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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. General
Concrete is the most commonly used man-made material on earth. It is an
important construction material used extensively in buildings, bridges, roads and
dams. It uses range from structural applications, to kerbs, pipes and drains.
Types of concrete are (1) Cement concrete: It is a mixture of cement, fine
aggregates, coarse aggregates and water in a definite proportion (2) Lime concrete:
Here binding material is lime (3) Reinforced concrete cement: Steel reinforcing is
done in the cement concrete (4) Prestressed cement concrete. Many structural
elements like footings, columns, beams, slabs and stairs are made with reinforced
concrete cement.
Benefits of concrete are (1) It is a relatively cheap material and has a relatively
long life with few maintenance requirements (2) It is strong in compression (3) Before
it hardens it is a very pliable substance that can easily be shaped (4) It is non-
combustible.
Limitations of concrete are (1) Relatively low tensile strength when compared
to other building materials (2) Low ductility (3) Low strength-to-weight ratio (4) It is
susceptible to cracking [1].

2.2. Cement
Cement is a binding material used in the construction work. Different blends
of cement used in construction are characterized by their physical properties. Some
key parameters control the quality of cement. The physical properties of good cement
are based on: (1) Fineness of cement (2) Soundness (3) Consistency (4) Strength (5)
Setting time (6) Heat of hydration (7) Loss of ignition (8) Bulk density (9) Specific
gravity (Relative density) [1].

2.3. Aggregates
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Aggregates are the important constituent of the concrete which give body to
the
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concrete and also reduce shrinkage. Aggregates occupy 70 to 80 % of total volume of

concrete. So, we can say that one should know definitely about the aggregates in
depth to study more about concrete [1].

2.3.1. Classification of Aggregates based on Shape

We know that aggregate is derived from naturally occurring rocks by blasting
or crushing etc., so, it is difficult to attach required shape of aggregate. But the shape
of aggregate will affect the workability of concrete. So, we should take care about the
shape of aggregate. This care is not only appliable to parent rock but also to the
crushing machine used. Various types of aggregates as shown in Figure 2.1 [1].
Aggregates are classified according to shape into the following types:
1. Rounded aggregates
2. Irregular or partly rounded aggregates
3. Angular aggregates
4. Flaky aggregates
5. Elongated aggregates
6. Flaky and elongated aggregates
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Figure 2.1. Types of aggregates

Aggregates are classified according to size into the following types:
1. Fine Aggregates
2. Coarse Aggregates

1. Fine Aggregates
When the aggregate is sieved through 4.75mm sieve, the aggregate
passed through it called as fine aggregate. Natural sand is generally used as fine
aggregate, silt and clay are also come under this category. The soft deposit
consisting of sand, silt and clay is termed as loam. The purpose of the fine
aggregate is to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate and to act as a workability
agent. Table 2.1 lists types of fine aggregates based on size [1].
Table 2.1. Types of Fine Aggregates based on Size [1]

Fine Aggregates Size Variation

Coarse sand 2.0 mm – 0.5 mm
Medium sand 0.5 mm – 0.25 mm
Fine sand 0.25 mm – 0.06 mm
Silt 0.06 mm – 0.002 mm
Clay < 0.002 mm

2. Coarse Aggregates
When the aggregate is sieved through 4.75mm sieve, the aggregate
retained is called coarse aggregate. Gravel, cobble and boulders come under this
category. The maximum size aggregate used may be dependent upon some
conditions. In general, 40mm size aggregate used for normal strengths and 20mm
size is used for high strength concrete. the size range of various coarse aggregates
given below. Table 2.2 lists types of coarse aggregates based on size [1].
Table 2.2. Types of Coarse Aggregates based on Size [1]

Coarse Aggregates Size

Fine gravel 4 mm – 8 mm

Medium gravel 8 mm – 16 mm
Coarse gravel 16 mm – 64 mm
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Cobbles 64 mm – 256 mm
Table 2.2. (Continued)

Boulders >256 mm

2.4. Water
Any water that is potable (drinkable) is acceptable as mixing water. Some
water that is not potable may also be suitable for concrete. It should not contain
muddy, salt, oil and other undesirable substances. It should not be chemically
dissolved water. pH value should be between 6 to 9 and turbidity limit is 2000 ppm
[1].

2.5. Water Cement Ratio

The water cement ratio is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of
cement used in a concrete mix. A lower ratio leads to higher strength and durability,
but may make the mix difficult to work with and form. Workability can be resolved
with the use of plasticizers or super-plasticizers.
The water cement ratio is one of the most important aspect when it comes to
maintaining the strength of concrete. The ratio depends on the grade of concrete and
the structure size. Generally, w/c ratio shall prefer from 0.4 to 0.6, but it can be
decreased in case of high-grade concrete. W/C ratio affects the workability of
concrete and thus should be taken into careful consideration. Also, if the ratio exceeds
the normal value, segregation of concrete occurs and the coarse aggregate settles at
the bottom, thus affecting the strength of concrete greatly. The lower the w/c ratio, the
greater is the compressive strength [1].

2.6. Workability
W/C ratio is one of the most important factors which influence the concrete
workability. Generally, a water cement ratio of 0.6 to 0.8 is used for good workable
concrete without the use of any admixture. Higher the w/c ratio, higher will be the
water content per volume of concrete and concrete will be more workable. But, it will
reduce the strength of concrete.
There are many types of admixtures used in concrete building for enhancing
its properties. There are some workability enhancer admixtures such as plasticizers
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and super-plasticizers which increases the workability of concrete even with low
water cement ratio [1].
2.7. Slump Test
Concrete slump test is to determine the workability or consistency of concrete
mix prepared at the laboratory or the construction site during the progress of the work.
Concrete slump test is carried out from batch to batch to check the uniform quality of
concrete during construction.
Generally, concrete slump value is used to find the workability, which
indicates water cement ratio, but there are various factors including properties of
materials, mixing methods, dosage, admixtures etc. also affect the concrete slump
value.
Mould for slump test, non-porous base plate, measuring scale, temping rod.
The mould for the test is in the form of the frustum of a cone having height 30 cm,
bottom diameter 20 cm and top diameter 10 cm. The tamping rods of steel 16 mm
diameter and 60cm long and rounded at one end. Figure 2.2 shows the types of slump.
Table 2.3 lists the various types of slump for construction and Table 2.4 shows w/c
ratio for concrete [1].
Table 2.3. Recommended Slump for Various Types of Construction [1]

Slump (in)
Form of Construction
Maximum Minimum
RC foundations, walls and footings 3 1

Plain footings, caissons and substructure walls 3 1

Beams and reinforcement walls 4 1
Building columns 4 1
Pavements and slabs 3 1
Mass concrete 2 1

Table 2.4. Compressive Strength of Concrete for Various W/C Ratio [1]

w/c ratio by weight Probable compressive strength at 28 days (psi)

0.35 6100
0.46 4800
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0.53 4000
0.57 3600
0.62 3200
Table 2.4. (Continued)

0.69 2700

0.71 2550

0.8 2050

Collapse Shear True Slump

Figure 2.2. Types of slumps

2.8. Concrete Mix Design

The common method of expressing the proportions of ingredients of a
concrete mix is in the terms of parts or ratios of cement, fine and coarse aggregates.
For e.g., a concrete mix of proportions 1:2:4 means that cement, fine and coarse
aggregate are in the ratio 1:2:4 or the mix contains one part of cement, two parts of
fine aggregate and four parts of coarse aggregate.
Concrete mix design may be defined as the art of selecting suitable ingredients
of concrete and determining their relative proportions with the object of producing
concrete of certain minimum strength and durability as economically as possible.
Table 2.5 and 2.6 lists types of concrete mix ratio with grading. Types of concrete
mixes are: Nominal Mix and Design Mix [1].
Table 2.5. Normal Grade of Concrete [1]

Concrete Grade Mix Ratio Compressive Strength (Psi)

M5 1:5:10 725
M7.5 1:4:8 1087
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M10 1:3:6 1450

M15 1:2:4 2175
M20 1:1.5:3 2900
Table 2.6. High Strength Concrete Grades [1]

Concrete Grade Mix Ratio Compressive Strength (Psi)

M50 Design Mix 7250

M55 Design Mix 7975

M60 Design Mix 8700

M65 Design Mix 9425

M70 Design Mix 10150

2.9. Mixing of Concrete

The process of mixing of various ingredients of concrete in specified
proportions is termed as mixing of concrete [1].

2.9.1. Methods of Mixing: -

There are two methods of mixing: Hand Mixing and Machine Mixing.

1. Hand Mixing
The process of mixing the ingredients of concrete by manual labor is
called hand mixing. Hand mixing is adopted for small and unimportant works
and where quantity of concrete used is small. Hand mixing method requires
more cement(10%more) than machine mixing for obtaining the small strength
of concrete [1].

2. Machine Mixing
The process of mixing the ingredients of concrete by a machine is
called machine mixing. In this case where a large quantity of concrete is to be
produced, hand mixing becomes costly even if the labor is cheap. The machine
mixing becomes essential. The concrete can be produced at a faster rate and at
a lesser cost. The quality of concrete by machine mixing is also better [1].
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2.10. Concrete Casting

It is not enough that the mix of concrete correctly designed, batched, mixed
and
transported, it is of utmost importance that the concrete must be placed in systematic
manner to yield optimum results. The precautions to be taken and methods adopted
while placing concrete in the undermentioned situations, will be discussed [1].
1. Placing concrete within earth mould. (example: Foundation concrete for a wall
or column).
2. Placing concrete in layers within timber or steel shutters. (example: Mass
concrete in dam construction or construction of concrete abut mentor pier).
3. Placing concrete within usual from work. (example: Columns, beams and
floors).
4. Placing concrete under water.

2.10.1. Placing Concrete within Earth Mould

1. Concrete is invariable as foundation bed below the walls and columns before
placing concrete.
2. All loose earth must be removed.
3. Roots of trees must be cut.
4. If surface is dry, it should be made damp.
5. If it is too wet or rain soaked the water, then slush must be removed.

2.10.2. Placing Concrete in Layers within Timber or Steel Shutters

1. Dam construction
2. Construction of concrete abutments
3. Raft for a high-rise building
4. Method of compaction
5. Size of vibrator
6. Frequency of vibrator used
7. It is good for laying 15 to 30 cm thick layer of concrete, for the mass concrete
it may vary from 35 to 45 cm.
8. It’s better to leave the top of the layer rough so that succeeding layer can have
the good bond.
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2.10.3. Placing Concrete within Usual Formwork

1. Adopted for column, beam and floors rules that should be followed while
placing the concrete.
2. Check the reinforcements are correctly tied and placed.
3. Mould releasing agent should be applied.
4. The concrete must be placed carefully with a small quantity at a time so that
they will not block the entry of subsequent concrete.

2.10.4. Placing Concrete under Water

Concrete having cement content at least 450kg/m3 and a slump of 10 to
17.5cm can be placed underwater.
Methods: -
1. Bagged method
2. Bottom dump method
3. Tremie
4. Grouted aggregate
5. Concrete pump

2.11. Form Work

Form work shall be designed and constructed so as to remain sufficiently rigid
during placing and compaction of concrete. The joints are plugged to prevent the loss
of slurry from concrete.
The formwork should not be removed until the concrete has developed a
strength of at the time of removal of formwork. In special circumstances the strength
development of concrete can be assessed by placing companion cubes near the
structure and curing the same in the manner simulating curing conditions of
structures.
In normal circumstances, where ambient temperature does not fall below 15°C
and where ordinary Portland cement is used and adequate curing is done, following
striking period can be considered sufficient as per IS 456 of 2000. Table 2.7 lists
stripping time for formwork [1].
Table 2.7. Stripping Time for Formwork [1]
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Sr Minimum period before

Type of Formwork
No striking formwork

Vertical formwork to columns, walls and

1. 16-24 hours
beams
Soffit formwork to slabs (props to be refixed
2. 3 days
immediately after removal of formwork)
Table 2.7. (Continued)
Soffit formwork to beams (props to be refixed
3. 7 days
immediately after removal of formwork)
Props to slab
Spanning up to 4.5 m 7 days
4.
Spanning over 4.5 m 14 days
Props to beam and arches
14 days
5. Spanning up to 6 m
21 days
Spanning over 6 m

2.12. Compaction of Concrete

Compaction of concrete is the process adopted for expelling the entrapped air
from the concrete. In the process of mixing, transporting and placing of concrete air is
likely to get entrapped in the concrete. The lower the workability, higher is the
amount of air entrapped. In other words, stiff concrete mix has high percentage of
entrapped air and, therefore, would need higher compacting efforts than high
workable mixes.
The following methods are adopted for compacting the concrete: [1].
1. Hand Compaction
a. Rodding
b. Ramming
c. Tamping
2. Compaction by Vibration
a. Internal vibrator (Needle vibrator)
b. Formwork vibrator
c. Table vibrator
d. Platform vibrator
e. Surface vibrator (Screed vibrator)
f. Vibratory Roller
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2.12.1. Hand Compaction

Hand compaction is used for ordinary and unimportant structures. Workability
should be decided in such a way that the chances of honeycombing should be
minimum. The various methods of hand compaction are as given below: [1].
Rodding: - It is a method of poking with 2m long, 16 mm dia. rod at sharp
corners and edges. The thickness of layers for rodding should be 15 to 20 cm. Hand
compaction by rodding as shown in Figure 2.3 [1].

Figure 2.3. Hand Compaction by Rodding

Ramming: - It is generally used for compaction on ground in plain concrete. It

is not used either in RCC or on upper floors. Hand compaction by ramming as shown
in Figure 2.4 [1].

Figure 2.4. Hand Compaction by Ramming

Tamping: - It is a method in which the top surface is beaten by wooden cross

beam of cross section 10 cm x 10 cm. Hand compaction by tamping as shown in
Figure 2.5. It is mainly used for roofs slabs and road pavements [1].
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Figure 2.5. Hand Compaction by Tamping

2.12.2. Compaction by Vibration
Vibration is imparted to the concrete by mechanical means. It causes
temporary liquefaction so that air bubbles come on to the top and expelled ultimately.
Mechanical vibration can be of various types as given under [1].

1. Internal Vibration
a. It is most commonly used technique of concrete vibration.
b. Vibration is achieved due to eccentric weights attached to the shaft.
c. The needle diameter varies from 20 mm to 75 mm and its length varies
from 25 cm to 90 cm.
d. The frequency range adopted is normally 3500 to 5000 rpm.

2. External Vibration
a. This is adopted where internal vibration can’t be used due to either thin
sections or heavy reinforcement.
b. External vibration is less effective and it consumes more power as
compared to the internal vibration.
c. The formwork has to be made extra strong when external vibration is used.

2.13. Curing
Curing is the process in which the concrete is protected from loss of moisture
and kept within a reasonable temperature range. The result of this process is increased
strength and decreased permeability. Curing is also a key player in mitigating cracks
in the concrete, which severely impacts durability. Curing can be defined as a
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procedure for insuring the hydration of the Portland cement in newly-placed concrete.
It generally implies control of moisture loss and sometimes of temperature [1].

2.13.1. Need for Curing: -

1. Causes Hydration reaction of cement with water
2. Loss of water by evaporation can be prevented
3. Maintain conductive Temperature
4. For completing of Hydration reaction
5. For capillary segmentation [1].
2.13.2. Methods of Curing
There are various methods of curing.
1. Immersion
2. Ponding
3. Spraying
4. Covering with wet sand
5. Wetted Hessian (gunny bags)
6. Membrane curing
7. Water proof plastic sheeting [1].

1. Immersion
The immersion method of curing is a process of fully submerging a
material, such as concrete or masonry, in water for an extended period to
ensure proper hydration and strength development.
This method helps to prevent premature drying and cracking of the material
and allows it to reach its optimal strength and durability. Curing by immersion
as shown in Figure 2.6.
1. The precast concrete items are normally immersed in curing tanks.
2. The cement and concrete test tubes, cylinders, beams etc. In the test
laboratories are cured by immersion [1].
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Figure 2.6. Curing by Immersion

2. Ponding
The ponding method of curing is a process of creating a pond or basin of
water on the surface of a material, such as concrete or mortar, to prevent
premature drying and promote proper hydration and strength development.
The water is continuously maintained to keep the surface wet for an extended
period to allow the material to reach its desired strength and durability. Curing
by ponding is as shown in Figure 2.7 [1].

Figure 2.7. Curing by Ponding

3. Spraying
The spraying method of curing is a process of applying a fine mist of water
or curing compound onto the surface of a material, such as concrete or
masonry, to prevent premature drying and promote proper hydration and
strength development.
The mist is applied periodically for an extended period to keep the surface
moist, allowing the material to reach its optimal strength and durability.
Column curing by spraying is as shown in Figure 2.8 [1].
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Figure 2.8. Curing by Spraying

4. Wet covering
The wet covering method of curing is a process of preserving freshly
poured concrete by keeping it moist through the application of a layer of water
or moist sand or burlap on its surface. This method helps to prevent moisture
loss, which can weaken the concrete and compromise its strength and
durability. Wet gunny bags, hessian cloth, jute matting, straw etc., are
wrapped to vertical surface for keeping the concrete wet as shown in Figure
2.9 [1].

Figure 2.9. Curing by Wet Covering

5. Membrane curing
Membrane curing is a process used in construction and concrete work
where a thin, waterproof membrane is applied to the surface of freshly poured
concrete to prevent moisture loss during the curing process. This technique
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helps ensure that the concrete cures properly, resulting in a stronger and
durable finished product. Membrane curing is as shown in Figure 2.10 [1].

Figure 2.10. Curing by Membrane