conducted in Experimental stations or
other government centers, but more usual and profitable to be held on the land of a
local farmer.
VII. Panel Discussion is used when presenting divergent ideas, opinions and experiences
of “recognized” authorities and to generate interaction between trainees and “experts”.
VIII. Symposium is used to give an audience pertinent information about the topic or to
consider the relative merits of various solutions to a controversial problem. Person with
special competence deliver uninterrupted speeches on different aspect of a problem
and these are followed by a forum period.
IX. Brainstorming is a technique for producing creative ideas. It identifies and lists all the
possible ideas for solving a problem.
X. Philip 66 is composed of 6 persons with 6 minute discussion.
XI. Farmer’s Field School participated with a group of 20-25 farmers within a community
that meet regularly for a half-day session once weekly during the entire cropping
season. Participants conduct on-farm trials and field demonstrations of alternative
technologies as their field laboratory for observation of technologies performance in
trials or demonstration plot facilitated by multidisciplinary team of experts.
C. Mass Methods of Extension

Selective Processes that result the messages to distort.

I. Selective Publication. Publishers, broadcasters, editors and etc have the power to
select or repress access to information. Editors or publishers select information they
want to spread.
II. Selective Attention. Nobody can read everything that is published. Attention is biased
to needs.
III. Selective Perception. People tend to interpret messages they disagree with so that
they made little or no change to their own opinions.

JUN REL C. CHAVEZ

STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY
DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines
Course Instructor
 Page |7
Agriculture Extension and Communication

IV. Selective Remembering. Nobody can remember everything they have ever read or
heard.
V. Selective Acceptance. People tend to accept ideas more easily when they agree with
one’s own opinions.
VI. Selective Discussion. People do not have time to talk to other people about everything
they hear or read from the media.

Mass Media play an important role in developing opinions when members of the public do not have
strong views about particular issues and it transfer knowledge that influence on what people think and
talk about.

1. Printed Media.
 Newspaper
 Printed Instructional Materials (IMs)
2. Television. It is an electronic transmission of moving images accompanied by sounds which is
mainly used for entertainment.
3. Radio. It is the most available home appliance in rural areas which reaches great numbers of
people simultaneously with no assurance that it actually motivates people to adopt
recommended practices.
4. Puppetry. It is an acting a play on stage using puppets.
5. Popular Theater. It makes use of performances in the form of drama, singing, dancing and
puppetry.
6. Exhibits. These are displays that create interest or are used for information sharing that use
posters, pictures, photographs, models and specimen.
7. Campaign. It is coordinated use of different methods focusing on a particular widespread
problem and its solution.

Funnel Approach in Communication

Funnel Approach in Communication includes a combination of extension teaching methods for

effective dissemination and adoption of extension programs. It employs a mixture of mass method,
group method and individual method to get action from the target participants of an extension program.

TV & Radio

Newspaper

Meetings & Discussion

Individual Contact

ACTION

Source: Principle of Agricultural Extension and Communication, 2015.

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STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY
DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines
Course Instructor
 Page |8
Agriculture Extension and Communication

D. Approaches in Extension
1. The Farming Systems Development Approach. It is an approach that assumes that technology
which fits the needs of farmer is not available and needs to be generated locally. This is a highly
cost approach and bring results slowly.
2. Commodity Approach. It is an extension method or strategies that facilitate the production of one
specific crop.
3. Scheme Approach. It is a method or strategies that aim at the reinforcement of the rule and
regulations of a scheme. The decisions about innovation are all taken by one management.
4. The Target Category Approach. It provides carefully selected information, and other support for the
specific needs of deliberately chosen categories in the population.
5. The Functional Group Approach. It is an extension approach where one of the prime targets is to
form groups of persons who join their efforts in order to mobilize the necessary resources to be
able to achieve a shared goal.
 The change in behavior of participants is carried out by five different elements:
mobilization; organization; training; technical and resource support; and special efforts to
consolidate and replicate the results.
 Crucial role in the system includes starting up functional groups and agency support,
maintaining the linkages between them, mobilizing, organizing and training new functional
groups, initiating local development projects; providing starter loans, lobbying for support
from agencies.
6. The Farmers Organization Approach. It is an independent, self-managed and in most cases
permanent organizations are formed with the objective to propagate some kind of social or
economic development for the members.
7. The Project Approach. It assumes that the large government bureaucracy is not likely to have a
significant impact upon either agricultural production or rural people, and that better results can be
achieved in a particular location, during a specified time period with large infusions of outside
resources. It aims to demonstrate, within the area, what can be accomplished in a relatively short
period of time.
8. The General Agricultural Extension Approach. Its purpose is to help farmers increase their
production. It assumes that technology and information are available and not being used by
farmers; if communicated to farmers, farm practices would be improved. It typically lacks two-way
of information: communication about farmers problem, needs and interest tend not to follow-up
through the extension used.
9. The Technical Change Approach. It aims at the maximum adoption of a adoption of number of
innovations. Innovations are introduced to a small number of “selected farmers” in the hope that
autonomous diffusion processes will multiply the impact of the intervention. But utilization of
technology is hindered because information, goods and services are not offered in the mix
necessary from the producers’ point of view and create a problem were mostly of the rural
populations in terms of their access to resources and their farming systems.

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STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY
DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines
Course Instructor
 Page |9
Agriculture Extension and Communication

10. Training and Visit Approach. The training has a fix schedule between village extension workers, a
professional that have the decision what to be taught and when it to be taught and the program are
delivered down to the farmers. It teaches farmers how to make the best of available resources.
11. The Agricultural Extension Participatory Approach. It includes participation by personnel of
agricultural research and service organizations, as well as farmers. It aims to increase production of
farming people and increase the consumption and enhance quality of life of rural people.
12. Rapid Community Appraisal (RCA). It is a data collection technique that can be used both for rural
and urban situations, with muti-perspective analysis. It is a short duration, conducted by
multidisciplinary team interacting with the community. But it is not suitable in collecting precise or
statistically significant information. It generates large amount of data which needs comprehensive
and through analysis and synthesis.

Other extension approaches as listed by Alex, Zijp and Byerlee (2001):

13. Strategic Extension Campaign (SEC). Methodology developed by FAO to systematically

incorporate people’s participation into a national extension program.
14. Publicly-contracted Extension. Services provided by private firms or NGOs on contract to
government.
15. Targeted Extension Services. Approaches that attempt to avoid the high recurrent costs by
focusing either in terms of subject matter, clients, region or time.
16. Specialized Extension Services. Focus efforts on improving production of a specific commodity
or aspect of farming. (e.g. irrigation, fertilizer use and forest management)
17. Client-group-targeted Extension. Focuses on specific types of farmers, usually on
disadvantages ethnic groups.
18. Producer-led Extension Services. The approaches involve farmers in the work of extension
drawing on producers’ knowledge and resources.
19. Animation Rurale (AR). Introduced in francophone Africa as a strategy to break the top-down
pattern found in most development programs.
20. Producer-organized Extension Services. Completely planned and administered by producers.
21. Commercialized Extension. This approach relies on commercialized extension services.

General principles in selecting approaches in agricultural extension:

1. Success of an extension program directly related to the extent to which to the approach fits
program goals.
2. Participation of rural people tends to facilitate learning and adoption of improved farm.
3. Effectiveness of an extension program varies directly with the extent of discipline and
seriousness among personnel.
4. Effectiveness depends on the extent to which goals of the program are clearly understood by
responsible personnel.
5. Sustainability depends on the extent to which benefits to both sponsors and clients are greater
than costs.
6. Information from both indigenous knowledge and international scientific knowledge systems
tend to be more effective than those which utilize technical information only.

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STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY
DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines
Course Instructor
 P a g e | 10
Agriculture Extension and Communication

7. Particular approaches will be most successful when they fit national aspirations.
8. Cultural factors need to be considered in planning any extension program.
9. Approaches used should be gender sensitive.
10.More participatory approaches tend to fit best in national systems where public administration
is more decentralized.
11. Approach should encourage two-way communication linkages between and among sponsors
and clients.
12. An approach is effective if it could develop sustained, vigorous, dynamic and creative
leadership.
13.
E. Communication in Extension

Communication came from the latin word “communis” means to make common establishment
of commonness between the receiver and source. It starts with an idea which must be changed into a
message.

Berlo Communication as a process by which a source sends a meassage through some

channels to a receiver to affect behavior.
Cronkite Communication as that which occurs when a human being responds to a symbol or a
certain stimulus.
Maslog Communication as a process of transmitting information, ideas, attitudes, etc. from one
person to another.
Dubrin Communication is the process of sending and receiving messages through channels
(1990) which establishes common meaning between a source and a receiver.

The Communication Process

In general, in communication IDEA must be changed into a MESSAGE which is made up of seceral
physical elements (WORDS) with a symbolic meaning (THE IDEA MUST BE ENCODED INTO
SYMBOLS TO WHICH MEANING IS ATTACHED). The SOURCE or transmitter sends the message
through a CHANNEL to a RECIEVER. The receiver DECODES the message (ATTACHES MEANING
TO THE SYMBOLS) and develops an idea in his/her mind which one may or may not use (EFFECT OF
THE COMMUNICATION. The source observes this effect and uses it to evaluate the impact of the
message (FEEDBACK).

Elements of Communication

Sender, message initiator.

Transmission, the actual sending of a message over communication channel.
Receiver, the interpreter of message.
Feedback, occurs when the receiver sends a message back to the sender.

Forms of Communication

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STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY
DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines
Course Instructor
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Agriculture Extension and Communication

o Intrapersonal, refers to communication that takes place within the individual.

o Interpersonal, refers to direct communication between two or more persons in close physical
proximity in which all five senses can be utilized and immediate feedback is present.
o Mass, are directed towards a relatively large and heterogeneous and anonymous
group/audience.
o Medio, is an intermediate level of communication that has the characteristics of both
interpersonal and mass communication. It is most often characterized by the use of technical
instrument but is used under restricted conditions involving identifiable participants. Feedback
is also immediate.

Interpersonal communication has five distinct levels:

Level 5: Cliché communication. The lowest level of self-communication.

Level 4: Simply reporting the fact about the others; gives nothing of ourselves and tends to focus on
gossip items and little conversation about others.

Level 3: Communicates about one’s ideas and judgements. The person starts to open up oneself by
telling one’s ideas, judgement and decisions.

Level 2: in the feeling of gut level. The person finds that ideas, judgement and decisions are not the
only things to share; one realizes the acceptance of ones feelings and emotions.

Level 1: peak level. Absolute openness and honesty are much more important than mere ideas and
feelings among friends and peers; to establish deeper and closer relationships.

Non-verbal and Verbal Communication

Two basic ways of communicating include verbal and non-verbal. Verbal communication refers
to communication activities that utilize verbal symbols or words that stand in reference for facts, ideas
or thing. Non-verbal communication refers to human action and behavior and the corresponding
meaning that is attached to that behavior.

Barriers to Communication

Effectiveness of the communication process can be influenced by the source, message, channel and
receiver variables.

o Source Variables – the knowledge, attitudes, communication skills and social status of EW will
influence one’s effectiveness as a communication.
o Message Variable – the code or language of the message, as well as its content and structure
will influence effects.

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STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY
DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines
Course Instructor
 P a g e | 12
Agriculture Extension and Communication

o Channel Variables – forms of contacts with farmers as either face to face, in groups, by print,
radio, TV or combination.
o Receiver Variables – the receivers communication skills, attitudes, knowledge and social
background influence how one receives and interprets a message.

Effective Communication Process

 Relevance, the communicator needs background information of the audience present concerns
and long-term interests.
 Simplicity, the communicator should reduce ideas to the simplest possible terms.
 Definition, the communicator should define a concept before developing it and explain it before
amplifying.
 Structure, the message should be organized into a series of logical stages.
 Comparison and Contrast, the communicator needs to relate new ideas to old ideas; associate
the known with the unknown.

F. Diffusion and Adoption Process

Different technical terms in extension to facilitate understanding of the diffusion and adoption process:

Innovation is an idea, practice or object perceived as new by an individual.

Technology is a means of performing or a capacity to perform a particular activity; generated by

research, inventive farmers and others.

Diffusion is defined as the acceptance over time of some specific item – an idea or practice, by
individuals, group or other adopting units, linked to a specific channel or communication to a social
structure and to a given system of values or culture.

Diffusion effect is the cumulatively increasing degree of influence upon an individual within a social
system to adopt or reject an innovation.

Over adoption is defined as the adoption of an innovation by an individual when experts feel he/she
should reject.

Symbolic adoption is defined as mental acceptance of an innovation without necessarily “putting it into
practice”.

Sequential adoption is adoption of a part of a package of technology initially and subsequently adds
components over time.

Innovation dissonance is the discrepancy between an individual’s attitude towards an innovation and
one’s decision to adopt or reject an innovation.

Discontinuance is a decision to cease use of an innovation after previously adopting it, with two types:
replacement discontinuance – an innovation is rejected because a better idea supersedes it;

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STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY
DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines
Course Instructor
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Agriculture Extension and Communication

disenchantment discontinuances – an innovation is rejected as a result of dissatisfaction with its

performance.

Opinion Leadership is the degree to which an individual is able to influence informally other individuals’
attitudes or overt behavior in a desired way with relative frequency. Polymorphism is the degree to
which an individual acts as an opinion leader for a variety of topics. Monomorphism is the tendency for
an individual to act as opinion leader for only one topic.

Heterophily is the degree to which pairs of individuals who interact are different in certain attributes
such as beliefs, values, education, social status, etc.

Homorophily is the degree to which pairs of individuals who interact are similar in certain attributes.

Communication integration is the degree to which the units in a social system are interconnected by
interpersonal communication channels which is positively related to the rate of innovation adoption.

There are three (3) prevailing views about a technology:

Philosophy of Technology Philosophical Premise Notables Advocates
Utopian Technology is an inevitable, autonomous force Karl Marx
Determinism that will lead to prosperity and be the salvation of Marshall
humanity McLuhan
Alvin Toffler
Technology
Zealots
Dystopian Technology is an inevitable, autonomous force Jacques Ifllul
Determinism that is normally corrupt and will lead to the George Orvell
destruction of humanity Unabomber
Luddite
Movement
Instrumentalism Technology is under human control and its use Daniel Chandler
can lead to beneficial or disastrous Paul Levinson
consequences Donald Mackenzie

Sub-categories of technological views:

1. Developer-based determinist Theory – the theory focuses on increase diffusion by

maximizing the efficiency, effectiveness and elegance of an innovation. The developer or
architect of superior technology is seen as the primary force for change. It assumes that
superior technology repaces inferior products and systems.
2. Adopter-based instrumentalist Theory – the theory focuses on the human and interpersonal
aspects of innovation diffusion. It views the end-user as the primary force for change.

The Traditional Adoption Process

5 Stages of the adoption process:

1. Awareness stage – the individual learns of the existence of the new idea but lacks information
about it.

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STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY
DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines
Course Instructor
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Agriculture Extension and Communication

2. Interest stage – the individual develops interest in the innovation and seeks additional
information about it.
3. Evaluation stage – the individual makes mental application of the new idea to his present and
anticipated future situation and decides whether or not to try it.
4. Trial stage – the individual actually apples the new idea on a small scale in order to determine
its utility in one’s own situation.
5. Adoption stage – the individual uses the new idea continuously on a full scale.

Theories of the Adoption and Diffusion Process

1. Theory of Innovation-decision – this theory states that innovation-decision is a mental process

through which an individual passes from first knowledge of an innovation to a decision to adopt
or reject and to confirm of this decision.

A model of innovation-decision process:

1. Knowledge – the individual is exposed to the innovation’s existence and gains some
understanding of how it functions.
2. Persuasion – the individual forms a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the innovation.
3. Decision – the individual engages in activities which lead to a choice to adopt or reject the
innovation.
4. Implementation – the individual implements ones decision.
5. Confirmation – the individual seeks reinforcement for the innovation-decision made, but may
reverse previous decision if exposed to conflicting messages about the innovation.

2. Rate of Adoption Theory – rate of adoption is the relative speed with which an innovation is
adopted by members of a social system, measured as the number of receivers who adopt a
new idea in a specified time period.
3. Individual Innovativeness Theory – innovativeness is the degree to which an individual is
relative earlier in adopting new ideas than the other members of the system.

Adopter Categories are the Classification of the Members of a Social System on the
Basis of Innovativeness.

1. Innovators: Venturesome (2.5%). They are eager to try new ideas, cosmopolites
and desire the hazardous, the harsh, the daring and the risky but willing to accept
occasional setback.
2. Early Adopters: Respectable (13.5%). They are more integrated in local social
system, localities, high degree of opinion leadership and respected by peers.
3. Early Majority: Deliberate (34%). They adopt new ideas just before the average
member of a social system; rarely hold leadership positions; deliberate before
completely adopting a new idea.
4. Late majority: Skeptical (34%). They adopt new ideas just after the average
member of a social system; cautious. Adoption may be both an economic
necessity and the answer to increasing social pressures.

JUN REL C. CHAVEZ

STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY
DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines
Course Instructor
 P a g e | 15
Agriculture Extension and Communication

5. Laggards: Traditional (16%). Laggards are the last to adopt an innovation, possess
no opinion leadership; most localities; near isolates; point of reference is the past;
frankly suspicious; attention is fixed on rear-view mirror.
4. Theory of the Perceived Attributes of Technology – this theory states that potential adopters
judge an innovation based on their perceptions with regards to five attributes of the innovation.

Five attributes by which any innovation may be described.

1. Relative Advantage is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being better than
the idea it supersedes. The relative advantage of a new idea, as perceived by members of
a social system, is positively related to its rate of adoption.
2. Compatibility is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as consistent with the
existing values, past experiences and needs of the receivers. It ensures greater security
and less risk to the receiver and makes the new idea more meaningful. The compatibility of
a new idea, as perceived by members of a social system, is positively related to its rate of
adoption.
3. Complexity is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as relatively difficult to
understand and use. The complexity of an innovation, as perceived by members of a social
system, is a negatively related to its rate of adoption.
4. Trialability is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited
basis. The trialability of a new idea, as perceived by members of a social system, is
positively related to its rate of adoption.
5. Observability is the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others. The
results of some ideas are easily observed and communicated to others, where as some
innovations are difficult to describe to others. The observability of a new idea, as perceived
by members of a social system, is positively related to its rate of adoption.

Why do Farmers Adopt or Reject Innovations?

A. The innovation (based on the attributes of the innovation)

B. The farmers/clientele (based on the characteristics of early adopters)
C. The change agent.
D. The biophysical environment
E. The socio-economic environment
F. Socio-cultural factors

The Extension Delivery System

It is the organized mechanism to bring the required knowledge, skills and when necessary,
material resources that the farmer and his/her family need in their quest for an improved quality of life.

Components of EDS

JUN REL C. CHAVEZ

STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY
DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines
Course Instructor
 P a g e | 16
Agriculture Extension and Communication

 Indigenous research
 An extension/diffusion system
 Farmers capable of evaluating and adapting technical innovations to their own production
systems

Functions of the Components of the EDS:

The Research System. It is composed of researchers and scientists from national and international
research centers and from research institutions such as universities and experiment stations. The
research system functions to generate technological innovations that will usher in the needed changes
in line with a country’s efforts.

The Change System. This is usually an extension organization that links the generators and the end-
users of technology. This function is affected by the: Objectives (doctrine) the expression of what the
organization stands for, what it is striving to achieve and what approaches or methods it intends to use
to attain these objectives.

The Client System. The rural people are the clients of EDS. Extension efforts are enhanced by an
accurate and thorough assessment of the needs and resources, both material and human, of the rural
social system served; as well as a working knowledge of the principles of effective communication and
adult learning.

Models of Technology Transfer

1. Top-down Technology Transfer Model. This is a one-way process with weak involvement of
farmers and fixed roles of participants (R-E-F) with little flexibility for the human element.
2. Feedback Technology Transfer (FTT) Model – in this model, the feedback function remains
vested exclusively with the extension service.
3. Modified FTT Model – in this model, the scientist is isolated from the farmer. The farmer
depends on poor/incomplete information from extension in designing programs. It has fixed
roles for R-E-F.
4. Farmer-Back-to-Farmer Model – in this model, the research begins and ends with the farmers.
The farmer is involved in all stages of FSRE. This is basically a dynamic model; no fixed role of
various participants.
5. Farmer-First Model – this model aimed at generating choices to enable farmers to experiment,
adapt and innovate; considers the primary of farmers agenda and knowledge; rovides
approaches for mainstreaming farmers in research; and a new view on the ‘outsiders’ roles.

G. Adult Teaching and Learning

Theories of Adult learning

JUN REL C. CHAVEZ

STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY
DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines
Course Instructor
 P a g e | 17
Agriculture Extension and Communication

For adult learners, there are different theories explaining how adults learn best: adults learn
best when they have a strong desire to learn. They learn best when they have clear objectives or goals.
They also learn best when they put into practice what they have learned. More so, adults learn best
when they experience satisfaction from what they have learned.

Important aspects of adult learning:

1. As individual grow older, their sensory equipment declines: men lose the ability to hear higher
tones; women lose the ability to hear lower tones; it takes more time for older people to react
and slowing-down process starts beyond 25 years old.
2. Adult vary greatly in the opportunities that they have for development: the older the group
members, the less formal education they have been given and the greater the difference in
their cultural background.
3. Adults learn as well as youth, but a little more slowly given adequate time: older people are not
duller, they are slower and slow up the teaching-learning process.
4. The effects of age on learning which may result in the decline of the speed in learning among
adults due to: less acute vision, less acute hearing, slower reaction time and greater reluctance
to learn and increased fear of failure.

H. Program Planning and Evaluation

Societal change is a process of transformation of the total or its particular institutions from one form to
another. Unplanned change is a transformation caused primarily by natural phenomena or disturbance
in the physical environment. Planned change is almost always human-made.

Process of Social Change

1. Invention
2. Diffusion
3. Consequence

Planning
 It is the process of establishing goals and objectives and figuring out how to achieve them.
 It helps achieve substantial long term goals.
 Increases satisfaction when agreed targets are met.

Participative Planning helps ensure efficient and just allocation of resources, thus maximizing
achievements and minimizing conflicts.

Formal Planning allows opportunities for involving the community in the process.

Written Plan helps ensure continuity of activities. It helps group explin its activities to visitors, new
members and funding bodies.

Extension Program Planning

JUN REL C. CHAVEZ

STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY
DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines
Course Instructor
 P a g e | 18
Agriculture Extension and Communication

Program plan is a written working plan that consists of a description of the general situation, needs and
problems of the people in the area.

Extension Program Planning is a process used by local people to decide their major problems and
assemble all available forces and resources for improving the farm, home and the community.

Process of Extension Program Planning

1. Analysis or Assessment of the Situation

2. Setting Program Objectives and Goals
3. Designing the Strategy
4. Planning the Program of Activities
5. Evaluation

Spiral Model Planning. As a teaching process, previous experiences, successes and failures can help
extension workers to plan bigger, better and greater things in the future.

Factors for a Successful Change Project:

1. Pressure for change
2. A clear shared vision
3. Capacity for change
4. Actionable first

Monitoring and Evaluation

Evaluation came from the latin word “valuare” meaning “to find the worth of something”. It is a program
or project activities to assess their effectiveness, significance and efficiency.

Monitoring is a management technique in which extension agents collects data on the way in which the
extension program is implemented and the problems it faces in trying to stay on the right tract (Van den
Ban and Higgins, 1996).

Why do we evaluate?

We evaluate to economize on effort. We evaluate to improve programs. We evaluate to get

support for the programs. We evaluate to determine change in conditions or behavior. And we evaluate
to provide personal satisfaction and security.

Basic Principles in Effective Evaluation

Evaluation of extension work should be well planned and clearly defined in scope as to what
phase of a program is to be evaluated. Extension personnel themselves should take part in evaluation.
Everyday evaluation should be continuous and integrated with the achievement of behavioral changes

JUN REL C. CHAVEZ

STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY
DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines
Course Instructor
 P a g e | 19
Agriculture Extension and Communication

from planning stage to the end. Reliable and effective devices should be used. Evaluation should be
more concerned with the achievement of behavioral changes than with the number of participants,
meeting hours, items prepared. Careful analysis and interpretation of findings should be considered
when an evaluation study is being planned.

Types of Evaluation

1. Pre-test evaluation
2. Post-test evaluation
3. Formative evaluation
4. Summative evaluation

Specialized Types of Evaluation

1. Program planning evaluation includes information on the nature, extent and scope of a problem
in order to decide which program should e initiated, supported or continued.
2. Program monitoring evaluation aims to determine whether or not, and to what extent, the target
client is reached or served by the program; and whether goods and services were delivered on
time, were satisfactory to clients and were according to plan.
3. Program impact evaluation aims to determine whether the program produced the desired
change. Prerequisites for assessing project impact include: the project goals are sufficiently
well articulated to identify measures of goal achievement; and the intervention has been
sufficiently well implemented so there is no question that critical elements have not been
delivered to appropriate targets.
4. Economic efficiency evaluation aims to facilitate making choices in allocating scarce resources
to ensure optimal use, when funds are limited. this can be done through cost-benefit analysis
and cost-effectiveness analysis.

Who should evaluate extension program?

In order to ensure validity and reliability of results, extension program can be evaluated by: extension
agent, evaluation experts/specialist and independent research workers.

Evaluation Models

 Merit Evaluation
 CIPP Model
 Context Evaluation
 Input evaluation
 Process evaluation
 Product or impact evaluation

Characteristics of a good evaluation instrument

JUN REL C. CHAVEZ

STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY
DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines
Course Instructor
 P a g e | 20
Agriculture Extension and Communication

Reliability is the extent to which measurements are repeatable by the same individual using different
measures of the same attribute. Synonymous with dependability, accuracy, consistency, stability, and
predictability.

Validity refers to the truth or the meaning of the measurement.

Levels for Judging Extension Programs (Bennett, 1976 & Bennett and Rockwell, 1995)

1. Inputs and resources

2. Activities: implementation of the program
3. People involvement: farmers’ opinion about
extension activities
4. Reactions: farers’ opinion about extension
activities
5. Behavioral Changes in target group: Changes
in knowledge, attitudes, skills and aspirations (KASA)
6. Changes in farm practice: consequences for
target group
7. End result: Consequences for society
Process
Performance
Evaluation
Evaluation

Ladder of Farmers’ Participation in Extension Evaluation

Level 5: Farmers conduct their own evaluation of extension independently of extension and report their
findings to policy makers.

Level 4: Farmers carry out evaluation of extension in cooperation with extension managers and make
decisions regarding changes in providing extension services.

Level 3: Farmers received evaluation results and other information from extension staff and are asked
to give reactions and recommendations for improving extension processes and resources.

Level 2: Farmers received information, evaluation, summaries, feedback on extension performance

from extension staff, but are not asked to react.

Level 1: Farmers provide data and evidence of their achievements along with their reactions to
extension without being involved in evaluation efforts.

I. Improving Extension Effectiveness: Major Problems and Issues

Major Challenges of Extension

JUN REL C. CHAVEZ

STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY
DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines
Course Instructor
 P a g e | 21
Agriculture Extension and Communication

According to FAO (2003), extension worldwide faces a major challenge in the 21 st century in
implementing sustainable development and meeting the food needs of an increasing world population.

Global forces of change include globalization and market liberalization; privatization;

commercialization & agri-business; democratization and participation; environment concerns; disasters
and emergencies; information technology break-through; rural poverty, hunger and vulnerability;
HIV/AIDS epidemic; sustainable development; biotechnology and genetic engineering; criticism of
public extension services and integrated, multi-disciplinary and holistic development.

Seven Serious Extension Problems in Less Industrialized Countries

1. Lack of adequate transport facilities for extension personnel.

2. Extension personnel lack training both in extension methods and technical.
3. Inadequate teaching and communication equipment for extension work.
4. Extension personnel have many other asks besides extension work.
5. Lack of essential teaching aids, bulletins and demonstration materials.
6. No effective linkages between extension and research organizations.
7. Appropriate technology is not available for extension.

Challenge to Philippine Extension

Specifically, Philippine extension is faced with lack of national agenda and framework,
inadequate support services, poor institutional linkages particularly between research and extension
and low logistics support level from local government.

It is a challenge to Philippine extension to bring together the best that people can input into
technology design, adaptation and dissemination on one end, and the best that technology systems
can offer especially for the resource-poor.

Activity 3

1. Briefly explain the importance of role and function of Extension Workers in facing problems and
challenges towards COVID-19? (20 points)

2. If you are an EW/EA, what will be your contributions in our community concerning to the
problems cause by the pandemic? Create a program plan as you think it will solve the
pandemic problem. (20 points)

JUN REL C. CHAVEZ

STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY
DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines
Course Instructor