FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

LAB REPORT

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

EME1066

TRIMESTER 2 (2019/2020)

Experiment 1: Tensile Stress

Prepare by:

NAME STUDENT ID
DHANUSH MAHENDRAN 1151101042

Date of Experiment : 15 January 2020

Date of Submission : 22 January 2020

Name of Lecturer : Mr. Kang Chi Keng

OBJECTIVE

i. To estimate the stress () and strain () of the materials.

ii. To study the stress and strain behavior of the materials using  diagram.
iii. To study the various regions of the  diagram.
iv. To determine the Young’s Modulus or the Modulus of Elasticity.
v. To study the ductile behavior of the materials.

THEORITICAL BACKGROUND

Stress is the amount of forces, strength or energy that is being exerted on an object divided by its
cross-sectional area to account for size.

F
σ=
A

σ , is the stress , F , is Force , A , is the cross-sectional area

Strain is defined as how much can object deform when forces are applied to it.

ΔL
ε=
L
ε , is the strain , ΔL , is change in length , L , is the original length

The stress-strain diagram generally exhibit linear relationship between the stress and strain in the
elastic region. If the stress increases, the strain also increases and the slope of the linear region
gives the Young Modulus or the Modulus of Elasticity. The connection between the stress, strain
and the Young Modulus can be expressed mathematically and called as Hooke’s Law that is:
σ =Eε

σ
E=
ε
E , is the Young Modulus , σ , is the stress , ε , is the strain

Stress-strain curve is a behavior of material when it is subjected to load. In this diagram stresses
are plotted along the vertical axis and as a result of these stresses, corresponding strains are
plotted along the horizontal axis. The stress-strain diagram differs in form for various materials.
As shown below in the stress strain curve.

Figure 2: Stress-Strain Curve

Based on the figure 2, there are many different points that indicated the stages before a material
fracture as subjected to tensile test. These stages are:

A. Proportional Limit (value of stress which stress-strain curves become no linear)

 B. Elastic Limit (greatest value of stress at which no permanent deformation occurs upon
unloading)
C. Yield Point (value of stress at which there is a significant increase in strain with little or
no increase in stress)
D. Ultimate Stress Point (the maximum stress a material is capable of developing)
E. Breaking Point (point where strength of material breaks)

Figure 3: More in depth details of stress-Strain Curve

Fracture is defined as separation of a body into pieces due to stress, at temperatures below the
melting point. The steps in fracture are crack deformation and crack propagation. The ability of
material to undergo plastic deformation is depended before the fracture two fracture modes can
be defined. The two modes of fracture are ductile and brittle.

A ductile material is an extensive plastic deformation and energy absorption before fracture. The
crack is “stable” meaning; its resists further extension unless applied stress is increase.
Meanwhile, brittle materials having a little plastic deformation and low energy absorption before
fracture and the crack is “unstable” which propagates rapidly without increase in applied stress
as shown in figure 3.

Figure 4: Fracture graph

Example of materials fracture shown in figure 4:

 Brittle fracture Ductile fracture

Figure 5: Examples of material fracture

APPARATUS

1. Pull Tester Machine 2. Vernier Calliper

3. 4 types of materials ( (1)brass, (2)copper, (3)aluminium, (4)steel )

 1 2 3 4

METHODOLOGY

The lab experiment requires us to use the pull tester provided as shown in figure 6 to determine the
mechanical properties of materials under static pull conditions.

Figure 6: Pull Tester

 1. Machine Base.
2. Support with cross-head
3. Load Frame with upper
4. Lower cross-member
5. Hydraulic system consisting of a main cylinder
6. Master cylinder with a hand wheel
7. Force gauge
8. Elongation gauge
9. Clamper for holding the workpiece
10. Workpiece
11. Hand Grips.

PROCEDURE

1. Measure and record the initial length and the diameter of the aluminium material. To be more
precise, take three times of the reading and find the average.

2. Connect the aluminium material to the pull tester. Make sure to connect it tightly as it might
affect the result.

3. Make sure force display and the elongation display via a dial gauge is turn to zero before start
the experiment. At the force display, there are two pointers which is black and red, make sure to
turn both of the pointers to zero.

4. Turn the hand wheel slowly and record the force for every 0.1mm elongation.

5. After a while, increase the interval of 0.1mm to 0.2mm and 0.5mm.

6. Continue turn the wheel until the material break apart.

7. Tabulate the data and plot the graph.

8. Repeat the step 1 to 7 by using steel, brass and copper.

RESULTS

Material: Steel

Diameter: 0.49 mm

Initial length: 25mm

Cross sectional area: 1885.74 mm

Extension Force Stress

Strain
(mm) (kN) (N/mm2)

0.10 4.4 2.3333 0.004

0.20 10 5.3030 0.008

0.30 12.2 6.4696 0.012

0.40 12.5 6.6287 0.016

0.50 12.6 6.6817 0.020

0.60 12.6 6.6817 0.024

0.70 12.6 6.6817 0.028

0.80 12.5 6.6287 0.032

0.90 12.3 6.5226 0.036

1.00 12.2 6.4696 0.040

1.10 12 6.3635 0.044

1.20 11.9 6.3105 0.048

1.30 11.8 6.2575 0.052

1.40 11.7 6.2045 0.056

1.50 11.3 5.9923 0.060

1.60 11.2 5.9393 0.064

1.70 11 5.8333 0.068

 1.80 10.6 5.6211 0.072

1.90 10.5 5.5681 0.076

2.00 10.2 5.4090 0.080

2.10 9.9 5.2499 0.084

Material: Aluminium

Diameter: 0.52 mm

Initial length: 25mm

Cross sectional area: 2123.72 mm

Extension Force Stress

Strain
(mm) (kN) (N/mm2)

0.20 4.5 2.1189 0.008

0.40 4.7 2.2131 0.016

0.60 4.7 2.2131 0.024

0.80 4.7 2.2131 0.032

1.00 4.8 2.2602 0.040

1.20 4.8 2.2602 0.048

1.40 4.8 2.2602 0.056

1.60 4.8 2.2602 0.064

1.80 4.8 2.2602 0.072

2.00 4.8 2.2602 0.080

2.20 4.8 2.2602 0.088

2.40 4.8 2.2602 0.096

2.60 4.8 2.2602 0.104

 2.80 4.8 2.2602 0.112

3.00 4.6 2.1660 0.120

3.20 4.5 2.1189 0.128

3.40 4.4 2.0718 0.136

3.60 4.3 2.0247 0.144

3.80 4.2 1.9777 0.152

4.00 4.1 1.9306 0.160

4.20 4 1.8835 0.168

Material: Copper

Diameter: 0.53 mm

Initial length: 25mm

Cross sectional area: 2206.18 mm

Extension Force Stress

Strain
2
(mm) (kN) (N/mm )

0.05 3.5 1.5865 0.002

0.10 6.2 2.8103 0.004

0.15 6.4 2.9009 0.006

0.20 6 2.7196 0.008

0.25 5.9 2.6743 0.010

0.30 5.8 2.6290 0.012

0.35 5.7 2.5837 0.014

0.40 5.6 2.5383 0.016

0.45 5.5 2.4930 0.018

 0.50 5.4 2.4477 0.020

0.55 5.3 2.4023 0.022

0.60 5.2 2.3570 0.024

0.65 5.1 2.3117 0.026

0.70 4.9 2.2210 0.028

0.75 4.5 2.0397 0.030

0.80 4.3 1.9491 0.032

Material: Brass

Diameter: 0.50 mm

Initial length: 25mm

Cross sectional area: 1963.50 mm

Extension Force Stress

Strain
(mm) (kN) (N/mm2)

0.10 6.2 3.1576 0.004

0.20 8.2 4.1762 0.008

0.30 8.6 4.3799 0.012

0.40 9.1 4.6346 0.016

0.50 9.4 4.7874 0.020

0.60 9.4 4.7874 0.024

0.70 9.4 4.7874 0.028

0.80 9.4 4.7874 0.032

0.90 9.4 4.7874 0.036

1.00 9.5 4.8383 0.040

 1.10 9.5 4.8383 0.044

1.20 9.5 4.8383 0.048

1.30 9.6 4.8892 0.052

1.40 9.6 4.8892 0.056

1.50 9.9 5.0420 0.060

1.60 9.9 5.0420 0.064

1.70 9.9 5.0420 0.068

1.80 10.1 5.1439 0.072

1.90 10.1 5.1439 0.076

2.00 10.1 5.1439 0.080

2.10 10.1 5.1439 0.084

2.20 10.1 5.1439 0.088

2.30 10.1 5.1439 0.092

2.40 10.1 5.1439 0.096

2.50 10.1 5.1439 0.100

2.60 10.1 5.1439 0.104

2.70 10.2 5.1948 0.108

2.80 10.2 5.1948 0.112

DATA ANALYSIS
 8

0
0.000 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060 0.070 0.080 0.090

Stress-strain graph curve for steel

From the Stress-strain graph curve for steel above the Young’s modulus was calculated to be
35700MPa. This was done by calculating the slope of the above graph as the slope is also equal
to stress over strain which is also the Young’s Modulus. The breaking point for steel was at an
extension of 2.10mm and at a maximum load of 9.9kN.
 2.3

2.2

2.1

1.9

1.8

1.7

1.6
0.000 0.020 0.040 0.060 0.080 0.100 0.120 0.140 0.160 0.180

Stress-strain graph curve for aluminium

The Young’s Modulus of Aluminium was calculated to be 22200MPa from the graph above. The
breaking point of Aluminium is 4kN at an extension of 4.2mm.
 3.0000

2.5000

2.0000

1.5000

1.0000

0.5000

0.0000
0.000 5.000 10.000 15.000 20.000 25.000 30.000 35.000 40.000 45.000 50.000

Stress-strain graph curve for copper

The Young’s Modulus of Copper was found out to be 31800MPa from the graph above. Its
breaking point is 4.3kN at an extension of 0.8mm.
 6

0
0.000 10.000 20.000 30.000 40.000 50.000 60.000 70.000

Stress-strain graph curve for brass

The Young’s Modulus of brass was found out to be 21100MPa from the above graph. The
breaking point of Brass is 10.2kN at a 2.8mm extension.
DISCUSSION

Problems encountered with and while doing the experiment. The problems are:

1. When applying large forces, the equipment can be pull-tester machine begin to flex,
resulting to inaccurate data that was taken.
2. Factor of creep can cause materials to fail at a stress and also contribute to strain
3. Did not break at the midpoint where it was supposed to and this could have had a
negative effect on our readings and the calculations of stress, strain and Young’s
Modulus.

The stress-strain graphs are shown that Brass is a brittle material. The Brass has the highest
tensile stress compares to other materials, thus it is the hardest material. The linear region has
higher gradient than the other materials, which means that it has high Young’s Modulus or the
Modulus of Elasticity. It also indicates that it has the highest capability to resist elastic
deformation.

Based on the stress-strain graphs, it shows that copper, aluminum, and Steel are the ductile
materials. Copper has the highest tensile stress while the aluminum has the lowest tensile stress
among the ductile materials. Thus, copper is the hardest material among the ductile materials
since it can withstand large forces whereas the aluminium is the softest material since it easily
breaks when a large force was applied. The linear region of the Aluminium has lower gradient
than the other materials, which means that it has the lowest Young’s Modulus or the Modulus of
Elasticity. It also indicates that it is easily deformed before it fractured.

From the observation of the fracture surface of the materials, we can also determine the modes of
fracture of the materials. The Brass, the brittle material has a flat shape on its fracture surfaces
while the ductile material, which are Copper, Aluminum, and Steel have a “cup” and “cone”
shape on their fracture surface.
 Figure 7: The elongation takes place on the steel when force is applied.

Figure 8: Brass, the brittle material has a flat shape on its fracture surface
Figure 9: Copper, the ductile material has a “cup” and “cone” shape on their fracture surface

Figure 10: Steel, the ductile material has a “cup” and “cone” shape on their fracture surface
 Figure 11: Aluminium, the ductile material has a “cup” and “cone” shape on their fracture
surface

CONCLUSION

Brass is a brittle material as it has a much higher tensile strength and Young’s Modulus. Among
the ductile materials which are Copper, Aluminum, and Steel. Aluminium experiences high
ductility rates than Copper and Steel due to its small values of Young’s Modulus. Since Copper
has higher tensile strength and Young’s Modulus, it is tougher than the other ductile materials.