Photonic quantum information processing: A

concise review
Cite as: Appl. Phys. Rev. 6, 041303 (2019); https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5115814
Submitted: 20 June 2019 . Accepted: 16 September 2019 . Published Online: 14 October 2019

Sergei Slussarenko, and Geoff J. Pryde

COLLECTIONS

Paper published as part of the special topic on Quantum Computing

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Appl. Phys. Rev. 6, 041303 (2019); https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5115814 6, 041303

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 Applied Physics Reviews REVIEW scitation.org/journal/are

Photonic quantum information processing: A

concise review
Cite as: Appl. Phys. Rev. 6, 041303 (2019); doi: 10.1063/1.5115814
Submitted: 20 June 2019 . Accepted: 16 September 2019 .
Published Online: 14 October 2019

Sergei Slussarenkoa) and Geoff J. Prydeb)

AFFILIATIONS
Centre for Quantum Dynamics and Centre for Quantum Computation and Communication Technology, Griffith University,
Brisbane, Queensland 4111, Australia

Note: This paper is part of the Special Topic on Quantum Computing.

a)
Electronic mail: s.slussarenko@griffith.edu.au
b)
Electronic mail: g.pryde@griffith.edu.au

ABSTRACT
Photons have been a flagship system for studying quantum mechanics, advancing quantum information science, and developing quantum
technologies. Quantum entanglement, teleportation, quantum key distribution, and early quantum computing demonstrations were
pioneered in this technology because photons represent a naturally mobile and low-noise system with quantum-limited detection readily
available. The quantum states of individual photons can be manipulated with very high precision using interferometry, an experimental sta-
ple that has been under continuous development since the 19th century. The complexity of photonic quantum computing devices and proto-
col realizations has raced ahead as both underlying technologies and theoretical schemes have continued to develop. Today, photonic
quantum computing represents an exciting path to medium- and large-scale processing. It promises to put aside its reputation for requiring
excessive resource overheads due to inefficient two-qubit gates. Instead, the ability to generate large numbers of photons—and the develop-
ment of integrated platforms, improved sources and detectors, novel noise-tolerant theoretical approaches, and more—have solidified it as a
leading contender for both quantum information processing and quantum networking. Our concise review provides a flyover of some key
aspects of the field, with a focus on experiment. Apart from being a short and accessible introduction, its many references to in-depth articles
and longer specialist reviews serve as a launching point for deeper study of the field.
C 2019 Author(s). All article content, except where otherwise noted, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://
V
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5115814

TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION

I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 A. Optical quantum computing
A. Optical quantum computing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
With the invention of the quantum computing (QC) concept, the
B. Basics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
development of suitable optical quantum technology became both an
II. PHOTON TECHNOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
A. Detecting a photon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 interesting approach to the problem and a necessity. On the one hand,
B. Generating a photon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 the advantages of using photons as information carriers seem to be
C. Generating a photon deterministically . . . . . . . . . . 4 obvious: photons are clean and decoherence-free quantum systems for
D. Manipulating a photon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 which single-qubit operations can be easily performed with incredibly
E. Integrated quantum photonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 high fidelity.1 On the other hand, quantum information handling with
III. QUANTUM COMPUTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 photons as “flying qubits” is required for communication-based quan-
A. Intermediate quantum computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 tum information science tasks, such as networking quantum com-
B. Cluster-state based computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 puters and enabling distributed processing.
IV. NETWORKING QUANTUM PROCESSORS. . . . . . . . . 9 In terms of the traditional DiVincenzo criteria of a quantum
V. CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 computer,2 five out of seven are essentially satisfied by choosing

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photons. The remaining criteria are harder to satisfy because photons outlined by Reck et al.35 quite some time ago, with recent improve-
do not easily interact, making deterministic two-qubit gates a chal- ments36 and expansions.37 In principle, Reck-type schemes could per-
lenge. Among the additional technical considerations is photon loss, form universal processing with a single photon in many modes used
which arises from currently imperfect detection and photon genera- to represent multiple qubits. Unfortunately, that encoding leads to
tion techniques, and from scattering and absorption in optical compo- exponential scaling in the number of optical components, and thus
nents comprising the computation circuits. Although photons are cannot be used to build a scalable quantum computer. Thus, the use of
always flying, computing and networking tasks may need them to be multiple single photons is required for circuits with two-qubit gates
delayed or stored, so an extra device—an optical quantum memory— and beyond.
may sometimes be needed. Addressing each of these considerations It is natural, then, to implement one qubit per photon, with a
requires additional resources, creating a notionally large optical QC dual-rail encoding. Two-qubit operations require the ability to apply a
overhead that has sometimes led to negative perceptions of the pho- p phase shift rotation on one of the qubits depending on the state of
tonic approach. the remaining qubit.38 These are trickier to implement than single
Of course, there is intense research under way in the develop- qubit operations, since this is a nonlinear optical interaction, and such
ment of deterministic optical (but matter-mediated) quantum gates,3–5 optical nonlinearities, at the single photon level, are extremely weak.
which could take photonic quantum computing (PQC) in a new direc- An alternative is to mimic nonlinear operations with linear optics and
tion. Meanwhile, the idea of linear optical quantum computing measurement, resulting in a probabilistic gate that provides the correct
(LOQC) that relies on simple, but probabilistic, quantum operations operation after an appropriate postselection, or with an additional her-
has increasing promise as it has continued development over the last alding signal.
20 years. The earlier history of the field is covered in previous Historically, a variety of approaches to efficient optical quantum
reviews6–9 that have appeared regularly in the literature. Here, we do computing were discussed and investigated, for example Ref. 39 and
not provide a typical review—that is, we do not present a comprehen- references therein. However, the field of LOQC took off with the pro-
sive encapsulation of all the achievements of the field during the past posal of Knill, Laflamme, and Milburn (KLM),40 who invented a scal-
decade. Instead, we concentrate on the few technological, experimen- able photonic scheme that required linear optics components, single
tal, and theoretical advances that we think play key roles on the path photon detection, and classical feed-forward only (the reader may
toward a universal quantum computer operating with individual pho- enjoy reading Ref. 41 for comprehensive lecture notes and Ref. 7 for a
tons and linear operations. On the technology side, we look at photon historical overview of KLM). The KLM scheme essentially works by
detection and generation tools, and integrated waveguide technol- using nonclassical interference to generate a phase shift that is nonlin-
ogy—and some new intermediate quantum computing demonstra- ear with respect to the photon number, conditioned on photons
tions that these enable. On the conceptual side, we discuss a few appearing at certain heralding modes. These operations are then built
promising ways toward a realistic universal linear optical quantum into nondeterministic logical gates. The gates are used in a repeat-
computer. We will concentrate on photonic10 quantum computing until-success mode, and the operation of a successful gate is teleported
(PQC) that relies on qubits encoded in discrete variables, noting, how- onto the logical qubits. The use of a large number of concatenated
ever, that quantum computing with continuous variables has now steps, and lots of ancilla photons, leads to essentially deterministic
become an important part of LOQC.11–14 But before that, we start gates. The KLM scheme theoretically allowed for a resource-efficient
with a brief refresher on the basic conceptual elements and history of implementation of two- and multiqubit gates—unlike encoding a sin-
PQC. gle photon across many modes, the resource scaling was not exponen-
tial in the number of qubits, but rather linear. Thus the KLM scheme
B. Basics provides a pathway to build a universal quantum computer, albeit
A qubit can be encoded as probability amplitudes corresponding with a large overhead of ancilla qubits (and their associated circuitry)
to the photon occupation of two modes of some degree of freedom of to deal with the use of nondeterministic two-qubit gates. With the
the optical field. This method is known as dual-rail encoding. The advent of a viable theoretical approach, photonic quantum computing
most commonly used mode pairs are orthogonal polarizations or non- became the subject of extensive theoretical and experimental develop-
overlapping propagation paths, but recently, other degrees of freedom ment. As well finding approaches that reduce the overhead due to
such as transverse spatial,15–17 frequency mode,18–21 temporal bin- nondeterminism, making this scheme practical also requires high-
,22–25 and temporal mode-23,26–29 encoding are attracting attention. quality technological components to make, manipulate, and measure42
One-qubit operations—i.e., the shifting of single-photon population the photon qubits. We first turn our attention to these technology
between the two modes that comprise the dual-rail qubit, and applica- considerations.
tions of phase shifts between them—are easily and reliably imple-
II. PHOTON TECHNOLOGY
mented using interferometry in the degree of freedom of choice. A
great advantage of optical quantum computing is that it does not have A. Detecting a photon
to be confined to qubits: Many of the degrees of freedom listed provide A photon’s life in a quantum experiment starts with its genera-
a natural way to encode multilevel qudits. Moreover, several degrees of tion and concludes with its detection. Both processes need to be effi-
freedom of the same photon can be used simultaneously.30–34 (As we cient, and their performance and properties play essential roles in
will discuss later, these tools provide a natural advantage for optics, PQC. In this section, we start from the end—with a look at single pho-
allowing for simpler logical circuits even when working with qubits as ton detection43 technology.
the basic logical elements.) A way to realize an arbitrary n-dimensional An ideal photon detector (PD) clicks every time a photon hits it
unitary transformation on the mode space, with linear optics, has been and immediately restarts its operation. It does not produce false

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positive signals when no real photons were detected (so-called “dark transition-edge sensors (TESs),66 can be also employed in experiments
counts”) and it also tells exactly how many photons were detected in where photon number counting is essential. TES detectors work as
the same spatiotemporal mode. Such ideal photon detectors do not bolometers with single-photon-level resolution: Absorption near the
exist yet. Existing PDs are correspondingly characterized by detection superconducting transition changes the resistance of the device mono-
efficiency gd , reset time sR (that sets the maximum detection rate), tonically with the photon number, which can be read out through an
detection time jitter sj , dark count rate Cd , and photon-number- integrating circuit. TESs have excellent PNR skills:67 In recent experi-
resolving (PNR) capabilities. While a “perfect” PD is not actually ments, they were able to efficiently discriminate up to 20 photons in
required for PQC,44 improving the PD performance to very high levels the same spatiotemporal mode.68 At the same time, they have shown
is important for a realistic and scalable platform. to be able to reach gd  0:95 in the telecom wavelength range,69 with
Setting aside historical and exotic approaches, the PD of choice further developments leading to even higher gd  0:98,70,71 closely
for optical quantum information science experiments has been the Si approaching the ideal gd ¼ 1. TESs can also be optimized to any
avalanche photodiode (APD) operating in Geiger mode. These are rel- wavelength in the visible and IR ranges. A critical drawback of a TES
atively fast (sR  100 ns), low-noise (typical Cd  100 counts per sec- detector is its slow operation, with microsecond reset times and
ond) detectors. Unfortunately, their limited quantum efficiency,  50 ns time jitter. Efforts in improving TES time performance are
typically up to gd  65%, sets a practical limit on the number of pho- ongoing, with reset times as fast as sR  460 ns72 and time jitters of
tons that can be used simultaneously in an experiment. A probability down to sj ¼ 2:3 ns73 (for 775 nm photons) having been demon-
of detecting, say, ten photons with ten detectors is already less than strated. Still, these numbers are at least two orders of magnitude higher
2%, and things get exponentially worse with increasing photon num- than what might be considered practical for PQC, where clock cycles of
ber. Si APDs do not possess PNR capabilities45 and their maximum ⱗ10 ns are likely required for the practical switching of flying photons.
efficiency wavelength range is quite limited. In particular, it does not
cover the telecommunications bands around 1310 and 1550 nm. The B. Generating a photon
equivalent detector for 1550 nm, the InGaAs APD, suffers from lower Having exceptional detectors is not much use if one cannot effi-
quantum efficiency and higher dark counts. ciently make high-quality photons on which to encode qubits.
Inefficient detection was a significant limiting factor for PQC for Computing tasks in the near and long term requires the capabil-
quite some time. Things started to turn for the better with the advent ity of simultaneously generating a large74 (N  10  1011 ) number of
of superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors46,47 (SNSPDs). single photon states. The obvious way to achieve this is to have a large
These provided something close to a direct substitute for the usual (N  10  1011 ) number of deterministic sources that can simulta-
APDs: They have comparable (sR  40 ns) reset times, yet can achieve neously produce one and only one photon each at the push of a button
detection efficiencies of up to gd  0:93 (Ref. 48) [and recently even (i.e., on a trigger event). Moreover, these photons must necessarily be:
gd  0:95 (Ref. 49)] in the telecom wavelength range. SNSPDs work (a) efficiently collected so to be sent into the PQC processor and not
by passing a current though a superconducting nanowire close to the lost (e.g., by absorption, scattering, diffraction, or mode mismatch dur-
critical current—then, the energy absorbed from even a single photon ing the generation and fiber in-coupling process); (b) in a pure quan-
can transition the device to normal resistivity. The subsequent voltage tum state and indistinguishable from one another; and (c) compatible
spike is filtered and amplified, and registered as a detection. SNSPDs with the low-loss material and high-efficiency detection technology
are a bit more complicated to operate than APDs, as they require cryo- from above. At present, sources that properly satisfy this list do not
genic temperatures of 0.8 K–3 K (depending on the superconducting exist. However, truly deterministic, high-quality photon sources like
material), but the massive enhancement in detection efficiency justifies this are being developed using diverse physical systems,45 such as
the inconvenience. SNSPD performance can also be optimized to any trapped ions and atoms, color centers in diamonds, semiconductors,
wavelength by selecting the appropriate material and designing a suit- quantum dots,75 and other, more exotic, methods (e.g., Refs. 76–78).
able optical cavity that envelops the nanowire. They can also be Some of these rely on the use of a single emitter that, in principle, nat-
designed to efficiently interface with fiber-optic inputs. In short, urally provides on-demand single-photon emission, while others—
besides providing an enormous increase in detection efficiency, such as atomic ensemble79 and parametric nonlinear processes80—
SNSPDs have enabled operation at telecom wavelength that benefits require heralding signals and switching to make them so. (The
from previous development of optical materials and efficient photonic requirements for achieving deterministic operation in practice will be
tools. This detector performance is also beneficial for quantum com- considered Subsection II C.)
munication and other low-loss applications, e.g., Refs. 50–55. In the meantime, the key enabling technology for experimental
Research on superconducting detectors is still ongoing, aimed at quantum optics, spontaneous parametric downconverson81–83
understanding detection mechanisms in different types of nanowire (SPDC), remains a practical way to generate high-quality single pho-
materials,56–60 improving its performance in terms of reset times61 and tons nondeterminstically. Developments in this technology have effec-
time jitter,62,63 and developing new methods of accurate detection effi- tively addressed the feature list (a)–(c) above. In this three-wave
ciency measurements.64 Although intrinsic dark counts are low, mixing nonlinear vð2Þ process, a pump photon from a laser has a small
SNSPDs are susceptible to picking up background thermal radiation probability to be converted into a pair of “daughter” (signal and idler)
from the input fiber’s room-temperature environment—this can be photons. The process must obey the momentum (~ kp ¼ ~
ks þ ~
k i , phase
overcome by spectral filtering. matching) and energy (xp ¼ xs þ xi ) conservation laws, with ~ k n and
The key remaining limitation of this technology is the lack of xn, n ¼ p; s; i, being the wavevectors and angular frequencies of
PNR capability. While schemes that turn SNSPDs into PNR detectors pump, signal and idler photons, respectively. SPDC is probabilistic,
are being investigated,65 a different type of detector, based on but it can be used to produce “heralded” single photon (and more

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complex multiphoton84–87) states, where the presence of a photon is for spectral filtering. GVM at specific donwconversion wavelength sets
heralded by the detection of its twin. Alternatively, SPDC can produce is attained by selecting an appropriate nonlinear material—KTP
photon pairs that are naturally entangled in polarization,88 transverse (potassium titanyl phosphate) proved to be suitable for degenerate
spatial modes,15,89 or frequency.90,91 With modest effort, it is possible downconversion in the telecom region. Using GVM, a number of fre-
to produce photon pairs with entanglement in a time-bin encoding,22 quency uncorrelated,115,116 nondegenerate117 and degenerate indistin-
or even in multiple degrees of freedom simultaneously.92 guishable106,118–120 pure photon-pair sources at telecom wavelength
SPDC can be a simple and cost-effective way to get single pho- have been demonstrated. Combined with optimized mode matching
tons and (entangled) photon pairs but, in its original and simplest with the optical fiber121 and high efficiency detection technology in
form, it is far from an ideal photon source for PQC. Ongoing techno- the telelcom wavelength range, GVM allowed realization of pulsed tel-
logical development is changing that. Among the immense variety of ecom photon-pair sources that are simultaneously pure, highly effi-
SPDC-based sources that have been developed and reviewed over past cient and (if desired) entangled in a chosen degree of
years,45,93–95 we concentrate here on some advances that directly serve freedom.52,53,55,122 Further tailoring of the crystal’s nonlinearity pro-
realistic PQC. file123–125 provides photons that are fully uncorrelated in their spec-
A typical SPDC output from a simple, critically phase-matched, trum,126–128 completely removing the need for lossy spectral filtering.
bulk-crystal source88 is not compatible with efficient coupling into Investigation of the performance and limitations of periodically poled
single-mode optical fiber, because its transverse spatial profile is far SPDC sources continues129–132 and even tools for complete SPDC
from a Gaussian mode, resulting in coupling loss. Also, the twin pho- optimization are now available.133
tons are intrinsically entangled in frequency. This means that detection These developments have provided an enormous leap forward
of one photon—to herald the presence of another—without resolving for SPDC technology, helping it to get close to satisfying many of
its wavelength degrades the purity of the heralded photon.96 The spec- the criteria (a)–(c) for ideal photon generation. Heralding efficien-
tral filtering necessary to remove this entanglement adds even more cies jumped55,134 to above 0.8. The entangled state quality is harder
loss to the source. Moreover, traditional SPDC photon wavelengths sit to survey, because of the variety of figures of merit that are used.
around 800 nm, due to the standard use of Si APDs and compatible Focussing on a couple of standard ones, quantum state purities
with readily available pump laser wavelengths. At these wavelengths, over  0:997 (Ref. 135) have been observed, and entangled state
the material loss (e.g., in fibers) is significant, and detection efficiency qualities—equivalent to the fidelity136 with a maximally entangled
is limited. A typical experiment involving more than one photon pair state—above 0.99 have been achieved in the lab.52,135,137–139 These
would have heralding efficiency (probability of a heralded photon to high-performance sources have also allowed realization of impor-
successfully travel from a source to a detector and produce a click97) of tant experiments in entanglement verification52,140 and quantum
ⱗ10  15%, although some experiments report 30% (Ref. 98). metrology.55
Under these conditions, setting up several photon-pair sources allowed However, these advances relate to what happens when a photon
the creation of complex photonic states of up to ten photons,99 but the pair is generated—the pair generation process itself is probabilistic. In
low collective detection rates, and achievable state quality, limited the Sec. II C, we consider how SPDC or other technologies may be used to
long-term prospects of these sources. provide deterministic single photon generation.
A significant step forward was the application of quasiphase
matching100 (QPM), via periodically poled nonlinear crystals. This C. Generating a photon deterministically
expanded the range of possible phasematching wavelengths and emis- Photon-pair sources from SPDC and related processes—like
sion geometries101–104 and enabled collinear, beam-like downconver- spontaneous four-wave mixing (SFWM)141–144—are not only nonde-
sion in the telecom wavelength range. With both photons emitted into terministic but generally operate at low generation probabilities. In
an almost-single, almost-identical, almost-Gaussian spatial mode, the order to keep the single photon state quality high, pump powers have
mode-matching loss and fiber propagation loss could be kept very low, to be kept low; otherwise, multiple photon pairs will be generated at
leading to high heralding efficiencies. Using type-II phase matching the same time.145 This limits practical photon-pair generation proba-
meant that degenerate photons could be deterministically separated bility n, for SPDC and similar processes, to n ⱗ 1%. Directly combin-
with polarization optics. With the addition of interferometric schemes ing an array of n such sources (that will together produce n
to generate polarization entanglement,105,106 QPM SPDC sources simultaneous pairs with probability nn) to generate a larger quantum
could deliver entangled photon pairs with either continuous state is essentially not a viable option for a scalable photonic quantum
wave107,108 or pulsed laser pumps.109,110 computer.
There remained the need to remove the residual spectral entan- A more feasible alternative is to employ a deterministic photon
glement in downconverted photons. This was recently solved by source. In recent years, photon-on-demand sources based on quantum
applying the concept of group velocity matching (GVM).96,111,112 By dots,146 both free-space75,147,148 and integrated149–151 into optical
carefully engineering the relative group velocities of the pump, signal, waveguides, have demonstrated a significant increase in brightness,
and idler photons, and adjusting the pump laser bandwidth and SPDC enabling new quantum computation experimental demonstrations.152
crystal length, the joint spectrum of the daughter photons can be con- (It is worth noting that although quantum dots are usually assumed to
trolled. It can be arranged that the signal photon is in a single spectral provide single photons on demand, quantum dots can also generate
mode, and the idler photon is in a single spectral mode, to high fidelity. entangled photon pairs24,153–157 and superpositions of photon number
(Note that the photons do not need to be in the same spectral mode as states.158) Although quantum dots159 can couple to optical cavities
one another.) This technique provides photon pairs that are inherently with very high efficiency,148,160,161 a currently outstanding problem is
uncorrelated in their spectrum,113,114 and reduces or removes the need coupling light efficiently into single mode optical fibers, with present

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coupling efficiencies162 ⱗ33% (Ref. 163). Moreover, each quantum that impinges on a single nonlinear crystal and thus without increasing
dot is usually spectrally different from others due to structural and the amount of high-photon-number noise from multiple-pair genera-
environmental inhomogeneities, so the photons emitted by two dots tion events. (In principle, the network can also filter out multiple-pair
are distinguishable from each other. PQC relies on nonclassical inter- generation events if photon-number resolving detectors are used.)
ference, and the lack of indistinguishability makes it complicated to This concept,169,170 experimentally demonstrated in 2011 (Ref. 171),
increase the number of photons used simultaneously in an experiment. has moved significantly toward practicality since then,172–174 in part
One way to fix this is to tune the emission spectrum of different quan- because of the use of fiber- and waveguide-based integrated platforms
tum dots to make indistinguishable.164,165 Alternatively, a single quan- to help scaling.
tum dot can be used to generate all the required photons. For this, a Another method, that does not require multiple separate sources,
pulsed output stream of photons from the dot is demultiplexed into is to use time169,175,176 (or frequency177,178) multiplexing of a single
different spatial channels via a free-space166,167 or integrated168 active source.169,175,176 In the time multiplexing approach, shown in Fig.
optical network. The multiplexed photons are then each delayed by 1(b), a heralded photon pair is generated in a random time bin, but
appropriate amounts, so as to be output simultaneously from the the timing is recorded through detection of the heralding signal. The
source setup. heralded photons are sent into an active temporal delay network and
Similar active optical circuits can also, in principle, turn probabil- switched so as to exit the network at a fixed, although lower, repetition
istic sources such as SPDC into deterministic ones. To realize this, an rate. The number n of time bins that is used to output one single pho-
array of sources is used—see Fig. 1(a). Detecting the heralding signals ton plays the role of n sources in a spatial multiplexing scheme. Thus,
from such an array will label which source has successfully generated a the improvement in generation probability scales with the size of the
photon pair. Then, the corresponding heralded photon can be actively delay network, but is affected negatively by the loss in optical compo-
rerouted through an optical network toward the output, while other nents in it. This multiplexing idea has been recently implemented in a
photons, if generated, would be discarded by the same network. Using number of experiments, demonstrating multiplexing with large-
n sources, this way theoretically boosts the generation efficiency to scale,179 or large-scale and low-loss180 networks, or with devices that
nmulti ¼ 1  ð1  nÞn , ideally, without increasing the pump power produce indistinguishable output photons.181 The experimental dem-
onstration that includes all of these features182 produced single pho-
tons in the output fiber with a probability of 0:6, and these photons
displayed a nonclassical interference visibility 0:9. A more in-depth
look at near-deterministic sources can be found in Ref. 93.
Interesting preliminary work has also been done toward combin-
ing these kinds of techniques to simultaneously generate more than
one single photon at a time. The multiplexing approach can be applied
to more than one probabilistic source to generate states with one pho-
ton in each of N > 1 modes.183,184 An alternative method is to use an
optical quantum memory to synchronize several probabilistic sour-
ces.185 Although quantum memory might be as simple as a switchable
optical delay (in a free-space, fiber, or waveguide loop, for example),
there is also extensive theoretical and experimental development of
memories based on matter systems,186 with recent achievements
including but not limited to broadband,187,188 high-speed,189 multi-
mode,79,190 telecom-compatible,51,191 or configurable192 memories,
capable of storing vector-,193 vortex-,194 or entangled-51,190 qubits, and
storage with long coherence times195 and high storage efficiency196–198
and fidelity.199,200
Over the span of slightly more than a decade, photon detection
and the probabilistic generation of high-quality photons have under-
gone transformational advances, and the development of deterministic
FIG. 1. Schematic representation of two types of triggered photon sources based sources is well under way, with no in-principle barriers to their realiza-
on SPDC. (These concepts can be adapted to nondeterministic sources based on tion. (There are also other interesting advances, such as spectrally nar-
other technologies.) (a) Multiplexing scheme that combines multiple (here, four) rowband sources201 for metrology and fundamental physics
probabilistic photon sources to provided an increased brightness. Detectors (upper applications202 that we do not cover here.)
arms) are used to herald the production of a photon by one of the sources, which is
then switched into the output mode by some logic (e.g., a field-programmable gate
array) and switch array. Since there are multiple sources in parallel, this scheme D. Manipulating a photon
increases such as probability of having a photon in an appropriate time bin, without Thus, before proceeding to Sec. II E, we briefly turn our attention
increasing the probability of having more that one photon in that bin. With enough to technologies for manipulating photons for PQC. Precise and accu-
sources in parallel and with low loss, the arrangement can approach an ideal, deter-
rate control of photon’s polarization, path, or time-bin stat has always
ministic single photon source. (b) Triggered source that uses only one probabilistic
source and an active delay network. The network rearranges the generated pho- been the strength of PQC.203 Recently, this has been extended to per-
tons in time, so that they are output at a stable, although lower, repetition rate. This forming reconfigurable mode transformations in integrated quantum
scheme also provides a deterministic source, in principle. optics.204 Modern electro-optic elements, such as Pockels cells or

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integrated electro-optic modulators, allow fast polarization switching rate calculated in pairs per second per mode per unit of pump power)
sufficient perform rigorous Bell tests with locality and freedom of and high heralding efficiency. This is advantageous compared to bulk
choice loopholes closed52,140 or spatial mode switching for source mul- SPDC, where the spatial mode configuration for high brightness is dif-
tiplexing purposes.166–168 Efficient tools for manipulation of more ferent from the one that provides high heralding efficiency.121 Using
exotic degrees of freedom, such as frequency-time205 or transverse spa- integrated technology, efficient sources in the telecom wavelength
tial modes,206 are also being developed, including the techniques that range,226 including ones with GVM,227,228 have also been realized,
transfer information from one degree of freedom to another, such as leading to the development of a fully packaged, banana-sized,229 and
polarization to spatial transverse mode,16 discrete variable to continu- highly efficient photon-pair source and similar sources in a variety of
ous variable,207 frequency conversion,208 and so on. material platforms.230,231 Techniques have been demonstrated for
direct and practical characterization of nonlinear operations (like
E. Integrated quantum photonics SPDC) in integrated quantum photonics.232 Integrated optics has also
While introducing the relevant advances in photon detection and shown the capability of using more than one degree of freedom of a
generation technology, we mostly limited ourselves to the “bulk” photon.230
optics environment, with separate optical components sitting on a A number of materials for integrated optical components have
tabletop. As the scale of PQC demonstrations grows to larger numbers no vð2Þ nonlinearity, making them unsuitable for SPDC-based pho-
of photons and gates, the importance of technological scalability and ton-pair sources. In this case, a practical alternative is SFWM. It is a
miniaturization becomes increasingly apparent. Integrated waveguides vð3Þ nonlinear parametric process where two pump photons (degener-
and optical chips offer an obvious path to implementing circuits at ate or otherwise) are converted into two daughter photons (degenerate
scale, i.e., with huge numbers of components packaged compactly. or otherwise), conserving energy and momentum. Historically investi-
Thus, these technologies are now playing a significant role in the gated in optical fibers141–144 due to the isotropic nature of amorphous
field.209 Several characteristics are important for a waveguide platform: silica, this method is now commonly adopted in those integrated plat-
The achievable density of optical components; low propagation and forms where vð3Þ nonlinearities dominate.233,234 A GVM-like approach
coupling losses; and the ability and speed of active reconfiguration, for for controlling the joint spectrum of daughter photons was also subse-
example. It is also desirable to integrate sources and detectors onto the quently generalized to SFWM235 and implemented experimentally in
optical chip. fiber236 and on a chip.237 The scalability of the integrated optics
Different materials offer their own strengths and advantages approach allows one to fabricate arrays of nearly identical photon
for realizing a practical integrated quantum photonics platform. sources238,239 that are now actively used in PQC experiments in sili-
Femtosecond-laser-written waveguides (typically in a glass) sup- con.204 On the more technical side, a number of SFWM obstacles,
port polarization qubits210 and are not restricted to a 2D geometry, including the challenge of strongly filtering out the strong pump field
allowing realization of complex couplings in 3D interferometric from the generated photon field, have been overcome in recent
networks.211 Lithium niobate, a material that is already well estab- years.240,241 The interested reader can find more information on inte-
lished in classical integrated photonics, is an efficient and flexible grated probabilistic sources in Ref. 93 and on recent advances in GVM
platform for photon sources and fast switchable electro-optical bulk and waveguided sources in Ref. 94.
components operating at the gigahertz rates. Both ion-indiffused The rapid development of quantum integrated photonics is per-
and high-index-contrast etched waveguides are being developed haps most obvious in the growth in the scale, complexity and perfor-
and employed.150,168,212–215 Silicon-based optical chips offer high mance of optical circuits for one- and multiqubit operations. The first
component density, low loss, the ability or potential to integrate optical chips with path-242 and polarization-210,243 qubit encoding did
every necessary component, and compatibility with existing not immedaitely surpass the performance previously achieved with
foundry processes.216 An enormous range of other material plat- bulk optics244,245 (in repeating the factoring of 15 by a compiled Shor’s
forms are also under consideration. algorithm, for example Ref. 246) but emphatically demonstrated the
On the integrated detection front, a lot of work has been done217 promise of the integrated approach. Subsequent devices, and the appli-
in embedding SNSPDs into optical chips since the first demonstration cations they implemented, started to increase in complexity really
in 2011 (Ref. 218). This ongoing effort has already provided fast and quickly.247 This included increasing the number of interferometers on
efficient,219 low-noise,220 fast and low-noise,221 or low-noise, efficient a chip (Fig. 2) and adding slow or fast active phase212,248–250 and spec-
and fast222 (and even faster223) detection at telecom wavelength. tral215,251 controls in various waveguide platforms. These capabilities
Significant effort is being put into turning waveguided SNSPDs into have led to a realization of fully reconfigurable optical processors for
waveguided PNR detectors, see for example Ref. 213 and references an increasing number of optical modes.252 It has been observed that,
therein, and Ref. 65. Similar developments are happening on the TES for the moment at least, the number of components on integrated
integration side.224,225 quantum photonics chips is undergoing a Moore’s-law-like exponen-
The situation is even more vivid regarding integrated photon tial growth with time.253
sources. QPM-based downconversion, which now plays the key role in A challenge of integrated platforms is optical loss caused by
heralded photon and photon-pair generation, was in fact first demon- material absorption, waveguide roughness, and coupling onto and off
strated in fiber101 and integrated waveguides.102–104 An important chip. These are actively investigated by a variety of techniques includ-
advantage here is the transverse spatial confinement of the three ing: Improved materials (e.g., higher purity); moving to high-index-
(pump, signal, and idler) propagating optical modes along the entire contrast platforms where devices can be smaller (e.g., Ref. 214), by
length of the nonlinear material. This confinement allows construction integrating sources and detectors directly on chip. Modular architec-
of a photon-pair source with both high brightness (absolute generation tures are also being investigated.254

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FIG. 2. A circuit diagram of the multidimensional silicon quantum photonic circuit. Reprinted with permission from Wang et al., Science 360, 285–291 (2018). Copyright 2018
AAAS. The device monolithically integrates 16 photon-pair sources, 93 thermo-optical phase shifters, 122 multimode interferometer beamsplitters, 256 waveguide crossers,
and 64 optical grating couplers. A photon pair is generated by SFWM in superposition across 16 optical modes, producing a tunable multidimensional bipartite entangled state.
The two photons, signal and idler, are separated by an array of asymmetric Mach–Zehnder-Interferometer (MZI) filters and routed by a network of crossers, allowing the local
manipulation of the state by linear optical circuits. Triangular networks of MZIs perform arbitrary local projective measurements. The photons are coupled off the chip into fibers
by means of grating couplers, and are detected by two SNSPDs. See Ref. 204 for details.

III. QUANTUM COMPUTING development of individual quantum gates of increasing complexity in

The advent of the KLM scheme40 in 2001, with its proof of the the circuit model; the implementation small-scale quantum algorithms
scalability of optical processing, inspired a worldwide push toward a and nonuniversal circuits or clusters for them; the development of
universal quantum computer with photons. Of course, a full-scale simplifying and supporting techniques within the circuit and cluster-
error-corrected version could not be built at that time, and indeed a state models; and the advent of algorithms for sampling problems
universal quantum computer remains a challenging quest today in any based on the fundamental properties of bosons. Intermediate quantum
quantum system. The KLM scheme led to the development and computing research is helpful for optimization of the general schemes
improvement of a variety of photonic encodings, schemes for quan- for PQC, and for developing and testing of individual components of a
tum gates, and protocol and algorithm demonstrations.6–9 Circuit- future quantum computer.
based approaches, having evolved from KLM, continue to be an active
area of theoretical and experimental research as a path toward A. Intermediate quantum computing
intermediate-scale and universal quantum processors.
A significant development for PQC was the realization that the Photons can be readily and accurately manipulated at the single-
cluster-state model of quantum computing (also known as one-way qubit level—very high fidelity one-qubit gates can be constructed1
quantum computing)255 was well-suited to photon qubits.256 This is because of excellent optical mode control.252 Initially, particular attention
primarily because large cluster states257 can, in principle, be built effi- fell on the controlled-NOT (CNOT) gate to complete a universal gate set
ciently using entangled photon sources and teleportation gates of the in the quantum circuit model. Theoretical proposals for nondeterminis-
kind used in the KLM scheme. It is also important that photon mea- tic CNOT gates,259,260 demonstrating the basic measurement-induced
surements are easy to perform reliably, and because cluster state nonlinearity concept of KLM, were quickly followed by experimental
schemes can be made tolerant to photon loss, the primary source of CNOT demonstrations261,262 and characterizations.263,264 These were
noise in an optical environment. For these reasons, cluster state expanded to include heralded KLM-style265 and teleportation266-based39
schemes are widely viewed as offering a realistic path to scalable PQC. schemes.267 A number of proof of principle algorithms followed the early
As the development of universal PQC has continued, a number demonstrations of photonic gates.6 While using CNOTs to build arbi-
of intermediate goals have emerged, providing short- to medium-term trary unitary circuits is, of course, a working theoretical method, it is far
targets and a path toward full-scale devices. These include: The from optimal. This is because, for example, the decomposition of a

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three-qubit gate, such as the Toffoli gate, into one- and two-qubit opera- This general approach was used to experimentally realize arbi-
tions may require a large number of such gates.268 An alternative would trary controlled-single-qubit unitaries, a CNOT gate,274 and three-
be to look for ways of implementing gates that can operate on a larger qubit gates—namely the Toffoli271 and Fredkin (controlled-SWAP,
number of qubits directly. see Fig. 3)258 gates. It was also employed in experimentally implement-
An interesting and important class of arbitrary-scale quantum ing a number of quantum computing tasks, such as solving systems of
logic is the family of controlled-Unitary (CU) gates. In these, a (possi- two linear equations275 (this was also done without entanglement-
bly multiqubit) unitary operation acts or not—depending on the state based gates276) factoring 21 by a version of Shor’s algorithm (Ref.
of a control qubit—on the target qubits. CU gates are important in 277), measuring state overlaps and state purity,258 and eigenstate wit-
various computational tasks, for example the phase estimation algo- nessing for simple quantum algorithms.270 Entanglement-based gates
rithm that underlies Shor’s algorithm244,245 and in quantum chemis- are now also used in larger quantum circuits, including the ones real-
try.269,270 A key realization is that implementing the unitary operation ized in an integrated platform.270,278
U alone may be possible or even easy, but adding the control opera- The use of various photonic quantum gate architectures has
tion—i.e., conditional action—is difficult. allowed realization of a variety of intermediate scale simulations,
A general scheme for adding a control operation to an arbitrary implemented in bulk and integrated optics platforms. Among these279
unitary transformation was proposed in 2009 (Ref. 271). In this are spin chain simulation,280 calculating molecular ground-state ener-
method, given the unitary to be controlled, the Hilbert space dimen- gies,281 Hamiltonian learning282 and eigenstates witnessing,270 and
sionality of the incoming target qubits is first doubled by using some complex state transformations such as Fourier211,283 or Kravchuk284
auxiliary degree of freedom of the corresponding photons. Half of the transforms.
modes of each target qubit pass through the unitary, while the remain- A highly topical intermediate photonic quantum computing task
ing half bypass it. Then, the control qubit state is used to route the tar- is that of BosonSampling,285–292 which is an example of sampling-type
get qubits to either pass the unitary or bypass it, via the corresponding computational problems more generally.293 BosonSampling is a non-
modes. After that, the modes are recombined, so the Hilbert space is universal protocol for which there is strong theoretical evidence that a
shrunk to its original dimensionality. This effectively creates a CU gate. quantum advantage can be observed. Consider n single photons input
(The scheme can be simplified even further, by substituting Hilbert- into m  n optical modes, which are subjected to a random unitary
space-expanding gates with photon sources that generate entanglement operation on the mode space. It is classically computationally hard to
in the auxiliary degree of freedom. The term “entanglement-based” is obtain samples from the probability distribution representing where
usually used in the literature to describe these types of gates, which are the photons appear at the output. By contrast, photons (and other
not completely general due to the need to generate the initial entangle- bosons) traversing a unitary on the mode space perform this calcula-
ment, but can be useful at circuit inputs.) This overall method is partic- tion naturally. Interestingly, the same quantum-classical performance
ularly suitable for optical quantum computing, because high divide exists even if the photons are allowed to arrive at random inputs
dimensional systems, multiple degrees of freedom, and means of trans- of the circuit.294 It is thought that better-than-classical BosonSampling
fering information between them are readily available. Moreover, theo- performance may be achieved with 50–100 photons, promoting the
retical studies also highlighted that adding control to arbitrary unitary idea that this system could well provide the first rigorous experimental
gates is generally impossible for matter-based qubits,272,273 so the demonstration of a quantum computational advantage. Nevertheless,
method demonstrates a benefit of using fields to quantum compute. challenging constraints on photon loss and other noise still need to be

FIG. 3. An optical quantum Fredkin. Reprinted with permission from Patel et al., Sci. Adv. 2, e1501531 (2016)]. Copyright 2016 Author(s), licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 NonCommercial License. The Fredkin (or controlled-SWAP) gate uses the method of adding control to an arbitrary untiary operation. Entangled photons are pro-
duced in BBO (beta-Barium borate) crystals via SPDC. The control qubit is encoded into modes 1B and 1R, target 1 is encoded on modes 2R and 2B, and target 2 is encoded
on modes 1G and 1Y. The control circuit consists of a polarization beam displacer interferometer. The path-entangled state, required for the Fredkin operation, is produced after
each target photon enters a displaced Sagnac interferometer and the which-path information is erased on a nonpolarizing beam splitter. Quarter-wave plates and half-wave plates
encode the target qubits’ input state. Successful operation is heralded by fourfold coincidence events between the control, target, and trigger detectors. See Ref. 258 for details.

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met to achieve this goal.134,295,296 Recent reviews95,293 cover conceptual shown theoretically that missing links and nodes (e.g., due to fusion
and experimental aspects of the topic in more detail. failures or optical loss) in the constructed cluster state need not be
Intermediate quantum computing is likely to lack fully fledged problematic. As long as their prevalence is below a certain threshold,
error correction. Thus, photon loss and noise in PQC will need to be percolation theory can be used to reshape the entangled state and per-
controlled by other methods. One prominent approach being investi- form universal computation.317,318 The percolation operation corre-
gated for NISQ297 (noisy intermediate-scale quantum devices) is sponds, roughly, to a classically efficient relabeling of the cluster.
machine learning (ML). ML provides a method to work with quantum Furthermore, error correction for fault-tolerant quantum operations
protocols operating in an environment of unknown or uncharacter- seems achievable, especially given modest loss thresholds.310,319–321
ized noise, or where the full ab initio modeling of the protocol is In principle, cluster states can be generated and processed (via
intractable,298 and can be applied to PQC and other systems.299 The adaptive measurement) on the fly, without the need to store photons
flip side to ML helping quantum computation by controlling noise is in an optical quantum memory. This is known as ballistic cluster state
the hope that quantum computers can enhance ML for other applica- computing.322 In this scheme, an array of sources and simple circuits
tions, possibly even in the NISQ regime.297 Other relevant proposals produce entangled photons at each time step—these photons are
for ML quantum applications include long-distance quantum commu- entangled together to produce a 3D cluster where each layer represents
nication300 or metrology.301,302 Experimental demonstrations of ML a generation step in time. It has been shown that the depth of the clus-
application to quantum information science have recently started to ter that needs to exist at any time is only of the order of a few tens of
appear, too.282,303–305 photons.323 In this case, given a suitably small number of faults in the
cluster, the computation can proceed indefinitely in principle, with the
B. Cluster-state based computing source array continuing to make new cluster layers at each time step
In conventional PQC, uncorrelated input qubits are processed by and detectors measuring a layer at each step.
a complicated quantum circuit of one-, two-, three-, and many-qubit Ongoing theoretical and experimental research on photonic clus-
gates (which in turn can be decomposed to one- and two-qubit gates). ters and ballistic schemes is also addressing many technical details
Here, generating many uncorrelated photonic qubits is considered the (e.g., optimal cluster geometry, error correction schemes, and sources
“easy” part of the problem, and the logical circuit does the “hard”306 designed for cluster generation). However, it is emerging that photonic
task of performing the computation. An alternative approach is one- cluster schemes, and closely related ideas, are extremely plausible
way (or cluster-state) quantum computing.255,256,307 In one-way com- approaches for realizing universal quantum computers.320
puting, a hard-to-make, highly entangled multiphoton state is sent In summary, in the span of less than two decades, photonic
into an easy-to-implement processing circuit that consists only of quantum information science has matured immensely. New photon
single-qubit operations, measurements, and classical feed-forward.6,308 generation and detection technologies have enormously improved the
The key idea is that, in the absence of deterministic two-photon opera- efficiency and quality of photonic quantum states. Integrated circuits
tions, the cluster state can be built up offline using nondeterministic grew from a simple demonstration of a beam splitter to massively mul-
interactions, and then the computation progresses via those determin- timode reconfigurable circuits. The number of photons simultaneously
istic single-qubit operations for which optics is especially suited. used in experiments has grown, from 2 to 4 up to 12 (Ref. 291).
Follow-up development showed how to create cluster states more Overall, experimental PQC is steadily moving toward the major goal
efficiently,309 leading to significantly reduced resource requirements of universal quantum computing and theoretical PQC is steadily pro-
(characterized as Bell-pairs per effective two-qubit gate, a metric of gressing toward more resource-efficient and noise-tolerant schemes.
PQC overhead; smaller $ better) compared to many other optical In parallel, nonuniversal quantum computation schemes such as
schemes. The one-way computing approach is also more tolerant to BosonSampling are also rapidly scaling up toward the demonstration
losses, compared to KLM.310 Since the first experimental demonstra- of the true quantum computational advantage over classical
tion of the essentials of one-way quantum computing,311 considerable computers.
steps have been made toward making larger cluster states,291,312 dem-
IV. NETWORKING QUANTUM PROCESSORS
onstrating larger computing networks,313 and improving the feed-
forward performance.314 A type of one-way-based computing, where PQC is strongly interlinked with other optical quantum informa-
the computer cannot determine the input data and performs the com- tion tasks. On the one hand, quantum phase estimation algorithms,
putation blindly but correctly, has also been demonstrated.315 used in e.g., Shor’s algorithm and a number of intermediate quantum
Developments in the theory of optical one-way computing have driven computing schemes (as in Ref. 281), are also useful in quantum-
increasingly realistic schemes for large-scale photonic quantum enhanced metrology.324–327 On the other hand, quantum communica-
computing. tion is essential for building a distributed quantum processor from
Indeed, recent theoretical developments suggest that cluster- interlinked quantum computers. Flying fast, photons (or other optical
based quantum computation may be a more realistic approach toward states) are the obvious way to transmit quantum information. Thus,
the future photonic quantum computer than gate-based models. photonic quantum interconnects can naturally be tasked with interfac-
There are a number of key advantages to a cluster-state approach. One ing remote systems and, perhaps, local processing cores. Optical con-
concerns the way that clusters are built, through progressive nondeter- nections make sense regardless of the quantum system chosen for
ministic fusion operations309,316 that seek to merge two smaller processing, but using photonic processing means that the interconver-
entangled states into a larger one. The key point is that the failure of sion between a stationary and a flying qubit can be skipped. (Indeed,
the nondeterministic operation slightly reduces the sizes of the initial quantum teleportation—an entanglement-based protocol used in
entangled states, but does not destroy them.309 In fact, it has been communication—also plays a key role in a number of PQC

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approaches.39,40) Nevertheless, it may be that there is some need to V. CONCLUSION

adjust the spectral properties of photons between the communication Our short review has only touched briefly on other PQC ele-
and the processor, and ways to do this are being investigated for a vari- ments including error correction in photonic schemes,355 optical
ety of different interconversion wavelengths, and photon-carrying and quantum memories, and algorithms and protocols. There is also a
generating architectures.208,328–333 broad range of related research that is beyond our immediate scope,
Creating verified communication links capable of sharing and including other qubit or qudit encodings—such as single-rail,6,356 par-
transmitting entanglement is essential for networking quantum ity state,6,357 continuous-variable,13,358–360 and hybrid207,361—as well
computers, and also quantum secure communication, small as other source and detector technologies. Some of these techniques
communication-based processing tasks (quantum communication are also promising in terms of resource use and scalability. Instead, we
complexity334,335), and quantum networks for distributed metrol- have covered technologies and methods that are the main focus of the
ogy.336 A major step in entanglement verification and distribution experimental development of photonic (Fock-state) quantum infor-
was the experimental implementation of loophole-free Bell tests, mation processing in the medium term, and provided a firm founda-
executed with photonic52,140 and matter qubits.337 Besides defini- tion for the development of large-scale devices.
tively showing local realistic explanations of entanglement are not There is significant promise for the long term. Improvements in
viable, these tests confirmed that entanglement can now be rigor- cluster-state schemes designed specifically for photonics are providing
ously verified in a loophole-free manner, opening the road to the a reduction in the overhead (from nondeterminism) and in error
unconditionally secure device-independent protocols (e.g., Ref. thresholds—especially for loss. In conjunction, exceptional quality
338). A remaining challenge is enabling these protocols in the sources, detectors, and gates—and large-scale integrated platforms—
presence of very high loss in a communication channel used to dis- are providing the hardware advances required to build processors
tribute the entanglement. As in PQC, loss is the predominant comprising very many elements. Intermediate tasks like
source of added noise that degrades entanglement. BosonSampling provide a path to demonstrating a true quantum com-
One can neglect the loss by postselecting only on successful puting advantage sooner rather than later. Photonics continues to be
detection events; however, such experiments do not offer device- the dominant platform for connecting processors separated by dis-
independent security or a quantum advantage in metrology. tance and for remote entanglement sharing, in general.
Unfortunately, the no-cloning theorem forbids creation of identi- There remain other potentially transformational technologies for
cal backup copies of unknown quantum states to be used if a pho- photonic processing. We have only touched briefly on nonlinear inter-
ton is lost. A state-independent attempt to amplify a qubit or qudit actions at the single-photon level—mediated by atoms, for example.
(i.e., to boost the photon number to its original value) would inevi- Such schemes, applied at scale, could massively reduce the overhead of
tably lead to the degradation of the state purity. Noiseless amplifi- “linear plus measurement” approaches. However, there remain signifi-
cation can only be performed in probabilistic manner—consistent cant research and development required to capitalize on their promise.
with noise reduction being a nonunitary process—and produces a In the meantime, or perhaps in their stead, the convergence of techno-
wrong output upon failure. Fortunately, heralded amplification logical performance and theoretical requirements in photonic linear
(also known as noiseless linear amplification, NLA) is possible: In optics is pointing to a bright future for photon processing.
this probabilistic scheme, successful amplification events are her-
alded by an independent photon detection signal, allowing them to
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
be sorted from the failed trials.203 Heralded amplification can be
used to distribute entanglement in the presence of loss—even with This work was conducted by the ARC Centre of Excellence for
the detection loophole closed, in principle. Since the first demon- Quantum Computation and Communication Technology under
strations,339–341 NLA has been actively researched in both the Grant No. CE170100012.
discrete-variable (photon) and continuous-variables communities.
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