Chapter 4

Radiation Integrals and

Auxiliary Potential Functions

4.1 Introduction
In the analysis of radiation problems, the usual procedure is to specify the
sources and then require the fields radiated by the sources. This is in con-
trast to the synthesis problem where the radiated fields are specified, and
we are required to determine the sources.

It is a very common practice in the analysis procedure to introduce auxil-

iary functions, known as vector potentials, which will aid in the solution
of the problems. The most common vector potential functions are the A
(Magnetic vector potential) and F (Electric vector potential). Al-
though the electric and magnetic field intensities (E and H) represent physi-
cally measurable quantities, among most engineers the potentials are strictly
mathematical tools. The introduction of the potentials often simplifies the
solution even though it may require determination of additional functions.
While it is possible to determine the E and H fields directly from the source-
current densities J and M , as shown in Figure 4.1 (i.e. by directly solving for
E in (4.1) given J), it is usually much simpler to find the auxiliary potential
functions first and then determine the E and H. This two-step procedure
is also shown in Figure 4.1.

O × E = −jωµH
⇒ O × O × E − ω 2 µεE = −jωµJ (4.1)
O × H = jωεE + J

The one-step procedure, through path 1, relates the E and H fields to J

and M by integral relations. The two-step procedure, through path 2, re-
lates the A and F potentials to J and M by integral relations. The E
and H are then determined simply by differentiating A and F . Although
the two-step procedure requires both integration and differentiation, where

1
 Class Notes on ECEG-4304
4.2. VECTOR POTENTIALS FOR AN ELECTRIC
Antennas
CURRENT
andSOURCE
Radio Wave
J Propagation

Figure 4.1: Alternative analysis approaches.

path 1 requires only integration, the integrands in the two-step procedure

are much simpler. The most difficult operation in the two-step procedure is
the integration to determine A and F. Once the vector potentials are known,
then E and H can always be determined because any well-behaved function,
no matter how complex, can always be differentiated. The integration re-
quired to determine the potential functions is restricted over the bounds of
the sources J and M . This will result in the A and F to be functions of
the observation point coordinates; the differentiation to determine E and H
must be done in terms of the observation point coordinates. The integration
in the one-step procedure also requires that its limits be determined by the
bounds of the sources.

4.2 Vector Potentials for an electric current source

J
The vector potential A is useful in solving for the EM field generated by a
given harmonic electric current J. The magnetic flux B is always solenoidal;
that is, O × B = 0. Therefore, it can be represented as the curl of another
vector because it obeys the vector identity
O.O × A = 0 (4.2)
where A is an arbitrary vector. Thus we define
BA = µHA = O × A (4.3)
or
1
HA = O×A (4.4)
µ
where subscript A indicates the field due to the A potential. Substituting
(4.4) into Maxwells curl equation
O × EA = −jωµHA (4.5)

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School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
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Nov. 2016.
 Class Notes on ECEG-4304
4.2. VECTOR POTENTIALS FOR AN ELECTRIC
Antennas
CURRENT
andSOURCE
Radio Wave
J Propagation

reduces it to
O × EA = −jωµHA = −jωO × A (4.6)
which can also be written as

O × [EA + jωA] = 0 (4.7)

From the vector identity

O × (−Oφe ) = 0 (4.8)
and (4.7), it follows that

EA = −Oφe − jωA (4.9)

The scalar function φe represents an arbitrary electric scalar potential which

is a function of position.
Taking the curl of both sides of (4.3) and using the vector identity

O × O × A = O (O · A) − O2 A (4.10)

reduces it to
O × (µHA ) = O (O · A) − O2 A (4.11)
For a homogeneous medium, (4.11) reduces to

µO × HA = O (O · A) − O2 A (4.12)

Equating Maxwells equation

O × HA = J + jωεEA (4.13)

to (4.12) and substituting (4.9) leads to

O2 A + k 2 A = −µJ + O (O · A) + O (jωµεφe )
(4.14)
= −µJ + O (O · A + jωµεφe )

where k 2 = ω 2 µε.
In (4.3), the curl of A was defined. Now we are at liberty to define the
divergence of A, which is independent of its curl. In order to simplify (4.14),
let
1
O · A = −jωµεφe ⇒ φe = − O·A (4.15)
jωµε
which is known as the Lorentz condition. Substituting (4.15) into (4.14)
leads to
O2 A + k 2 A = −µJ (4.16)

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School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
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 Class Notes on ECEG-4304
4.3. SOLUTION OF THE INHOMOGENEOUS VECTOR
Antennas
POTENTIAL
and Radio WAVE
Wave Propagation
EQUATION

Equation (4.16) relates A directly to J.

In addition, (4.9) reduces to

1
EA = −Oφe − jωA = −jωA − j O (O · A) (4.17)
ωµε

The analysis problem is now to compute A from (4.16) first and once A is
known, HA can be found from (4.3) and EA from (4.17). EA can just as
easily be found from Maxwells equation (4.13) with J = 0 for regions out
side the source.

Exercise 4.1 Repeat the above formulation for a magnetic current source M and
vector potential F and show that:
• O2 F + k 2 F = −εM
• EF = − 1ε O × F
1
• HF = −jωF − j ωµε O (O · F )

When both electric and magnetic current sources exist (i.e. J 6= 0andM 6=
0), one has to compute {EA , HA } using J, and compute {EF , HF } using M
and then evaluate the total filed intensity components as

E = EA + EM
(4.18)
H = HA + HM

4.3 Solution of the Inhomogeneous Vector Poten-

tial Wave Equation
To solve for A (or F ) given the source J (or M ) respectively, let us assume
that a source with current density Jz , which in the limit is an infinitesimal
source, is placed at the origin of a (x, y, z) coordinate system, as shown in
Figure 4.2. Since the current density is directed along the z-axis (Jz ), only
an Az component will exist. Thus we can write (4.16) as

O2 Az + k 2 Az = −µJz (4.19)

At points removed from the source (Jz = 0), the wave equation reduces to

O 2 Az + k 2 Az = 0 (4.20)

Since in the limit the source is a point, it requires that Az is not a function
of direction (θ and φ); in a spherical coordinate system, Az = Az (r) where

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School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Nov. 2016.
 Class Notes on ECEG-4304
4.3. SOLUTION OF THE INHOMOGENEOUS VECTOR
Antennas
POTENTIAL
and Radio WAVE
Wave Propagation
EQUATION

Figure 4.2: Reference coordinate system.

r is the radial distance. Using definition of vector Laplacian in spherical

coordinate system
      
1 ∂ ∂V ∂ ∂V ∂ 1 ∂V
O2 V = 2 r2 sin θ + sin θ + ,
r sin θ ∂r ∂r ∂θ ∂θ ∂φ sin θ ∂φ
(4.21)
the equation in (4.20) can be written as
 
2 2 1 ∂ 2 ∂Az (r)
O Az (r) + k Az (r) = 2 r + k 2 Az (r) = 0 (4.22)
r ∂r ∂r

which when expanded reduces to

d2 Az (r) 2 dAz (r)

+ + k 2 Az (r) = 0 (4.23)
dr2 r dr

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School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
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Nov. 2016.
 Class Notes on ECEG-4304
4.3. SOLUTION OF THE INHOMOGENEOUS VECTOR
Antennas
POTENTIAL
and Radio WAVE
Wave Propagation
EQUATION

The partial derivative has been replaced by the ordinary derivative since A
z is only a function of the radial coordinate.
The differential equation of (4.23) has two independent solutions

e−jkr
Az1 (r) = C1 (4.24)
r
ejkr
Az2 (r) = C2 (4.25)
r
Equation (4.24) represents an outwardly (in the radial direction) traveling
wave and (4.25) describes an inwardly traveling wave (assuming an ejωt
time variation). For this problem, the source is placed at the origin with
the radiated fields traveling in the outward radial direction. Therefore, we
choose the solution of (4.24), or

e−jkr
Az (r) = Az1 (r) = C1 (4.26)
r
In the static case (ω = 0, k = 0), (4.26) simplifies to

C1
Az (r) = (4.27)
r
which is a solution to the wave equation of (4.23) when k = 0. Thus at points
removed from the source, the time-varying and the static solutions of (4.26)
and (4.27) differ only by the e−jkr factor; or the time-varying solution of
(4.26) can be obtained by multiplying the static solution of (4.27) by e−jkr .
In the presence of the source (Jz 6= 0) and k = 0, the wave equation of (4.19)
reduces to
O2 Az = −µJz (4.28)
This equation is recognized to be Poissons equation whose solution is
widely documented. The most familiar equation with Poissons form is that
relating the scalar electric potential φ to the electric charge density ρ. This
is given by
ρ
O2 φ = − (4.29)
ε
whose solution is ZZZ
1 ρ 0
φ= dv (4.30)
4πε r
V

where r is the distance from any point on the charge density to the obser-
vation point. Since (4.28) is similar in form to (4.29), its solution is similar
to (4.30), or ZZZ
µ Jz 0
Az = dv (4.31)
4π r
V

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School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Nov. 2016.
 Class Notes on ECEG-4304
4.3. SOLUTION OF THE INHOMOGENEOUS VECTOR
Antennas
POTENTIAL
and Radio WAVE
Wave Propagation
EQUATION

Equation (4.31) represents the solution to (4.19) when k = 0 (static case).

Using the comparative analogy between (4.26) and (4.27), the time-varying
solution of (3-31) can be obtained by multiplying the static solution of (4.31)
by e−jkr . Thus
e−jkr 0
ZZZ
µ
Az = Jz dv (4.32)
4π r
V

which is a solution to (4.19).

If the current densities were in the x- and y-directions (Jx and Jy ), the wave
equation for each would reduce to

O2 Ax + k 2 Ax = −µJx
(4.33)
O2 Ay + k 2 Ay = −µJy

with corresponding solutions similar in form to (4.32), or

µ −jkr
Jx e dv 0
RRR
Ax = 4π r
V (4.34)
µ −jkr
Jy e dv 0
RRR
Ay = 4π r
V

The solutions of (4.32) and (4.34) allow us to write the solution to the vector
wave equation of (4.16) as

e−jkr 0
ZZZ
µ
A= J dv (4.35)
4π r
V

If the source is removed from the origin and placed at a position represented
by the primed coordinates (x0 , y 0 , z 0 ), as shown in Figure 4.2(b), (4.35) can
be written as

e−jkR 0
ZZZ
µ
A(x, y, z) = J(x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) dv (4.36)
4π R
V

where the primed coordinates represent the source, the unprimed the
observation point, and R the distance from any point (x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) on the
source to the observation point (x, y, z).

Exercise 4.2 Repeat the above formulation for a magnetic current source M and
vector potential F and show that:
−jkR
ε
M (x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) e R dv 0
RRR
• F (x, y, z) = 4π
V

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School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
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Nov. 2016.
 Class Notes on ECEG-4304
4.4. FAR-FIELD RADIATION Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

If J represents a surface linear density m−1 , (4.36) reduces to a surface

integral, or
e−jkR 0
ZZ
µ
A= Js (x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) ds (4.37)
4π R
S

For an electric line current Ie , (4.36) reduces to a line of the form

e−jkR 0
Z
µ
A= Ie (x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) dl (4.38)
4π R
C

4.4 Far-Field radiation

The fields radiated by antennas of finite dimensions are spherical waves.
For these radiators, a general solution to the vector wave equation of (4.16)
in spherical components, each as a function of r, θ, φ, takes the general form
of
A = Ar (r, θ, φ) a~r + Aθ (r, θ, φ) a~θ + Aφ (r, θ, φ) a~φ (4.39)
The amplitude variations of r in each component of (4.39) are of the form

1 1 1
rn , n = 1, 2, 3, · · · . Neglecting higher order terms of rn rn ≈ 0, n = 2, 3, · · ·
reduces (4.39) to
 e−jkr
A ≈ A0r (θ, φ) a~r + A0θ (θ, φ) a~θ + A0φ (θ, φ) a~φ

,r → ∞ (4.40)
r
The r variations are separable from those of θ and φ.
Substituting (4.40) into (4.17) reduces it to
1n o 1
−jωe−jkr (0)a~r + A0θ (θ, φ) a~θ + A0φ (θ, φ) a~φ + 2 {· · · } + · · ·

E=
r r
(4.41)
The radial E-field component has no 1r terms, because its contributions from
the first and second terms of (4.17) cancel each other. Similarly, by using
(4.40), we can write (4.4) as
 
1 ω −jkr  0 0
 1
H= j e (0)a~r + Aφ (θ, φ) a~θ − Aθ (θ, φ) a~φ + 2 {· · · } + · · ·
r η r
q (4.42)
µ
where η = ε is the intrinsic impedance of the medium.
In far-field region, neglecting higher order terms of r1n , the radiated E- and
H-fields have only θ and φ components and they can be expressed as

Er ≈ 0  EA ≈ −jωA
Eθ ≈ −jωAθ =⇒ (for the θ and φ (4.43)
Eφ ≈ −jωAφ

components only)

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School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Nov. 2016.
 Class Notes on ECEG-4304
4.4. FAR-FIELD RADIATION Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

Hr ≈ 0
 a~r ω
 HA ≈ × EA = −j a~r × A
η η

ω Eφ
Hθ ≈ +j η Aφ = − η =⇒ (4.44)
ω Eθ  (for the θ and φ
Hφ ≈ −j η Aθ = + η 
components only)
Simply stated, the corresponding far-zone E- and H-field components are
orthogonal to each other and form TEM (to r) mode fields. The far-zone
(far-field) region for a radiator is defined in Figure 4.3. Its smallest radial
2
distance is 2Dλ where D is the largest dimension of the radiator.

Figure 4.3: Field regions of an antenna.

Reference
1. C. A. Balanis, Antenna theory - Analysis and design, Wiley, 4th ed.,
2016.

Ephrem Teshale Bekele (PhD), 9 of 9

School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
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Nov. 2016.