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Figure 4.1: Basic Concrete Materials: Water Fine Aggrega

1. Concrete is a composite material made up of a binding material like cement, fine and coarse aggregates, water, and admixtures. 2. The strength and properties of concrete depend on the proportions and properties of its ingredients, as well as the compaction and curing methods used. 3. Fresh concrete must have certain properties like consistency, uniformity, and workability to ensure quality and cost-effectiveness when hardened. The water-cement ratio is the most important factor affecting concrete strength, with lower ratios producing stronger concrete.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
56 views49 pages

Figure 4.1: Basic Concrete Materials: Water Fine Aggrega

1. Concrete is a composite material made up of a binding material like cement, fine and coarse aggregates, water, and admixtures. 2. The strength and properties of concrete depend on the proportions and properties of its ingredients, as well as the compaction and curing methods used. 3. Fresh concrete must have certain properties like consistency, uniformity, and workability to ensure quality and cost-effectiveness when hardened. The water-cement ratio is the most important factor affecting concrete strength, with lower ratios producing stronger concrete.

Uploaded by

hanimNATHRAH
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Concrete a composite man made Figure 4.

1: Basic concrete
material, is the most widely used materials
material in the construction
Aggrega
industry. It consist of a rotationally
Water

Fine
chosen mixture of binding material
such as lime or cement, well graded
Cement
fine and coarse aggregate, water and
admixture. In a concrete mix, cement
The strength, durability and other
and water form a paste or matrix
characteristic of concrete depend
which fills the voids of the fine
upon the properties of its
aggregate and binds them (fine and
ingredients, the proportion of the
coarse) together. The mixture than
mix, the method of compaction and
placed in forms and allowed to cure
other controls during placing and
and becomes hard like stone. The
curing. Basically, concrete can be
hardening of concrete is caused by
classified into two stages namely;
chemical reaction between water and
cement and it continues for a long
Fresh concrete is a mixture of
time, and consequently the concrete
water, aggregate and admixture. The
grows stronger with age.
constituent materials should be
uniformly distributed after mixing
within the concrete mass during
handling and placing
Harden concrete

Certain properties are desired of the 3.2.1 Water Cement Ratio


The quality of concrete is measured
freshly mixed concrete even though
by its strength and durability. The
for a short time only because it
principal factor affecting the
affects the quality and cost of
strength of concrete is the
hardened concrete. The properties
water/cement ratio of the mix.
are defined as follows;
Water/cement ration can be defined
The wetness or dryness of the
as the ratio of weight of water with
mix that is the consistency or
the total weight of cement that has
slump.
been used in the certain of concrete
Uniformity of the mix meaning
mix.
that the concrete is mixed
The compressive strength of
thoroughly has a standard
concrete at a given age and under
appearance and all ingredients are
normal temperature depends
evenly distributed in the mix. primarily on two factors which are
Workability of the fresh concrete the water/cement ratio and the
that is the ease with which degree of compaction. When

concrete is placed and consolidated. concrete is fully compacted its


strength is taken to be inversely
proportional to the water/cement
ratio as shown in Figure 3.2, which
the lower water/cement ratio, the
greater compressive strength would
be achieved.
Figure 3.2: The relationship
between compressive strength and For proper workability the w/c ratio
varies from 0.4-0.6. However,
maximum strength is derived at w/c
= 0.4. When it is decreased to less
than 0.4 there is improper
consistency and workability of
cement and honey combed
structure. However, concrete
water/cement ratio of concrete
compacted by vibrator displays higher
Concrete containing water enough
strength even up to w/c = 0.3.
for hydration only, would be very
dry and difficult to place and 3.2.2 Workabili ty
For practical purposes, workability
compact. Therefore, additional water
must be added to make the mix implies the ease with which a

workable enough to be easily place concrete mix can be handled from the
inside the forms and work around mixer to its finally compacted shape
the reinforcement. However, this without segregation during placement
additional water should be kept to a and compaction.
minimum. The use of too much of
Factors that affect the workability
water will weaken the strength of
of concrete are;
the concrete.
water/cement ratio
Water occupies space in concrete, as
Aggregate
it evaporates it leaves voids,
Admixture
therefore the more the uncombined
Fineness of cement
water, the more voids there will be
Time and temperature
in the set concrete and the less will
There are four main characteristic
be its density, strength and
of workability, which are;
durability.
Consistency
A state of fluidity of concrete mix,
including the wettest and densest
type and this depends on the water 3.3.1 Strength of Concrete
content in the mix. Strength of concrete is commonly
Mobility considered as its most valuable
The ease with which concrete can
property, other than durability and
flow into the moulds and
around steel (reinforcement) impermeability. Nevertheless
thus completely filling the moulds strength usually gives an overall
(formworks). picture of the quality of concrete
Compactibility
because strength is directly related
The ease with which the concrete
to the structure of the hardened
mixes can be completely compacted
and the air voids removed. cement paste.

The strength of concrete is


Stability defined as the maximum stress
it can resist or the maximum
The ability of the concrete to load it can carry.

maintain its uniformity i.e to Cubes,

remain a stable coherent cylinders and

homogenous mass during handling prisms are

and vibration without constituents the three

segregating types of

Optimal workability would give compression test specimens used to

maximum density, minimum voids determine the compressive

and no segregation. The workability strength. The cubes are usually of

tests that are commonly conducted 100 mm or 150 mm side, the

are slump test, Vebe test and cylinders are 150 mm diameter by

compacting factor test. 300 mm height, and the prisms are


100 mm x l00 mm x 500 mm
in size.
To estimate the load at which the
Size of test specimen;
concrete members may crack,
Size of specimen in relation to
normally flexural tensile strength test
the size of aggregate;
will be conducted. From this test,
Support conditions of specimen;
the flexural tensile strength or the
Moisture conditions of the
modulus of rupture is thus
specimen;
determined. The modulus of rupture
Type of loading adopted;
is determine by testing standard test
a. Rate of loading of the specimen;
specimens of 150 mm x 150 mm x
b. Type of testing machine; and
700 mm over a span 600mm or
c. The assumption in the analysis
100mm x 100mm x 500mm over a
relating stress to failure load.
span 400 mm under symmetrical
two point loading.
The type of cement, age, type
3.3 .1.1 Factors Influencing the
Strength of Concrete of aggregate and admixture;
There are several factors that Degree of compaction;

influence the strength development Concrete mix proportions, i.e.

of concrete. Normally as time passes cement content, aggregate- cement

by, with proper curing the concrete ratio, amount of voids and water-

strength should increase. Nevertheless cement ratio;

the strength gain can be put to a Type of curing and temperature of

halt and consequently creating curing:

durability problems if proper curing is Nature of loading to which the

not done and the durability aspects specimen is subjected, i.e. static,

are not considered. Factors influencing sustained, dynamic etc.; and

the strength of concrete can be Type of stress situation that may


grouped into two categories: exist.
Table 3.1: Grades of concrete
3.3.2 Grade of Concrete proposed by BS 8110
The concrete is generally graded Characteristic Lowest grade
according to its compressive strength Grade Strength suitable for
(N/mm2) specific purposes
at
7 7.0
28 days. The various grades of 10 10.0 Mass concrete

concrete as stipulated in codes of Reinforced


15 15.0 concrete using
practice BS 8110 grouped the grade Lightweight
in nine categories which is based on aggregate
Reinforced
their characteristic strength in
20 20.0 concrete using
N/mm . 2
Table 3.1 shows the 25 25.0 Heavyweight
aggregate
tabulation of concrete grade based on
BS 8110. 30 30.0 Prestressed Post-

Concrete of grade 7 and 10 is suitable tensioned


concrete
for lean concrete bases and for
40 40.0
mass concrete and these need not be 50 50.0 Prestressed Pre-
60 60.0 tensioned
designed. The concrete of grade
concrete
lower than grade 15 is not suitable
for reinforced concrete works and
grades of lower than grade 30 are 3.4.1 Selection of Materials

not to be used in the prestressed To achieve the desired qualities, the

concrete works. materials for making concrete -


cement, fine and coarse aggregates,
and water are selected cautiously on
the basis of the quality acceptance
tests.
3.4.2 Batching Measurement by weight is therefore
The design of concrete mixture
logical and provided the weighing
involves the determination of the
machine retains its accuracy at the
most economical and practical
site, error in proportioning should be
combination of ingredients to make
negligible. An important advantage
the concrete workable in its plastic
with weight batching is the greater
state and to make it develop the
uniformity between successive batches
required qualities when hardened.
of concrete.
A proper and accurate measurement
of all materials used in the production
of concrete is essential to ensure
uniformity of proportions and
aggregate grading in successive
batches. The quality of the concrete
produced will depend on the accuracy Figure 3.3: Weigh batching machine

of the batching operation. There are 2) Volume Batching

two types of batching which are; For most small job, volume batching

1) Weight batching is adopted by the amount of each


For most large and important jobs solid ingredient is measured by loose
the batching of materials is usually volume using measuring boxes, gauge
done by weighing. Batching by box, hopper or wheel barrows. In
weight eliminates error due to batching by volume, allowance has to
variations in the properties of voids be made for the moisture present in
contained in a specified volume, sand which results in its bulking. It
especially with the batching of sand. also advisable to set the volumes in
term of whole bags of cement.
Figure 4.4:
Wooden box
for gauging
aggregates
3.4.3 Mixing
The objective of mixing is to coat the Figure 3.5: (a) Drum mixer,

surface of all aggregate particles with (b) Pan-type mixer

cement paste and blend the Under normal machine mixing

ingredients into a uniform mass. It conditions, about 10 percent of the

must be ensure that each constituent mixing water should be placed in the

is thoroughly dispersed throughout mixing drum before the dry materials

the mix to give a homogeneous are added. Water then is added

product. Concrete mixing is normally uniformly with the dry materials until

done by mechanical means called about 10 percent of the water

mixer, but sometime the mixing of remains. This water is added after all

concrete is done by hand. of the other materials are in the


a) Machine mixing drum or pan.
Machine mixing can either be in b) Hand mixing
rotation or stirring operation. The There may be occasions when the

rotation operation is used in tilting concrete has to be mixed by hand,

drum mixer, non-tilting drum mixer, and because of this case uniformity is

and dual drum mixer and continues more difficult to achieve, therefore

mixer, while the stirring operation is particular care and effort are

used in pan-type mixer see Figure necessary.

3.5.
The aggregate should be spread in a On small jobs, wheel barrows are the
uniform layer on a hard, clean and usual means of transportation.
non-porous base. Cement is then However, concrete can be handled and
spread over the aggregate and the dry transported by many methods
material are mixed by turning over including the of chutes, buggies
from one end of the heap to another operated over runways, buckets
and cutting with a shovel until the handled by cranes or cable ways,
trucks, pump to force the concrete
through pipelines and equipment to
force the concrete thorough hoses
pneumatically.

mix appear uniform. The water is


gradually added to the trough formed
by the uniform dry mix and the mix
is turned over until a homogeneous
mixture of uniform color and Figure 3.7: (a) Wheel barrow; (b)
consistency is obtained. Bucket

Figure 3.6: Mixing the concrete by Figure

hand 3.8:
Pump
3.4.4 Transporting concrete
The various methods used to move The main
the concrete from the mixer or truck consideration in selecting the type of
to the forms depend largely upon the equipment to be used is an economic
job conditions. one, however, certain jobs require
specialized equipment and thus the the forms should be oiled to make
cost is a secondary consideration. form removal easier.

Others factors that need to be looked The concrete should be placed in its
into when selecting the transporting final position rapidly so that it is not
and handling equipment are the too stiff to work. Water should not
segregation of aggregates, loss of be added after the concrete has left
entrained air, loss of cement paste, the mixer. When placing the concrete,
and change in slump. care should be taken to drop the
concrete vertically and not too great
3.4.5 Placing a height.
The methods used in placing concrete 3.4.6 Compaction
in its final position have an important The objective of compaction is to
effect on its homogeneity, density eliminate air holes and to achieve
and behavior in service. To secure maximum density of concrete.
good concrete it is necessary to make During mixing of concrete a
certain preparations before placing. considerable quantity of air is
entrapped and during its
The formworks must be examined for transportation there is a possibility
correct alignment and adequate of partial segregation taking place. If
rigidity to withstand the weight of the entrapped air is not removed and
concrete, impact loads during the segregation of coarse aggregate
construction without undue not corrected, the concrete may be
deformation. porous, non-homogeneous and reduced
Formworks should be moistened the concrete strength.
before the concrete is placed, Therefore the process of removal of
otherwise they will absorb water from entrapped air and of uniform
the concrete and swell. In addition, placement of concrete to form
homogeneous dense mass is termed are at narrow and the reinforcement
compaction. closely packed.

To compact the concrete, it should b) Machine compaction

be mechanically vibrated or hand Compaction by using vibrators makes

spading as it goes into the form. The possible the placement of stiff, harsh

reason for compaction are to ensure concrete mixes that cannot be placed

the requirement of strength, and consolidated readily by hand.

impermeability and durability of Vibration makes it possible to use less

harden concrete. The process of workable mixes, resulting in increased

compaction consists of elimination of strength and lower drying shrinkage

entrapped air and forcing the for given mix proportions. Vibrating

particles into a close configuration. machines are usually operated by


petrol engines, compressed air or
Method of compaction can either be
electricity. The vibrating machines
hand compaction or machine
that are suitable for site use are of
3 main types, namely:

Internal vibrator-pocker
External vibrator-clamp to
formwork

Figure 3.9: Vibrator Vibrating tables

compaction; The internal vibrator head should be


a) Hand Compaction kept moving in and up-and-down
Hand compaction methods consist of direction to consolidate the concrete.
rodding, tamping and spading with Thus, preventing honeycombing and
suitable tools. Concrete mixes that air voids at the surface of the form.
normally use for hand compaction are Systematic vibration will consolidate
of fairly workable mix if the sections the concrete adequately.
3.4.7 Curing product of hydration. Inadequate
In order to obtain good concrete the
curing through loss of water by
placing of an appropriate mix must be
evaporation will fail to gain strength.
followed by curing in a suitable
The necessity for curing arises from
environment during the early stages
the fact that hydration of cement
of hardening.
can take place only in water-filled
The purpose of curing is to promote
capillaries. This is why a loss of water
the hydration of cement, thus the
by evaporation from the capillaries
development of strength and
must be prevented. Furthermore,
durability of concrete. It also controls
water lost internally by self
the temperature and moisture
desiccation has to be replaced by
movement from and into the
water from outside, i.e.
concrete.
ingress of water into the concrete
More specifically, the objective of must be made possible.
curing is to keep concrete saturated, 3.4.7.1 Method of Curing
or as nearly saturated as possible, In general, concrete should be cured
until the originally water-filled space for at least three days and preferable
in the fresh cement paste has been for a week after it is placed. The
filled to the desired extent by the curing time depends on the
products of hydration of cement. temperature of the concrete. The

In the case of site concrete, active length of time that the concrete is

curing stops nearly always long before to be protected against the loss of

the maximum possible hydration has moisture depends on:-

taken place. Normal curing keeps The cement content


concrete saturated or as nearly Mix proportions

saturated as possible until water- Required strength

filled space has been occupied by the


Size and shape of the concrete 2) Water Retaining Methods

mass - Weather These methods involve the use of

Future exposure conditions coverings that are kept continuously


wet, as such as sand, earth, canvas,
Curing can be divided into two
sawdust or straw. When concrete is
classifications:
cured by one of these methods, the
Those which supply additional
entire concrete surface, including
moisture to the concrete, and
exposed edges or sides, must be
Those which prevent loss of
moisture from the concrete by covered. The material is kept moist

sealing the surface. by periodical sprinkling of water.

1) Water Curing Figure 3.10: Curing a concrete slab by

Curing by flooding, ponding, or mist flooding

spraying is widely used. It is the most


effective of all known curing methods
for the prevention of mix water
evaporation. This method is not
always practical, however, because of
job conditions. Continuous sprinkling
with water is also an excellent
method of curing. If the sprinkling is
done at intervals, the concrete must
not be allowed to dry between
applications of water. A constant Figure 3.11: Concrete have been

supply of water prevents the cured using blanket

.possibility of crazing or cracking due


to alternate wetting and drying.
3) Waterproof Mechanical Barriers on the surface or after the concrete
Barriers of waterproof or plastic film is dry.
seal in the water and prevent 5) Steam Curing
evaporation. Advantages of mechanical In steam curing, the heating of the
barriers is that periodic additions of concrete products is caused by steam
water are not required, provide either at low pressure or high
protection against damage from pressure. The method ensures even
subsequent construction activity as heating of products all over, even if
well as protection from the sun. This the space between the stacked
waterproof paper if of a good quality precast concrete products is very
can be reused. These materials are small.
applied as soon as the concrete is hard Steam curing is more favourable to
enough to resist surface damage. mixes of concrete with low water-
cement ratio than mixes with higher
4) Chemical Membranes
water-cement ratio. The choice of
Chemicals can be sprayed on the
steam curing cycle will be governed
surface to cure concrete. Liquid
by:
membrane-forming curing compounds
The pre-curing period
retard or prevent the evaporation of
The rate of increase and
moisture from the concrete. The
decrease of temperature.
chemical application should be made
the level and time of constant
as soon as the concrete is finished. If
temperature.
there is any delay in the application,
An early rise in temperature at the
the concrete must be kept moist
time of setting of concrete may be
until the membrane is applied. The
detrimental to concrete because the
membrane curing compound must not
green concrete may be too weak to
be applied when there is free water
resist the air pressure set up in the
pores by the increased temperature. the laboratory or during the progress
Too high a rate of increase or of work in the field, for determining
decrease in temperature introduces the consistency of concrete where the
thermal shocks and the rates should nominal maximum size of the
generally not exceed 10 °C to 20 °C aggregate does not exceed 38 mm.
per hour. The internal dimensions of the
mould for the test specimen shown
in Figure 4.13 are bottom diameter
= 200 mm, top diameter = 100
mm, and height = 300 mm.

The mould is filled in with fresh


Figure 3.12: Autoclave for steam
concrete in four layers, each
curing large diameter hoses
approximately one-quarter of the
height and tamped with twenty-five
3.5.1 Testing of Fresh Concrete strokes of the rounded end of the
In fresh concrete, concrete is in the tamping rod. The strokes are
plastic state which can be moulded distributed in a uniform manner over
into desired shape. Therefore, in the cross -section and for the second
order to handling concrete without and subsequent layers should
segregation, to placing without loss of penetrate into the underlying layer.
homogeneity and to compacting with The bottom layer is tamped
specified effort, the certain testing throughout its depth. After the top
should be performed to ensure that
the concrete are workable enough.
a) Slump Test
This method of test specifies the
procedure to be adopted, either in
Figure 3.14: Measuring slump
layer has been rodded, the concrete normally used when concrete is to be
is struck off level with a trowel or compacted by vibration; such concrete
the tamping rod, so that the mould may consistently fail to slump. A
is exactly filled. diagram of the apparatus used in

Figure 3.13: Mould for Slump test compacting factor test is shown in
Figure 4.15.

The sample of concrete to be tested


is placed gently in the upper hopper.
Hopper clamper is fiIIed level with its
Plan
view brim and the trap-door is opened to
Side
view allow the concrete to fall into the
The mould is removed immediately by
lower hopper.
raising it slowly and carefully in a
vertical direction. This allows the Figure 3.15:
concrete to subside and the slump is Compaction

measured immediately by determining factor


apparatus
the difference between the height of
the mould and that of the highest
Certain
point of the specimen being tested
mixes have a
(Fig. 4.14). The slump measured is
tendency to stick in one or both of
recorded in terms of millimeters of
the hoppers. If this occurs, the
subsidence of the specimen.
concrete may be helped through by
b) Compacting Factor Test
This test is more precise and sensitive pushing the rod gently into the

than the slump test and is concrete from the top. During this

particularly useful for concrete mixes process, the cylinder should be

of very low workability as are covered by the trowels. Immediately


after the concrete has come to rest,
the cylinder is uncovered, the trap- c) Vebe Consistometer Test

door of the lower hopper is opened, The test determines the time

and the concrete is aIIowed to fall required for transforming, by

into the cylinder. The excess of vibration, a concrete specimen in the

concrete remaining above the level of shape of a conical frustum into a

the top of the cylinder is then cut cylinder. The apparatus (Figure 3.16)

off. consists of a vibrator table resting


upon elastic supports, a metal pot, a

The weight of the concrete in the sheet metal cone, open at both ends,

cylinder is then determined to the and a standard iron rod.

nearest l0 g as the weight of partiaIIy A slump test as described earlier is

compacted concrete. The cylinder is performed in the cylindrical pot of

refilled with concrete from the same the consistometer. The glass disc

sample in layers of approximately 50 attached to the swivel arm is moved

mm, the layers being heavily rammed and placed just on the top of the

or preferably vibrated so as to obtain slump cone in the pot and before the

full compaction. The top surface of cone is lifted up, the position of the

the fully compacted concrete is concrete cone is noted by adjusting

carefully struck off level with the top the glass disc attached to the swivel

of the cylinder. The compacting arm . The cone is then lifted up and

factor is defined as the ratio of the the slump noted on the graduated

weight of partially compacted rod by lowering the glass disc on top

concrete to the weight of fully of the concrete cone.

compacted concrete. It is normally


stated to the nearest second decimal The electrical vibrator is switched on

place. and the concrete is allowed to spread


out in the pot. The vibration is
continued until the whole concrete 3.5.2 Testing of Hardened Concrete
There are several reasons why testing
surface uniformly adheres to the glass
of hardened concrete is important,
disc and the time taken for this to
there are:
be attained is noted with a stop
Test can investigate the
watch. The consistency of the
fundamental physical behavior of
concrete is expressed in VB-degree
concrete such as elastic properties
which is equal to the recorded time
and strength characteristics;
in seconds. The required slump is
When physical laws are not fully
obtained on the basis of the
understood testing can simulate
consistency scale given in Table 3.1.
expected conditions to evaluate
The curve in Figure 3.17 indicates the
performance;
relationship between slump in mm
Tests to determined physical
and the degrees covered by the
material constants like the
consistency scale given in Table 3.1.
modulus of elasticity; and Quality
control.

Common characteristics of concrete


like strength and durability should
not be considered fundamental
material properties. Variables like
Figure 3.16: Vebe consistometer specimen geometry and preparation,
moisture content, temperature,

Figure 3.17: loading rate, and the type of testing


Relationship device will affect the mechanical
between slump
behavior. Therefore, when defining
and Vebe
some mechanical property it is
degrees
necessary to specify the test used to Carefully obtained samples of the
determine the value. concrete mix are placed and

The testing of hardened concrete can compacted in accurately formed steel

be classified into two types which are moulds, with machine inner surface.

destructive test and non-destructive Bonding with the steel mould is

test. prevented by coating with release


agent. The surface of each cube is
covered with impermeable sheet or
the entire mould sealed. After 24
hours the cube is removed and cured
under water at about 20oC, until
tested at age of 7th, 14th and 28th
days.

At the testing day, the cube with


size of 150mm x 150mm x 150mm
or 100mm x 100mm x 100mm, then
place centrally between the platens
Table 3.2: Values of Workability of a compression testing machine,
for Different Placing Conditions trowelled face sideways, and the load
a) Destructive test
is applied such that the stress
1) Cube test (BS 1881: Part
increase at a given constant rate until
116)
This is currently the most common failure. The maximum load is recorded

type of destructive test for concrete, and the values were divided with the

owing to the cheapness of the cube cross sectional area of the cube to

moulds and the comparative simplicity obtained the compressive strength of

of manufacture and testing of cubes. the cube.


Figure 3.18: Compacting of on the vertical plane and the tensile

concrete cube strength ft at failure is given by:

2𝑤
𝑓𝑡 =
𝜋𝐷𝐿
Equation 3.1
Where;
W = Load at failure
D = Diameter of cylinder
L = Length of cylinder
Note that, since the failure area is
2) Cylinder Splitting Test (BS
1881: Part 117) DL, the expression is the same as
In this test, cylinders which are 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 2
𝑓𝑡 = ×
typically 300mm long and 150mm in 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒_𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝜋
Equation 3.2
diameter, are loaded in a compression
tester with their
cylindrical axes horizontal, stress
concentrations being avoided by use
the hardboard or plywood strips
about 12mm wide.

The successful operation of the test


requires careful alignment of the
cylinder (or use of a jig) and packing Figure 3.19: The cylinder splitting

strips should be used once only to test for measurement of the

ensure uniform bedding, especially in tensile strength of concrete


b) Non-destructive tests
the case of weak concretes, for which
These tests are useful to: (1) quality
plywood is more suitable material.
control; (2) determination of the
Except near the packing pieces, a
time for form removal; and (3) help
tensile stress is induced by concrete
assess the soundness of existing Penetration Resistance -
concrete structures. Resistance of concrete to

Surface Hardness Methods - One penetration by a steel probe driven


by a given amount of energy is
of the oldest nondestructive tests,
measured. This test is not affected
developed in Germany in the
by surface hardness or carbonation
1930's. Basically, the surface is
as the above tests, however, the
impacted with a mass and the size mix proportions and material
of the resulting indention is properties are still important.
measured. The accuracy of these Pull-Out Test - Pull-out test
types of tests is only 20 to 30%. determine the force required to

Rebound Hardness - The most pull a steel insert out of concrete

common nondestructive test is the which it was embedded during

rebound test. The test measures casting. This test is a measure of

the rebound of a hardened steel the shear strength of the concrete

hammer impacted on the concrete which can be correlated with

by a spring. This method has the compressive strength. This test is

same limitations as the surface better than those previously

hardness tests. The results are discussed, however, the test may

affected by: (1) surface finish; (2) be planned in advance and the

moisture content; (3) assembly embedded in the concrete

temperature; (4) rigidity of the during casting.

member being tested; (5) Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity - This

carbonation of the surface; and test is based o the fact that the

(6) direction of impact (upward, velocity of sound is related to the

downward, horizontal). Most elastic modulus. The device is

useful in checking the uniformity accurate to about + 1%. The

of concrete position of the testing equipment


can affect the measurement,
method A given the best results.
There are several factors which primarily on the stress-strength
affect this test: (1) surface ratio at the time of loading, but it
smoothness; (2) travel path of is also influence by factors such as
the pulse; (3) temperature
the mix proportions, the size of the
effects on the pulse velocity; (4)
specimen and even the climatic
moisture content; (5) presence of
conditions. If the load is later
steel reinforcing bars; and (6) age
of concrete removed, the concrete undergoes an
immediate elastic recovery. Creep
recovery is a slower process, and the
3.6.1 Deformation under Load concrete will in any case not fully
It is a stress strain relationship
regain its original dimensions. Figure
under normal loading and under
4.18 shows the graph of
sustained loading. Under normal
deformation of hardened under load.
loading, the first effect of applying
In this graph, the assumption made
a load to concrete is to produce an
is that the stress strain curve is
elastic deformation, thus obey
linear (straight line) and the creep
Hooke's Law. Concrete is
deformation of concrete also varies
elastoplastic material, therefore as
linearly with the sustained stress up
the load increases deformation
to a value of 0.5fo.
increases.
Figure 3.20: Deformation of
Under sustained loading, prolong
hardened concrete under load
application of stress causes a slow
deformation, commonly known as
creep. The increase of deformation is
not proportional; as the time passes
the deformation is lesser. The
magnitude of deformation depends
evaporation of water and cause
3.6.2 Durability of Concrete disruption. The corrosion of
Durability is defined as the ability to
reinforcement may lead to rupture of
withstand the damaging effects of
cover concrete. Therefore it is
the environment over a long period
recommended to the following in
of time. Therefore it is essential that
order to have durable concrete, and
concrete is designed in such a way
they are:
that it may be of service without
Use of low, water-cement ratio.
deterioration over a period of years.
Well compacted concrete.
Such concrete is said to be durable.
Good workmanship to reduced
The absence of durability may be
porosity.
caused either by the environment to
Sufficient cover over
which the concrete is exposed i.e.
reinforcement.
external or by internal cause within
The use of aluminious sulphate
the concrete itself. The external
resisting cement, Portland blast-
causes can be:
furnace or Portland pozzolana
Physical, chemical or mechanical. cement.
Due to weathering. occurrence 3.6.3 Permeability
of extreme e temperature, Concrete has a tendency to be porous
abrasion, electrolytic action, and due to the presence of voids formed
Attack by natural or industrial during or after placing. To produce
liquids and gases. concrete of low permeability, full

In order to be durable, concrete must compaction and proper curing is

be relatively impervious. The salts in essential. For a given aggregate, the

sea water react chemically with permeability of concrete can be

concrete. The salts crystallize in the reduced by reducing the water

pores of concrete after the content or by increasing the cement


content. Low permeability of 3.6.4 Shrinkage
concrete is important in increasing Shrinkage is a contraction

resistant to frost action and chemical deformation suffered by concrete

attack and in protecting embedded even under no load. The shrinkage of

steel against corrosion. concrete is dependent on the amount

Therefore the study of permeability of drying that can take place. It is

of concrete is important in case of therefore influenced by the humidity

reinforced concrete, ingress of and temperature of the surrounding

moisture and air will result in air, the rate of air flow over the

corrosion of steel which leads to an surface and the proportion of the

increase in the volume of steel, and surface area to volume of concrete.

to cracking and spalling of concrete The two types of shrinkage strains


cover. are:-

Factors influencing permeability are: Plastic shrinkage.

Water-cement ratio. Drying shrinkage.

Workability Plastic shrinkage is cause due to the


Type of structure. hydration of cement which results in

Method of compaction. reduction in the volume of the

Soundness and porosity of the system of cement plus water to an

aggregate. extent of about 1 percent of the

Age - Permeability decreases with volume of dry cement. This

age. The decrease being greater for contraction is known as plastic strain

wet mixes than for drier one. and it is aggravated due to loss of

Grading of aggregate. water by evaporation from the

Curing. surface of concrete, particularly under


hot climates and high winds. This can
result in surface cracking.
Drying shrinkage is shrinkage which ground granulated blastfurnace slag
takes place after the concrete has or fly ash. This method does not
set and hardened. It takes place in cover the flowing concrete, pumped
the first few months. Drying concrete or lightweight aggregate
shrinkage is cause due to withdrawal concrete.
of water from concrete stored in 3.7.1.2 Design Mix Stages

unsaturated air voids. A part of this The mix design is carried out according

shrinkage can be recovered on to the DOE Method in the following

immersion of concrete in water. five stages.


1) Determining the free water/cement
ratio
Concrete mix design has a number of
Given the required characteristics
different approaches such as ACI
strength at a specified age. Use
(American Concrete Institution)
Equation 3.3 to obtain the target
developed in U.S.A. and the most
mean strength at that age, which is
popular and widely used is the DOE
the compressive strength to be used
(Department of Environmental)
in the mix design.
method. It is the British method of
Target mean strength =
concrete mix design and it is being Characteristic strength + Ks
used in United Kingdom and other Equation 3.3
parts of the world. This method is
The constant k is derived from the
based on extensive laboratory and
mathematics of normal distribution
field experiments carried out by the
and increases as the proportion of
Road Research Laboratory U.K.
defectives is decreased, thus:
3.7.1 DOE Method for Normal Concrete
K for 10% defectives = 1.28
This method is applicable to normal
K for 5% defectives = 1.64
weight concrete made with Portland
K for 2.5% defectives = 1.96 K
cement only or taken into account
for 1% defectives = 2.33
S = standard deviation of the Given the type of cement and
strength tests. Refer to Table aggregate, use Table 3.4 to obtain
3.3 for the typical values. the compressive strength at the

For design the concrete mix specified ages that correspond to a

grade 30 with assumption of 5% free water cement ratio of 0.5.

defectives and 8 N/mm2 standard For example: ordinary Portland


deviation. The target mean strength cement and crushed aggregate are
is calculated as follows. used.
Target mean strength = 30 N/mm2 From the Table 3.4 of the
+ 1.64 (8 N/mm2) = 43 N/mm2 compressive strength of 49 N/mm2

Table 3.3: Standard deviation under at 28 days (and


different condition 36 N/mm2 at 7 days and etc.)
Conditions Standard
In Figure 3.21 follow the starting
Deviation
line to locate the curve which passes
(N/mm2)
Good control with weight 3 – 5 through the point. (49 N/mm2,
batching, use w/c=0.5), in this particular case, it
of graded aggregates, etc
is the third curve from the top of
Constant supervision.
the figure. This curve shows that to
Fair control with weight 4 – 7 obtain our target mean strength of
batching. Use of
43 N/mm2, we need a
two sizes of aggregates.
water/cement ratio of 0.54.
Occasional supervision.
If the w/c ratio obtained in previous
Poor control. Inaccurate 5 – 8
step exceeds the maximum w/c ratio
volume batching of all-in
aggregates. No specified for durability then adopt
supervision. the lower value-resulting in a
concrete having a higher strength
than required.
Table 3.3: Durability requirement
Exposure Nominal cover (mm)
Condition
Mild
Moderate 25 20 20 20
Severe - 35 30 20
Very severe - - 40 25
Figure 3.21: Relationship between cube
Maximum free - - 50 30
compressive strength and free
w/c ration 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.45
water/cement ratio
Minimum 275 300 325 400
Table 3.4: Approximate compressive strengths of
cement content 30 35 40 50
concrete made with a free water/cement ratio 3
(kg/m )
of 0.5 according to the DOE Method
Concrete fcu
Compressive strength* (MPa(psi))
Type of Type of (N/mm2)
at the age of (days)
cement coarse 2) Determining the water content
aggregate 3 7 28 91
Given the slump or VB time,
Ordinary
determine the water content from
Portland Uncrushed 22 30 42 49

(Type I) (3200) (3200) (6100) (7100)


Figure 3.21. Using Table 3.4, when
coarse aggregate and fine aggregates
of different types are used, the
Sulfate-
resisting
water content W is estimated as
Crushed 27 36 49 56
Portland (3900) (5200) (7100) (8100) follows:
(Type
2
V) Water Content (kg/m3) = 𝑤𝑓 +
3
1
𝑤𝑐
3
29 37 48 54
Rapid-
Uncrushed (4200) (5400) (7000) (7800) (Equation 3.4)
hardening
Portland Wf : water content appropriate to
(Type
Crushed 34 43 55 61 the type of fine aggregate
III)
(4900) (6200) (8000) (8900)
Wc : water content appropriate to
the type of coarse aggregate
The aggregate type in Table 3.4
𝑘𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑚3 ) = 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟/ 𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜

refers to all types of aggregates. (Equation 3.5)


Table 3.4: Approximate free water
If the cement content calculated
contents required for various level of
workability according to the 1988 DOE from Equation 3.5 is below a
Method specified minimum, this minimum
Aggregate Water content, kg/m3
must be used - resulting in a reduced
(lb/yd3) for :
Slump 0 – 10 – 30 – 60 – water/cement ratio and hence has a
Max. mm 10 30 60 80 (2
Type higher strength than the target mean
Size (in.) (0 – (1/2 (1 – ½ -
mm ½) – 1) 2 ½ 7) strength. If the calculated cement
(in.) )
Vebe
content is higher than a specified
6 –
time, > 12
12
3 – 6 0 – 3 maximum, the specified strength and
s
Uncrushed 150 180 205 225 workability cannot be simultaneously
10 Crushed (255) (305) (345) (380)
met with the selected materials, try
(3/8) 180 205 230 250
(305) (345) (390) (420) to change the type and maximum size
Uncrushed 135 160 180 195
of the aggregate.
20 Crushed (230) (270) (305) (330)
(3/4) 170 190 210 225 4) Determining the aggregate
(285) (320) (355) (380) content
Uncrushed 115 140 160 175
Having calculated the water content
40 Crushed (195) (235) (270) (295)
(11/2) 155 175 190 205 and cement content, the total
(260) (295) (320) (345)
aggregate content in practice is
3) Determining the cement content
obtained from the chart in the DOE
The value given by Equation 3.1
document. The value can be calculated
should be checked against any
from basic principles. For each cubic
maximum or minimum cement
meter of fully compacted fresh
contents that may have been
concrete,
specified for durability. Refer Table
3.3.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 total aggregate required to produce
𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡
=1−
𝛾𝑐

𝑦𝑤 a concrete.

(Equation 3.6) For a given slump and w/c ratio,


Where, γc = 3150 kg/m3 is density of the proportion of fine aggregate can
cement particles γw = 1000 kg/m is the
3
be determined from Figure 3.21 in
density of water, Therefore;
which the grading zones are those of
Total aggregate content (kg/m3)
Table 3.5.
= γa x Volume occupied by aggregate
(Equation 3.7) Table 3.5: Grading limits for DOE mix
design procedure
Where,
Percentage by weight passing
γa, is the density of the aggregate Standard standard sieves

particles. The DOE recommends that Sieve Gradin Gradin Gradin Gradi
sizes g g g ng
if no information is available γa should Zone 1 Zone Zone Zone
be taken as 2600 kg/m3 for 2 3 4
10 mm 100 100 100 100
uncrushed aggregates and 2700
5 mm 90 – 90 – 90 – 95 –
kg/m for crushed aggregate.
3
100 100 100 100
No. 7 60 – 75 – 85 – 95 –
5) Determining of the fine and coarse
(2.36 95 100 100 100
aggregate contents
mm)
Total aggregate content consists of
No. 14 30 – 55 – 75 – 90 –
fine aggregate will depends on the (1.18 70 90 100 100
mm)
grading zone 1, 2, 3 and 4 (see
No. 25 15 – 35 – 60 – 80 –
Table 3.5). The general principle in (600 34 59 79 100

mix design is the finer the grading μm)


No. 52 5 – 8 – 12 – 15 –
of the fine aggregate. The larger its
(300 20 30 40 50
structure area per unit weight, the μm)
No. 100 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 –
lower will be the proportion
(150 10 10 10 15
expressed as a percentage of the μm)
Figure 3.22: Proportions of fine aggregates it is widely accepted in the U.S. and
for grading zones 1,2,3,4
continually updated by the ACI.
(See Table 3.5) for use with 20 mm
3.7.2.2 Design Mix Stages
nominal maximum size coarse aggregate The standard ACI mix design
Figure 3.23: Estimate wet density of procedure can be divided up into 8
fully compacted concrete basic steps:

1) Choice of Slump
The choice of slump is actually a
choice of mix workability. Workability
can be described as a combination of
several different, but related, PCC
properties related to its rheology:

Ease of mixing
Ease of placing
Ease of compaction
Ease of finishing
Generally, mixes of the stiffest
consistency that can still be placed
adequately should be used (ACI,
2000). Typically slump is specified,

3.7.2 ACI Method for Normal Concrete but Table 3.6


The American Concrete Institute shows general slump ranges for
(ACI) mix design method is one of specific applications. Slump
basic concrete mix design methods specifications are different for fixed
available. This section summarizes the form paving and slip form paving.
ACI absolute volume method because Table 3.7 shows typical and extreme
state DOT slump ranges.
2) Maximum Aggregate Size
Table 3.6: Slump ranges for specific Maximum aggregate size will affect
applications (after ACI, 2000) such PCC parameters as amount of
Slump
cement paste, workability and
Type of Construction
(mm) (inches) strength. In general, ACI recommends
Reinforced foundation 25 - 1 - 3
that maximum aggregate size be
walls and footings 75
Plain footings, caissons limited to 1/3 of the slab depth and
and substructure walls 25 - 1 - 3 3/4 of the minimum clear space
75
between reinforcing bars. Aggregate
Beams and reinforced 25 - 1 - 4
larger than these dimensions may be
walls 100
Building columns 25 - 1 - 4 difficult to consolidate and compact
100 resulting in a honeycombed structure
Pavements and slabs 25 - 1 - 3
or large air pockets. Pavement PCC
75
Mass concrete 25 - 1 - 2 maximum aggregate sizes are on the
50 order of 25 mm (1 inch) to 37.5
Table 3.7: Typical state DOT slump
mm (1.5 inches).
specifications

Fixed Form Slip Form


3) Mixing Water and Air Content
Specifications (mm) (inches) (mm) (inches)
Estimation

Typical 25 - 1 - 3 0 - 0 - 3
Slump is dependent upon nominal
75 75 maximum aggregate size, particle
as low as
shape, aggregate gradation, PCC
Extremes as 25 as low low as low
as high as 1 as as 0 as 0 as temperature, the amount of
as high as as high as
entrained air and
175 7 high 5
as certain chemical admixtures. It is not
125 generally affected by the amount of
cementitious material. Therefore, ACI
provides a table relating nominal
maximum aggregate size, air content based on the selected water-
entrainment and desired slump to the cement ratio. Table 3.9 is a general
desired mixing water quantity. Table estimate of 28-day compressive
3.8 is a partial reproduction of ACI strength vs. water-cement ratio (or
Table 6.3.3 (keep in mind that water- cementitious ratio). Values in
pavement PCC is almost always air- this table tend to be conservative
entrained so air- entrained values are (ACI, 2000). Most state DOTs tend
most appropriate). Typically, state to set a maximum water-cement
agencies specify between about 4 and ratio between 0.40 -
8 percent air by total volume (based 0.50
on data from ACPA, 2001). 5) Cement Content
Cement content is determined by
4) Water-Cement Ratio comparing the following two items:
The water-cement ratio is a
convenient measurement whose value • The calculated amount based on the
is well correlated with PCC strength selected mixing water content and
and durability. In general, lower water-cement ratio.
water-cement ratios produce • The specified minimum cement
stronger, more durable PCC. If content, if applicable. Most state
natural pozzolans are used in the mix DOTs specify minimum cement
(such as fly ash) then the ratio contents in the range of 300 - 360
becomes a water-cementitious kg/m3 (500 - 600 lbs/yd3).
material ratio (cementitious material
= portland cement + pozzolonic
material). The ACI method bases the
water-cement ratio selection on
desired compressive strength and
then calculates the required cement
Table 3.8: Approximate Mixing Water and Air Content Requirements for Different Slumps and
Maximum Aggregate Sizes
Mixing Water Quantity in kg/m3 (lb/yd3) for the listed Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size

9.5 mm 12.5 mm 19 mm 25 mm 37.5 mm 50 mm 75 mm 100 mm


Slump (0.375 (0.5 in.) (0.75 in.) (1 in.) (1.5 in.) (2 in.) (3 in.) (4 in.)
in.)
Non-Air-Entrained PCC

25 – 50 (1 - 2) 207 199 190 (315) 179 166 154 130 113


(350) (335) (300) (275) (260) (220) (190)
75 – 100 (3 - 4) 228 216 205 193 181 169 145 124
(385) (365) (340) (325) (300) (285) (245) (210)
150 – 175 (6 - 7) 243 228 216 202 190 178 160 -
(410) (385) (360) (340) (315) (300) (270)
Typical entrapped air
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0.3 0.2
(percent)
Air-Entrained PCC

25 – 50 (1 - 2) 181 (305) 175 168 160 148 142 122 107


(295) (280) (270) (250) (240) (205) (180)
75 – 100 (3 - 4) 202 193 184 175 165 157 133 119
(340) (325) (305) (295) (275) (265) (225) (200)
150 – 175 (6 - 7) 216 (365) 205 197 184 (310) 174 166 154 -
(345) (325) (290) (280) (260)
Recommended Air Content (percent)

Mild Exposure 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0

Moderate Exposure 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0

Severe Exposure 7.5 7.0 6.0 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0

Table 3.9: Water-Cement Ratio and Compressive Strength Relationship

Water-cement ratio by weight


28-Day Compressive
Strength in MPa (psi) Non-Air-Entrained Air-Entrained

41.4 (6000) 0.41 -

34.5 (5000) 0.48 0.40

27.6 (4000) 0.57 0.48

20.7 (3000) 0.68 0.59

13.8 (2000) 0.82 0.74


An older practice used to be to degree of workability suitable for
specify the cement content in terms usual reinforced construction (ACI,
of the number of 94 lb. sacks of 2000). Since pavement PCC should,
portland cement per cubic yard of in general, be more stiff and less
PCC. This resulted in specifications workable, ACI allows increasing their
such as a "6 sack mix" or a "5 sack recommended values by up to about
mix". While these specifications are 10 percent. Table 3.10 shows ACI
quite logical to a small contractor or recommended values.
individual who buys portland cement table 3.10: Volume of Coarse Aggregate

in 94 lb. sacks, they do not have per Unit Volume of PCC for Different
Fine aggregate Fineness Modulus for
much meaning to the typical
Pavement PCC.
pavement contractor or batching
Fine Aggregate Fineness Modulus
plant who buys portland cement in Nominal 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00
Maximum
bulk. As such, specifying cement Aggregate

content by the number of sacks Size


9.5 mm 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44
should be avoided. (0.375
inches)
6) Coarse Aggregate Content
12.5 mm 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.53
Selection of coarse aggregate content (0.5
inches)
is empirically based on mixture
19 mm 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60
workability. ACI recommends the (0.75
inches)
percentage (by unit volume) of coarse
25 mm (1 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.65

aggregate based on nominal maximum inches)


37.5 mm 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69
aggregate size and fine aggregate (1.5

fineness modulus. This inches)

50 mm 0.78 0.76 0.7 0.72


recommendation is based on empirical
(2 4
relationships to produce PCC with a inches)
Notes: 1. Aggregate weights. Aggregate volumes
1. These values can be increased by up are calculated based on oven dry unit
to about 10 percent for pavement weights, but aggregate is typically
applications. batched based on actual weight.
2. Coarse aggregate volumes are based on Therefore, any moisture in the
oven-dry-rodded weights obtained in aggregate will increase its weight and
accordance with ASTM C 29. stockpiled aggregates almost always

7) Fine Aggregate Content contain some moisture. Without

At this point, all other constituent correcting for this, the batched

volumes have been specified (water, aggregate volumes will be incorrect.

portland cement, air and coarse 2. Amount of mixing water. If the


aggregate). Thus, the fine aggregate batched aggregate is anything but

volume is just the remaining volume: saturated surface dry it will absorb

Unit volume (1 m3 or yd3) water (if oven dry or air dry) or give

Volume of mixing water up water (if wet) to the cement

Volume of air paste. This causes a net change in the

Volume of portland cement amount of water available in the mix

Volume of coarse aggregate and must be compensated for by

Volume of fine aggregate adjusting the amount of mixing water

8) Adjustments for Aggregate added.


Moisture
Unlike HMA, PCC batching does not
require dried aggregate. Therefore,
aggregate moisture content must be Figure 3.24: Reinforced concrete slab

accounted for. Aggregate moisture


affects the following parameters:
1. The smaller cross-section of member
3.8.1 Reinforced Cement Concrete results in smaller self weight.
Reinforced cement concrete is a
2. High bearing stresses are generated in
composite material made up of anchorage zones.
cement concrete and reinforcement in 3. The shrinkage cracks are reduced, with
which the concrete resists higher modulus of elasticity and
compression with reinforcement smaller creep strain.
resisting the tension and shear. It is
The loss of prestress at the initial
the most versatile building material
stages is very high and for it high
available and is extensively used in the
strength steel is required.
construction industry ranging from
Prestressing is achieved by either
small structural elements such as
pretensioning or post- tensioning. In
beams and columns to massive
the former the wires or cables are
structures like dams and bridges.
anchored, tensioned and concrete is
3.8.2 Prestressed Concrete
cast in the moulds. After the
A prestressed concrete may be
concrete has gained strength the
defined as a concrete in which stresses
wires are released. This sets up
of suitable magnitude and distribution
compression in concrete which
are introduced to counteract to a
counteracts tension in concrete
desired degree the stresses resulting
because of bending in the member. In
from external loads. The concrete was
the post-tensioning the prestressing
first used by Mandl of France in
force is applied to the steel bars or
1896. In prestressed concrete high
cables, after the concrete has
strength concrete and steel are
hardened sufficiently. After applying
desirable. The former is required
the full prestress the cable
because of following:
passages are grouted.
It is widely used for construction of and old concrete and are useful for
precast units such as beams, floors, prefabricated structural elements,
roofing systems, bridges, folded plate prestressed concrete, marine works,
roofs, marine structures, towers and nuclear power plants, water proofing
railway sleepers. and ferrocement products. The
disadvantages are that they are very
brittle and expensive.
3.8.4 Fiber Reinforced Concrete
Conventional concrete is modified by
random dispersal of short discrete
Figure 3.25: Prestressed concrete girder
fine fibers of asbestos, steel, sisal,
3.8.3 Polymer Concrete
The strength of concrete is greatly glass, carbon, Poly-propylene, glass,

affected by porosity and attempts to nylon, etc. Asbestos cement fibers so

reduce it by vibration, pressure far have proved to be commercially

application, spinning, etc. They are of successful. The improvement in

little help in reducing the water voids structural performance depends on

and the inherent porosity of gel which the strength characteristics, volume,

is about 28 per cent. The spacing, dispersion and orientation,

impregnation of manomer and shape and their aspect ratio (ratio of

subsequent polymerisation reduces length to diameter) of fibers.

the inherent porosity of the


concrete. Polymers- polyvinyl The pull out resistance of fibers

acetate, homopolymer emulsions and depends upon the bond between the

vinyl acetate copolymer emulsions - fibers and matrix, the number of

are added to increase strength, fibers crossing the crack, and the

resistance to oil, grease, and abrasion. aspect ratio.

They also improve bond between new


The advantages of fiber reinforced works. It is best produced by
concrete are: entraining air in the cement concrete
Strength of concrete increase and can be obtained by anyone of the
Fibers help to reduce cracking and following methods:
permit the use of thin concrete 1) By making concrete with cement and
section. coarse aggregate only.
Ductility, impact resistance, tensile Sometimes such a concrete is referred
and bending strength are improved. to as no-fines concrete. Suitable
The disadvantages of fiber reinforced aggregates are - natural aggregate,
concrete are:- blast furnance slag, clinker, foamed

Fibers reduce the workability of a mix slag, etc. Since fine aggregates are
and may cause the entrainment of not used, voids will be created and
air. the concrete produced will be light

Steel fibers tend to intermesh and weight.

form ball during mixing of concrete. 2) By replacing coarse aggregate by


porous or cellular aggregate. The

Fiber reinforced concrete is useful concrete produced is known as cellular

hydraulic structures, airfield concrete which is further classified in

pavements, highway, bridge decks, the following:

and heavy duty floors. Based on Manufacturing Method -


3.8.5 Lightweight Concrete classified as foam concrete and gas
Conventional cement concrete is a
concrete.
heavy building material. For
Based on Type of Binding Material -
structures such as multistorey
classified as gas and foam concrete
buildings it is desirable to reduce the
(Portland cement), gas and foam
dead loads. Light weight concrete is
concrete (lime and sand), gas slag and
most suitable for such construction
foam slag concretes (lime and finely with the lowest consumption of
divided blast furnance slag or fly ash). cement.

The characteristics of light weight


Foam concrete is obtained by mixing concrete can be described as follows:-
cement paste or mortar with Density: the density of L.W.C varies
stabilized foam. After hardening, the from 300-1200 kg/m3.
foam cells form concrete of a cellular Strength: It has high compressive
structure. The foam is obtained by strength in relation to density. The
stirring a mixture of resin soap and tensile strength is about 1/5th of
animal glue. The best foaming agents its compressive strength.
are alumino sulphonapthene Thermal Insulation is about 3-4 times
compounds and hydrolysed slaughter more than that of bricks and about
blood. This is very suitable for heat 10 times than that of concrete.
insulation purposes. Fire Resistance is excellent.
Sound Insulation is poor.
Gas concrete is also known as aerated
Durability Aerated concrete is slightly
concrete. It is obtained by expanding
alkaline. Due to its porosity and low
the binding material paste by gas
alkalinity the reinforcement may be
forming substances such as aluminium
subjected to corrosion and as such,
powder. It is used for same purposes
require special treatments.
as that the foam concrete. However,
Reparability Light weight cellular
it is better than foam concrete.
element can be easily sawn, drilled or
The basic considerations in choosing nailed which makes for easy
the proportion of light weight construction and repairs.
concrete are economy consistent with Economy Due to light weight and high
placability and adequate strength, and strength to mass ratio, the cellular
attainment of specified bulk density products are quite economical.
The applications of light weight weighed or measured by volume as
concrete are:- recommended by the manufacturer.
Low density cellular concrete is used Admixtures are classified by the
for precast floor and roofing units. following chemical and functional
Load bearing walls using cellular physical characteristics:
concrete blocks. Air entrainers
As insulation cladding to exterior Water reducers
walls of structures. Retarders
Hydration controller admixtures
Accelerators
Supplementary cementitious
admixtures

The Portland Cement Association


Figure 3.26: Lightweight concrete
(PCA) identifies four major reasons
for using admixtures:
Admixtures are ingredients other
than portland cement, water, and to reduce the cost of concrete

aggre- gates that may be added to construction.

concrete to impart a specific quality to achieve certain properties in

to either the plastic (fresh) mix or concrete more effectively than by

the hardened concrete. Some other means.

admixtures are charged into the mix to ensure quality of concrete during

as solutions. In such cases the liquid the stages of mixing, transporting,

should be considered part of the placing, and curing in adverse weather

mixing water. If admixtures cannot be conditions.

added in solution, they are either to overcome certain emergencies


during concrete operations.
3.9.1 Air Entrainers total volume between 1% and 7.5%
Air entrainers produce tiny air
of the concrete volume. Concrete
bubbles in the hardened concrete to
mixed for severe frost conditions
provide space for water to expand
should contain ap- proximately 14
upon freezing. Internal stresses
billion bubbles per cubic meter. Frost
reduce the durability of hardened
resistance improves with decreasing
concrete, especially when cycles of
void size, and small voids reduce
freeze and thaw are repeated many
strength less than large ones.
times. The impact of each of these
In addition to improving durability,
mechanisms is mitigated by providing
air entrainment provides other
a network of tiny air voids in the
important benefits to both freshly
hardened concrete using air
mixed and hardened concrete. Air
entrainers. In the late 1930s. the
entrainment improves concrete's
introduction of air entrainment in
resistance to several destructive
concrete represented a major advance
factors, including freeze-thaw cycles,
in concrete technology. Air
deicers and salts, sulfates, and alkali-
entrainment is recommended for all
silica reactivity. Air entrainment also
concrete exposed to freezing.
increases the workability of fresh
All concrete contains entrapped air
concrete. Air entrainment decreases
voids, which have diameters of 1 mm
the strength of concrete however;
or larger and which represent
this effect can be reduced for
approximately 0.2% to 3% of the
moderate-strength concrete by
concrete volume. Entrained air voids
lowering the water-cement ratio and
have diameters that range from 0.01
increasing the cement factor. High
mm to 1 mm, with the majority being
strength is difficult to attain with
less than 0.1 mm. The entrained air
air- entrained concrete.
voids are not connected and have a
3.9.2 Water Reducer materials ratio and increases
Workability of fresh or plastic strength.
concrete requires more water than is Superplasticizers, or high-range water
needed for hydration. The excess reducers, can either greatly increase
water, beyond the hydration the flow of the fresh concrete or
requirements, is detrimental to all reduce the amount of water required
desirable properties of hardened for a given consistency. For example,
concrete. Therefore, waterreducing adding a superplasticizer to a concrete
admixtures have been developed to with a 75-mm (3 in.) slump can
gain workability and, at the same increase the slump to 230 mm (9
time, maintain quality. Water in.), or the original slump can be
reducers increase the mobility of the maintained by reducing the water
cement particles in the plastic mix, content 12% to 30%. Reducing the
allowing workability to be achieved at amount of mixing water reduces the
lower water contents. Water reducers water-cementitious materials ratio,
are produced with different levels of which in turn, increases the strength
effectiveness: conventional, mid- of hardened concrete. In fact, the use
range, and high-range. The high-range of superplasticizers has resulted in a
water reducer is typically called major breakthrough in the concrete
superplasticizer. industry. Now, high-strength
Water reducing admixtures can be concrete in the order of 70-80 MPa
used indirectly to gain strength. compressive strength or more can be
Since the water-reducing admixture produced when superplasticizers are
increases workability, we can take
used.
advantage of this phenomenon to
decrease the mixing water, which in
turn reduces the water-cementitious
Superplasticizers can be used in the teractions with other admixtures
following cases: used in the concrete.

Low water-cementitious materials 3.9.3 Retarders


Some construction conditions require
ratio is beneficial (e.g., high-
that the time between mixing and
strength concrete, early strength
placing or finishing the concrete be
gain, and reduced porosity) 2.
increased. In such cases, retarders can
placing thin sections
be used to delay the initial set of
Placing concrete around tightly
concrete. Retarders are used for
spaced reinforcing steel
several reasons, such as the following:
Placing cement underwater
offsetting the effect of hot weather
Placing concrete by pumping
allowing for unusual placement or long
Consolidating the concrete is
haul distances
difficult
providing time for special finishes
When superplasticizers are used, the
(e.g.. exposed aggregate)
fresh concrete stays workable for a
Retarders can reduce the strength of
short time, 30 min to 60 min, and
concrete at early ages (e.g., one to
is followed by rapid loss in
three days). In addition, some
workability. Superplasticizers are
retarders entrain air and improve
usually added at the plant to ensure
workability. Other retarders increase
consistency of the concrete. In critical
the time required for the initial set
situations, they can be added at the
but reduce the time between the
jobsite, but the con- crete should be
initial and final set. The properties of
thoroughly mixed following the
retarders vary with the materials
addition of the admixture. The
used in the mix and with job
setting time varies with the type of
conditions. Thus, the use and effect
agents, the amount used, and the in-
of retarders must be evaluated
experimentally during the mix design of normal concrete. Accelerators are
process. used to
3.9.4 Hydration-Control Admixture
These admixtures have the ability to Reduce the amount of time before
stop and reactivate the hydration finishing operations begin.
process of concrete. They consist of Reduce curing time.
two parts: a stabilizer and an Increase rate of strength gain.
activator. Adding the stabilizer
Plug leaks under hydraulic
completely stops the hydration of
pressure efficiently.
the cementing ma- terials for up to
The first three reasons are
72 hours, while adding the activator
particularly applicable to concrete
to the stabilized concrete
work placed during cold temperatures.
reestablishes normal hydration and
The increased strength gained helps
setting. These admixtures are very
to protect the concrete from freezing
useful in extending the use of ready-
and the rapid rate of hydration
mixed concrete when the work at the
generates heat that can reduce the
jobsite is stopped for various reasons.
risk of freezing.
They are also useful when concrete is
Calcium chloride, CaCl2, is the most
being hauled for a long time.
widely used accelerator (ASTM D98).
3.9.5 Accelerators
Both initial and final set times are
Accelerators are used to develop early
reduced with calcium chloride. The
strength of concrete at a faster rate
initial
than that developed in normal
set time of 3 hours for a typical
concrete. The ultimate strength,
concrete can be reduced to 1.5 hours
however, of high early strength
by adding an amount of calcium
concrete is about the same as that
chloride equal to 1% of the cement
weight; 2% reduces the initial set
time to 1 hour. Typical final set times supplementary cementitious
are 6 hours, 3 hours, and 2 hours admixtures since the 1970s. These
for 0%, 1%, and 2% calcium chloride. materials have been used to improve
Concrete with CaCI2, develops higher some properties of concrete and to
early strength compared with plain reduce the problem of discarding
concrete cured at the same them. Since these materials are
temperature. cementitious, they can be used in

The PCA recommends against using addition to or as a partial

calcium chloride under the following replacement for portland cement. In

conditions: fact, two or more of these

concrete is prestressed supplementary cementitious additives

concrete contains embedded have been used together to enhance

aluminum such as conduits, concrete properties. These

especially if the aluminum is in supplementary cementitious materials

contact with steel include fly ash, ground granulated

concrete is subjected to alkali- blast furnace slag, silica fume, and

aggregate reaction natural pozzolans.

concrete is in contact with water a. Fly Ash


Fly ash is the most commonly used
or soils containing sulfates
pozzolan in civil engineering
concrete is placed during hot
structures. Fly ash is a by-product of
weather
the coal industry. Combusting
mass applications of concrete
pulverized coal in an electric power

3. 9.6 Supplementary Cementitious plant burns off the carbon and most
Admixtures volatile materials. However,
Several byproducts of other industries
depending on the source and type of
have been used in concrete as
coal, a significant amount of
impurities passes through the concrete. In addition, fly ash extends
combustion chamber. the hydration process, allowing a

The carbon contents of common greater strength development and


coals ranges from 70 to 100 reduced porosity. Studies have shown
percent. that concrete containing more than
The noncarbon percentages are 20% fly ash by weight of cement has
impurities (e.g., clay, feldspar,
a much smaller pore size distribution
quartz,
than portland cement concrete
and shale), which fuse as they pass
without fly ash. The lower heat of
through the combustion chamber.
hydration reduces the early strength
Exhaust gas carries the fused
of the concrete. The extended
material, fly ash, out of the
reaction permits a continuous gaining
combustion chamber. The fly ash
of strength beyond what can be
cools into spheres, which may be
accomplished with plain portland
solid, hollow (cenospheres), or
cement.
hollow and filled with other spheres
b. Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
(plerospheres). Particle diameters
Ground granulated blast furnace slag
range from 1 µm to more than 0.1
(GGBF slag) is made from iron blast
mm, with an average of 0.015 mm
furnace slag. It is a nonmetallic
to 0.020 mm, and are 70% to
hydraulic cement consisting basically
90% smaller than 0.045 mm. Fly
of silicates and aluminosilicates of
ash is primarily a silica glass
calcium, which is developed in a
composed of silica (SiO2), alumina
molten condition simultaneously with
(Al2O3), iron oxide (Fe203), and
iron in a blast furnace. The molten
lime (Ca0).
slag is rapidly chilled by quenching in
The spherical shape of fly ash water to form a glassy sandlike
increases the workability of the fresh granulated material. The material is
then ground to less than 45 microns. Because of its chemical and physical
The specific gravity of GGBF slag is in properties, it is a very reactive
the range of 2.85 to 2.95. pozzolan. Concrete containing silica

The rough and angular-shaped ground fume can have very high strength and

slag in the presence of water and an can be very durable. Silica fume is

activator, NaOH or CaOH, supplied by available from suppliers of concrete

portland cement, hydrates and sets admixtures and, when specified, is

in a manner similar to portland simply added during concrete

cement. production either in wet or dry

Ground slag has been used as a forms. Placing, finishing, and curing

cementitious material in concrete silica fume concrete require special

since the beginning of the 1900s. attention on the part of the

Ground granulated blast furnace slag concrete contractor.

commonly constitutes between 30% Silicon metal and alloys are produced

and 45% of the cementing material in electric furnaces. The raw materials

in the mix. Some slag concretes have are quartz, coal, and woodchips. The

a slag component of 70% or more of smoke that results from furnace

the cementitious material. ASTM C operation is collected and sold as silica

989 (AASHTO M 302) classifies slag fume.

by its increasing level of reactivity as


Grade 80, 100, or 120. Silica fume consists primarily of
c. Silica Fume amorphous (noncrystalline) silicon
Silica fume is a byproduct of the dioxide (SiO2). The individual
production of silicon metal or particles are extremely small,
ferrosilicon alloys. One of the most approximately 1/100th the size of an
beneficial uses for silica fume is as a average cement particle.
mineral admixture in concrete.
Because of its fine particles, large to be used today. Calcium hydroxide
surface area, and the high SiO2, is one of the products generated by
content, silica fume is a very reactive the hydration of C3S and C2S. In
pozzolan when used in concrete. The fact, up to 15% of the weight of
quality of silica fume is specified by Portland cement is hydrated lime.
ASTM C 1240 and AASHTO M 307. Adding a pozzolan to portland cement

In addition to producing high-strength generates an opportunity to convert

concrete, silica fame can reduce this free lime to a cementitious

concrete corrosion induced by deicing material.

or marine salts. Silica fume concrete


with low water content is highly Tutorial

resistant to penetration by chloride What is concrete and how is it made?

ions. What is curing? What is its significance?

d. Natural Pozzolans Define water/cement ratio. How does it in


A pozzolan is a siliceous and aluminous concrete strength?

material which, in itself, possesses What is meant by workability of concrete?

little or no cementitious value but How is it tested in field and in laboratory?


Write short notes on following:
will, in finely divided form and in the
(a) Light weight concrete
presence of moisture, react chemically
(b) Fiber reinforced concrete
with calcium hy- droxide at ordinary
(c) Reinforced concrete
temperatures to form compounds (d) Prestressed concrete
possessing cementitious properties
(ASTM C595). Naturally occurring
pozzolans, such as fine volcanic ash,
combined with burned lime, were used
about 2000 years ago for building
construction and pozzolan continues
Summary of Chapter 3 purposes, such as acceleration or
retardation of setting or hardening.
From this chapter, we can conclude The strength and quality of concrete
that, concrete is conglomerate, stone depend not only on the quality and
like material composed essentially of quantity of the materials, but on the
three materials which are cement, procedures used in combining these
aggregate and water. Sometimes a materials and the skill involved in the
fourth material namely an admixture placing and curing of conrete
is added for variety of specific

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