C H A P T E R T W E L V E

PLUMBING FUNDAMENTALS

Pumping devices have been an important way of moving

12.1 BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEMS fluids for thousands of years. The ancient Egyptians invented
water wheels with buckets mounted on them to move water for
Tidbits from Plumbing History irrigation. Over 2000 years ago, Archimedes, a Greek mathe-
Nearly 4000 years ago, the ancient Greeks had hot and cold matician, invented a screw pump made of a screw rotating in a
water systems in buildings. The Minoan Palace of Knossos on cylinder (now known as an Archimedes screw). This type of
the isle of Crete had terra cotta (baked clay) piping laid beneath pump was used to drain and irrigate the Nile Valley.
the palace floor. These pipes provided water for fountains and The beginnings of modern plumbing began in the early
faucets of marble, gold, and silver that offered hot and cold run- 1800s, when steam engines became capable of supplying water
ning water. Drainage systems emptied into large sewers con- under pressure and inexpensive cast iron pipes could be produced
structed of stone. Surprisingly, although hot and cold water to carry it. Still it was considered unhealthy to bathe. In 1835,
systems were in place, for the Spartan warrior it was unmanly the Common Council of Philadelphia nearly banned wintertime
to use hot water. bathing (the ordinance failed by two votes). Ten years later,
The first storm sewers of Rome were built about 2800 Boston prohibited bathing except on specific medical advice.
years ago. Over 2000 years ago, the Romans had in place Finally, it was through observation of several cholera epi-
highly developed community plumbing system in which water demics in the mid-1800s that epidemiologists finally recog-
was conveyed over many miles by large aqueducts. Water was nized the link between sanitation and public health. This
then distributed to residences in lead pipes. By the 4th century discovery provided the thrust for modern water and sewage sys-
C.E., Rome had 11 public baths, over 1300 public fountains and tems. In 1848, England passed the national Public Health Act,
cisterns, and over 850 private baths. which later became a model plumbing code for the world to
The Roman plumber was an artisan who worked with follow. It mandated some type of sanitary disposal in every res-
lead. Both male and female plumbers soldered, installed, and idence such as a flushing toilet, a privy, or an ash pit.
repaired roofs, gutters, sewers, drains, and every part of the In America, like Europe, colonial hygiene and sanitation
plumbing supply, waste, and storm drainage systems. The term were poor. Colonial bathing consisted of infrequent baths in
plumbing is derived from the Latin word plumbum for lead ponds or streams. New World settlers emulated the Native
(Pb). Historians theorize that lead leaching into drinking water Americans’ discharge of waste and refuse in running water,
from water supply pipes and lead from other sources poisoned open fields, shrubs, or forests. As in Europe, colonials living in
the Roman aristocracy, contributing to the decline of the town would empty their chamber pots by tossing excrement out
Roman Empire. the front door or window onto the street. As early as 1700, local
King Minos of Crete owned the world’s first flushing ordinances were passed to prevent people from throwing waste
water closet with a wooden seat and a small reservoir of water, in a public street. Eventually, use of the privy or outhouse
over 2800 years ago. In the Far East, archaeologists in China re- slowly became accepted.
cently uncovered an antique water closet in the tomb of a king of Drinking water in colonial America came from streams,
the Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.E. to 24 C.E.). It was complete rivers, and wells. It was commonly believed at the time that
with running water, a stone seat, and a comfortable armrest. foul-tasting mineral water had medicinal value. Around the
The decline of the Roman Empire and an outbreak of time of the American Revolution, Dr. Benjamin Rush, a signer
deadly bubonic plague that killed an estimated one-third of the of the Declaration of Independence and surgeon general under
European population during the Middle Ages resulted in the George Washington, had the bad fortune of having a well with
decline of public baths and fountains. The period from 500 to horribly tasting water at the site of his Pennsylvania home.
1500 C.E. was a dark age in terms of human hygiene; commu- Townspeople rushed to his well to get drinking water in hopes
nity plumbing became almost nonexistent. At the end of the that its medicinal value would cure ailments. Unfortunately,
Middle Ages, London’s first water system was rebuilt around when Dr. Rush’s well dried out from overuse, it was discovered
1500. It consisted partly of the rehabilitated Roman system too late that the well was geologically connected underground
with the remainder patterned off of the Roman’s design. to the doctor’s privy.

393
394 CHAPTER 12

Boston and later New York built the country’s first water- valves, and fixtures are discussed in this chapter because they
works to provide water for firefighting and domestic use about relate to the water supply and sanitary drainage systems.
1700. The wooden pipe system, laid under roads, provided
water at street pumps or hydrants. Water pipes were made of
bored-out logs. Wooden pipes were common until the early 12.2 WATER: THE SUBSTANCE
1800s, when the increased pressure required to pump water into
rapidly expanding streets began to split the pipes. In 1804, Any study of a plumbing system must begin with the substance
Philadelphia earned the distinction as the first city in the world it carries, water. Water is the name given to the liquid com-
to adopt cast iron pipe for its water mains. Chicago is credited pound H2O. A molecule of water is composed of one oxygen
with having the first comprehensive sewerage project in the atom and two hydrogen atoms. In a pure state, it is tasteless and
United States, designed in 1885. odorless. The physical properties of water are provided in
Inside running water and toilets were not common in the Tables 12.1 and 12.2.
U.S. home until well into the mid-1900s. The Census of 1910 Under standard atmospheric pressure (14.696 psi,
indicated that only about 10% of American homes had inside 101.04 kPa), the boiling point temperature of water is 212°F
running water. Farms during that time relied on well water, (100°C). The temperature at which water boils decreases with
with many powered by hand pumps and windmills. lower atmospheric or system pressure and increases at higher
pressures. Thus, the temperature at which water boils de-
creases with elevation increase. For example, at standard
Modern Plumbing Systems
atmospheric conditions at an elevation of 5000 ft (1524 m)
Modern cities have sophisticated water delivery and waste- above sea level, water boils at 202.4°F (94.7°C). It boils at
water treatment systems. In buildings, the plumbing system 193.2°F (89.6°C) at 10 000 ft (3048 m) above sea level. The
performs two primary functions: water supply and waste dis- freezing point of water is 32°F (0°C).
posal. A complete plumbing arrangement consists of a water
supply system, a sanitary drainage system, and a wastewater Fundamental Units
treatment system. Several fundamental units describe the properties and behavior
The water supply system consists of the piping and fit- of water in building plumbing systems. Customary and SI unit
tings that supply hot and cold water from the building water conversions for water based on weight, pressure, flow, and vol-
supply to the fixtures, such as lavatories, bathtubs, water clos- ume are provided in Table 12.3.
ets, dishwashers, clothes washers, and sinks. Water supply de- The following are definitions of the fundamental units.
sign is introduced in Chapter 13.
The waste disposal system consists of the piping and fit- Specific Weight (Density)
tings required to take that water supplied to the fixtures out of
the building and into the sewer line or disposal field. This sys- Specific weight (w) or density is weight per unit volume. Water
tem is typically referred to as a sanitary drainage system or density varies with temperature; it is most dense at 39°F (4°C).
drain, waste and vent (DWV) system. Design of the sanitary Below this temperature, crystals begin to form, increasing its
drainage system is introduced in Chapter 14. volume and therefore decreasing its density. Water attains a
Because of environmental concerns, wastewater treat- specific weight of 62.42 lb/ft3 (1.00 kg/L) at a temperature of
ment is also an important component of waste disposal from 39°F (4°C). Above and below 39°F, water is less dense; for ex-
building plumbing systems. Although most buildings rely upon ample, the specific weight of water at 80°F (27°C) is 62.2 lb/ft3
district or community water treatment plants to dispose of their (0.996 kg/L). A specific weight of 62.4 lb/ft3 (1.00 kg/L) is
sewage, some buildings and facilities operate their own opera- commonly used for liquid water in engineering computations.
tions. These are generally known as septic or on-site sewage
Specific Gravity
treatment (OSST) systems. OSST systems are introduced in
Chapter 15. The specific gravity (s.g.) of a fluid or solid is the ratio of the
Essentially, a plumbing system is a network of pipes, fit- specific weight of the fluid or solid to the specific weight of
tings, and valves that carry and control flow of supply water and water at a temperature of 39°F (4°C), the temperature at which
wastewater to and from points of use known as fixtures. Fixtures water is most dense (62.42 lb/ft3 or 1.00 kg/L). It is a compari-
are components, receptacles, or pieces of equipment that use son of its weight with the weight of an equal volume of water.
water and dispose of wastewater at the point of water use. Materials with a specific gravity less than 1.0 are less dense
Piping is a series of hollow channels that carry water to and than water (e.g., oil) and will float on pure water; substances
wastewater from plumbing fixtures. Fittings are used to connect with a specific gravity more than 1.0 are denser than water and
lengths of pipe in the piping network. Valves are used to regulate will sink. The specific gravity of water is assumed to be 1.0 at
or control flow of water. Types of plumbing pipes, fittings, common plumbing system temperatures.
 TABLE 12.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LIQUID WATER.

Specific
Temperature Specific Volume Specific Weight Gravity Weight
3 3 3 3
°F °C ft /lb m /kg lb/ft kg/m — lb/gallon kg/L

32 0 0.01602 0.001000 62.41 999.7 1.000 8.344 1.000

40 4.4 0.01602 0.001000 62.42 999.9 1.000 8.345 1.000
50 10.0 0.01602 0.001000 62.41 999.7 1.000 8.343 1.000
60 15.6 0.01603 0.001001 62.37 999.1 0.999 8.338 0.999
70 21.1 0.01605 0.001002 62.31 998.0 0.998 8.329 0.998
80 26.7 0.01607 0.001003 62.22 996.6 0.997 8.318 0.997
90 32.2 0.01610 0.001005 62.12 995.0 0.995 8.304 0.995
100 37.8 0.01613 0.001007 62.00 993.1 0.993 8.288 0.993
110 43.3 0.01617 0.001009 61.86 990.9 0.991 8.270 0.991
120 48.9 0.01620 0.001012 61.71 988.5 0.989 8.250 0.989
130 54.4 0.01625 0.001014 61.55 985.9 0.986 8.228 0.986
140 60.0 0.01629 0.001017 61.38 983.1 0.983 8.205 0.983
150 65.6 0.01634 0.001020 61.19 980.1 0.980 8.180 0.980
160 71.1 0.01640 0.001024 60.99 977.0 0.977 8.154 0.977
170 76.7 0.01645 0.001027 60.79 973.7 0.974 8.126 0.974
180 82.2 0.01651 0.001031 60.57 970.2 0.970 8.097 0.970
190 87.8 0.01657 0.001035 60.34 966.6 0.967 8.067 0.967
200 93.3 0.01664 0.001039 60.11 962.8 0.963 8.035 0.963
210 98.9 0.01671 0.001043 59.86 958.9 0.959 8.002 0.959
212 100.0 0.01672 0.001044 59.81 958.1 0.958 7.996 0.958

TABLE 12.2 BOILING POINTS, BAROMETRIC READINGS, AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURES OF WATER AT VARIOUS ALTITUDES.

Altitude
(Above Sea Level) Barometer Reading Atmospheric Pressure Boiling Point
Ft m in Hg mm Hg psi kPa °F °C

1000 305 31.0 788 15.2 104.8 213.8 101.0

500 152 30.5 775 15.0 103.4 212.9 100.5
0 0 29.9 760 14.7 101.4 212.0 100.0
500 152 29.4 747 14.4 99.3 211.1 99.5
1000 305 28.9 734 14.2 97.9 210.2 99.0
1500 457 28.3 719 13.9 95.8 209.3 98.5
2000 610 27.8 706 13.7 94.5 208.4 98.0
2500 762 27.3 694 13.4 92.4 207.4 97.4
3000 914 26.8 681 13.2 91.0 206.5 96.9
3500 1067 26.3 668 12.9 88.9 205.6 96.4
4000 1219 25.8 655 12.7 87.6 204.7 95.9
4500 1372 25.4 645 12.4 85.5 203.8 95.4
5000 1524 24.9 633 12.2 84.1 202.9 94.9
5500 1676 24.4 620 12.0 82.7 201.9 94.4
6000 1829 24.0 610 11.8 81.4 201.0 93.9
6500 1981 23.5 597 11.5 79.3 200.1 93.4
7000 2134 23.1 587 11.3 77.9 199.2 92.9
7500 2286 22.7 577 11.1 76.5 198.3 92.4
8000 2438 22.2 564 10.9 75.2 197.4 91.9
8500 2591 21.8 554 10.7 73.8 196.5 91.4
9000 2743 21.4 544 10.5 72.4 195.5 90.8
9500 2896 21.0 533 10.3 71.0 194.6 90.3
10 000 3048 20.6 523 10.1 69.6 193.7 89.8
15 000 4572 16.9 429 8.3 57.2 184.0 84.4

395
396 CHAPTER 12

TABLE 12.3 CONVERSIONS FOR WATER BASED ON WEIGHT,

PRESSURE, FLOW, AND VOLUME. Example 12.1
Raw sewage is found to weigh 60.5 lb/ft3. Determine its spe-
Weights
cific gravity.
1 U.S. gallon of water 8.3357 pounds s.g.  60.5 lb/ft3 >62.42 lb/ft3  0.969
1 cu. foot of water 62.3554 pounds
1 imperial gallon of water 10.0 pounds
1 liter of water 2.2 pounds
Volume
Volume
Volume (V) is the amount of space occupied by a substance.
1728 cubic inches 1 cubic foot
Water volume is typically expressed in cubic inches (in3) or cubic
231 cubic inches 1 gallon
27 cubic feet 1 cubic yard feet (ft3) in the customary system, and in cubic meters (m3) or
1 cubic foot 7.48052 gallons liters (L) in the SI system. In plumbing system design, volume is
1 cubic yard 202 gallons commonly expressed in gallons (g or gal). There are 7.48 gallons
16 drams 1 ounce in a cubic foot (ft3). A gallon is approximately 3.8 L.
1 pint 16 ounces
2 pints 1 quart
32 ounces 1 quart Volumetric Flow Rate
8 pints 1 gallon
4 quarts 1 gallon Volumetric flow rate (Q), frequently called the flow rate, is the
1 gallon 3.785 liters volume of a substance that passes a point in a system per unit of
1 gallon 0.00379 cubic meters time. Flow rate is usually expressed in liters per second (L/s),
1 gallon 0.833 imperial gallon
liters per minute (L/min), or cubic meters per second (m3/s) in
1000 liters 1 cubic meter
1 liter 0.2642 gallon the SI system. In the customary system, volumetric flow rate is
27.154 gallons 1 acre inch expressed in cubic feet per second (cfs or ft3/s), cubic feet per
325 851 gallons 1 acre foot minute (cfm or ft3/min), gal per second (gps or g/s), and gal per
1 000 000 gallons 3.0689 acre feet minute (gpm or g/min).
1 acre foot 43 560 cubic feet
Volumetric flow rate (Q) may be determined with volume
Volume Formulas (V) and time:
Q  V>time
Volume of a cube WLH (width · length · height)
Volume of a pyramid 1/3LAbase
Volume of a sphere 5236D3
Volume of a cylinder πLD2> 4 Example 12.2
Flows a. Determine the volumetric flow rate, in gpm, for water
flowing out of a faucet based on 2 gal in 23 s.
1 gallon/minute 0.002228 cubic foot/second
1 gallon/minute 0.13368 cubic foot/minute Q  V>time  2 gal>(23 s  (1 min>60 s))  5.2 gpm
1 gallon/minute 8.0208 cubic foot/hour
1 gallon/minute 0.06309 liters/second b. Determine the volumetric flow rate, in L/s, for water flow-
1 gallon/minute 3.78533 liters/minute ing out of a faucet based on 6 L in 8 s.
1 gallon/minute 0.0044192-acre feet/24 hours
1 cubic foot per second 448.83 gpm Q  V>time  6 L>(8 s  (1 min>60 s))  45 L/s
1 liter per second 15.85 gpm
1 acre inch per hour 452.57 gpm A faucet supplying water at a volumetric flow rate of
1 acre foot per day 226.3 gpm
5 gpm will fill a 5 gal bucket in exactly 1 min or a 1 gal bucket
1 000 000 gallons per day 694.4 gpm
1 cubic foot per second 0.992 acre inches/hour in 12.5 s (one-fifth of a minute). In plumbing system design,
volumetric flow rate is found by multiplying the area of the
Pressure inside diameter of the pipe carrying the water by the average
velocity of the flowing water.
1 atmosphere 33.94 feet of water @ 62°F
1 atmosphere 14.6963 pounds/square inch
1 pound per square inch 2.31 feet of head Velocity
1 pound per square inch 27.7612 inches of water
1 foot of head 0.433 pounds/square inch Velocity is the rate of linear motion of a substance in one direc-
1 inch of water column 0.0360 pounds/square inch tion. The magnitude of velocity, known as speed, is usually
1 kilogram/sq. centimeter 14.22 pounds/square inch
expressed in terms of distance covered per unit of time. In
1 foot of water 62.3554 pounds/square foot
the customary system of weights and measures, velocity is
PLUMBING FUNDAMENTALS 397

expressed in inches per second (in/s) or feet per second (ft/s). inside diameter) carrying water at a volumetric flow rate of
In the international system of measure (the SI system), velocity 40 L/min.
is expressed in meters per second (m/s).
v  21.22Q>Di2  (21.22  40 L/min)>(19.9 mm)2  2.14 m/s
In a fluidic system such as a plumbing system, water
velocity is expressed as an average velocity because water
molecules each have different speeds and directions of travel; Pressure
that is, water molecules flowing in the center of a pipe tend Pressure (P) is the force per unit area exerted by liquid or gas
to travel faster than water molecules at or near the inner wall on a surface such as the sidewall of a container or pipe. In the
of the pipe. customary system of measure, pressure is expressed in pounds
Average velocity (v) of a fluid (such as water) flowing per square inch (lb/in2 or psi) or pounds per square foot (lb/ft2
through a pipe may be found by the following equations based or psf). In the international system (SI), pressure is expressed in
upon average volumetric flow rate (Q) and cross-sectional area Newton per square meter or the Pascal (N/m2 or Pa). Although
(A) or inside diameter (Di). Units must be consistent in these units of lb/in2 are dimensionally correct, the acronym “psi” will
equations (e.g., volume, area, and diameter must be expressed be used for pounds per square inch of gauge pressure because it
in units of in, ft, m, and so on). is universally accepted in the plumbing industry. The acronym
v  Q>A  4Q>π Di2 “psia” will be used for absolute pressure.
Standard atmospheric pressure (Ps) is the typical baro-
The following equation, in customary units, is useful in metric pressure of air at sea level and 70°F (21°C). It is equal
plumbing system design. It may be used to find the average ve- to 14.696 psia (101 325 Pa). Atmospheric pressure varies
locity (v) of a fluid flowing through a pipe, in ft/s, based on the with weather conditions and elevation. In Denver, Colorado,
volumetric flow rate (Q), in gpm, and an inside diameter (Di) of atmospheric pressure is about 11.8 psia because Denver is
the pipe, in inches: about a mile above sea level; it is above about 20% of the
v  0.409Q>Di2 earth’s atmosphere.
Gauge pressure (Pg) is the pressure of a fluid (gas or liq-
uid) excluding pressure exerted by the atmosphere. Pressure
can be expressed in terms of absolute and gauge pressure:
Example 12.3 Absolute pressure (Pa) is the pressure of a fluid (gas or liquid)
Determine the average velocity for water flow in a pipe under including pressure exerted by the atmosphere:
the following conditions: Pg  Ps  Pa
3
a. A ⁄4 in diameter, Type L copper tube (0.875 in outside di- Consider the following example, which illustrates the
ameter and 0.785 in inside diameter) carrying water at a difference between absolute and gauge pressures.
volumetric flow rate of 10 gpm.
v  0.409Q>Di2  (0.409  10 gpm)>(0.785 in)2  6.6 ft/s Example 12.5
b. A 2 in diameter, Schedule 40 chlorinated polyvinyl chlo- a. At sea level, atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia (101 325 Pa).
ride (CPVC) pipe (2.375 in outside diameter and 2.047 in A pressure gauge placed at the bottom of an 8 ft (2.45 m)
inside diameter) carrying cold water at a volumetric flow deep tank filled with water measures a water pressure at
rate of 40 gpm. the tank bottom of 3.5 psi (24 130 Pa). Determine the ab-
v  0.409Q>Di2  (0.409  40 gpm)>(2.047 in)2  3.9 ft/s solute and gauge pressure.
Gauge pressure at the bottom of the tank is 3.5 psi
(24 130 Pa).
The following equation, in SI (metric) units, may be used
to find the average velocity (v) of a fluid flowing through a Absolute pressure at the bottom of the tank is 18.2 psia, as
pipe, in m/s, based on the volumetric flow rate (Q), in L/min, found by:
and an inside diameter (Di) of the pipe, in mm: Pg  Ps  Pa
v  21.22Q>Di 2 3.5 psi  14.7 psi  18.2 psia
(24 130 Pa  101 325 Pa  125 455 Pa)
b. At sea level, atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia (101 325 Pa). A
Example 12.4 bicycle tire (at sea level) is inflated to 50 psi (344 737 Pa). De-
termine the gauge and absolute pressures in the inflated tire.
Determine the average velocity for water flow in a 20 mm di-
ameter copper tube (21.4 mm outside diameter and 19.9 mm The inflated tire has a gauge pressure of 50 psi (344 737 Pa).
398 CHAPTER 12

The inflated tire has an absolute pressure of 64.7 psia Water vapor pressure is the contribution of water vapor to the total
(446 062 Pa) because: pressure exerted by a gas. In buildings, this gas is atmospheric air.
A difference in pressure in a system is required for a fluid
Pg  Ps  Pa
to flow; for example, a pump increases the pressure of the
50 psi  14.7 psia  64.7 psia liquid passing through it, thereby causing flow. Flow will always
(344 737 Pa  101 325 Pa  446 062 Pa) be from a high-pressure region to a low-pressure region. Pres-
sure difference is the driving force behind water flow. An
c. In Denver, atmospheric pressure is about 11.8 psi (81 358 Pa).
increase in pressure difference will increase flow.
A bicycle tire (in Denver) is inflated to 50 psi (344 737 Pa).
Determine the gauge and absolute pressures in the in-
flated tire.
12.3 WATER SUPPLY
The inflated tire has a gauge pressure of 50 psi (344 737 Pa).
The inflated tire has an absolute pressure of 61.8 psia Water Sources
(426 095 Pa) because:
A supply of good water is more important to human survival than
Pg  Ps  Pa food. Potable is clean water that is suitable for human drinking. It
50 psi  11.8 psia  61.8 psi must be available for drinking, cooking, and cleaning. Nonpotable
water may be used for flushing water closets (toilets), irrigating
(344 737 Pa  81 358 Pa  426 095 Pa)
grass and gardens, washing cars, and for any use other than drink-
ing, cooking, or cleaning. An abundant supply of potable water
that is easily distributed is vital to a prosperous economy.
A gauge is frequently used to record the pressure differ-
Rain and snowmelt are the sources of most of the water
ence between the system and the atmospheric pressure. Nor-
available for our use. When it rains or a snowfield melts, water
mally, if pressure in a system is below atmospheric pressure, it
flows into streams and rivers or soaks into the ground. By defi-
is called vacuum pressure or a suction pressure. It is expressed
nition, surface water is the rain that runs off the surface of the
as a negative gauge pressure.
ground into streams, rivers, and lakes. Groundwater is water
Saturation vapor pressure is the pressure that water vapor
found below the surface of the earth. It is water that has perco-
molecules exert when the air is fully saturated at a given tem-
lated through porous soil until it reaches an impervious stra-
perature. Saturation vapor pressure is directly proportional to
tum, upon which it collects.
the temperature: it increases with rising temperature and falls
with decreasing temperature.
Surface Water
In plumbing systems there are three additional classifica-
tions of pressure: Static pressure is the pressure that exists Surface water readily provides much of the water needed by
without any flow. It is the pressure available at a location in cities, counties, large industry, and others. However, this source
the system. Residual pressure is the pressure available at a fix- is dependent on recurring rain. During a long period of drought,
ture or outlet during a period of maximum demand. It is the the flow of water may be significantly reduced. Reservoirs hold
pressure that exists after pressure losses from friction from surface water during periods of high runoff and release water
water flow, elevation change, and other pressure losses in the during periods of low runoff. Surface water is typically treated
system are subtracted. Discharge pressure is the pressure of the to provide the potable water required. Where nonpotable water
water at the point of discharge, such as at the mouth of a show- may be used, no treatment of the water is necessary.
erhead, faucet, or hose bibb. Surface water can be collected in a storage tank called a
The constituent gases that make up a mixture of gases cistern. A cistern can fill with rainwater as it drains from the
such as air each exert a partial pressure that contributes to the roof of a building or a more elaborate collection system. Col-
total pressure exerted by the gas mixture. For example, atmos- lected water is then pumped into the supply line of the building
pheric air consists of about 75% nitrogen, by weight, so 75% of for use. (See Figure 12.1.) The need for water is so important
the total pressure exerted by atmospheric air is from the nitro- on certain islands that the government has covered part of the
gen constituent. Thus, under standard conditions (14.696 psia), land surface (usually the side of a mountain or a hill facing the
the partial pressure of nitrogen is 11 psia, 75% of the total pres- direction from which the rains usually come) with a plastic film
sure. The partial pressure of a constituent gas in a mixture of so rain can be collected and stored for later use.
gases equals the pressure it would exert if it occupied the same In remote buildings without a collection system, a tank
volume alone at the same temperature. truck can deliver water and fill a cistern periodically. Some vol-
Water vapor pressure is the pressure that the water vapor unteer fire departments partially fund their operations by deliv-
molecules alone exert in air. It is based on the amount of water ering water to remote residences that rely on a cistern for their
vapor that exists in the air. Like all constituent gases in air, water supply of domestic water. This is common in mountain homes
vapor exerts a pressure, which is known as vapor pressure. that do not have access to public water service or a well.
PLUMBING FUNDAMENTALS 399

FIGURE 12.1 A cistern is a reservoir that holds drinking water.

Groundwater
Groundwater seeps through the soil and is trapped on impervi-
ous stratum, a layer of soil or rock that water cannot pass
through. The water collects in pores of permeable stratum;
a layer of porous earth that water can pass through such as
sands, gravels, limestone, or basalt. Saturated permeable stratum
capable of providing a usable supply of water is known as
an aquifer.
Groundwater can be captured at many layers below a
building site—that is, there may be several aquifers at different
depths. Very deep-lying groundwater can remain undisturbed
for thousands or millions of years. However, most groundwater
lies at shallower depths. An aquifer can serve as an under-
ground reservoir with almost unlimited capacity. However, if
water is removed from the aquifer at too rapid a rate, the water
level may drop so drastically that groundwater can no longer be
reached. (See Figure 12.2.)
The level of groundwater is referred to as the water table.
The distance from the ground surface to the water table is re-
ferred to as the water table depth. Depth of a shallow water
table can vary considerably. Generally, shallow water table
depth will vary with amount of rain. During a long dry spell,
the water table depth will usually drop and during the rainy sea-
son it will likely rise. Depth of a water table can also change ar-
tificially by seepage from a nearby stream, lake, reservoir, or
irrigation ditch.
Because the water table is formed by an accumulation of FIGURE 12.2 Groundwater can be captured at many levels below
water over impervious stratum, the availability of water follows a building site. A saturated permeable stratum capable of holding a
the irregular path of the stratum. At one location the water table usable supply of water is known as an aquifer.
may be close to the surface while dropping well below the sur-
face nearby. The underground supply of water flows approxi-
mately horizontally. If it reaches a low spot in the ground in the stratum, the water will be forced upward creating an
surface, it may outflow as a spring or seep out creating a artesian well.
swampy area. If the flowing underground water becomes con- Groundwater may require treatment to be potable, but
fined between impervious strata, significant pressure may be often it does not. When treatment is required, it is generally
built up. Under this condition, if the water pressure is released less treatment than is required when making surface water
by drilling through the top stratum or through a natural opening potable.
400 CHAPTER 12

Impurities in Water animal pasture). A written analysis of the test or a standardized

form is included with the test results, indicating whether the
All water sources contain some impurities. It is the type and water is potable or not.
amount of these impurities that affect water quality and suit-
ability for a particular use. Whenever animal or human fecal
material connects with a water source, it is possible one or more Drinking Water Standards
pathogenic (disease-causing) microorganisms could invade
The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) was originally passed by
the water source. Chemicals and toxins can also contaminate
Congress in 1974, and amended in 1986 and 1996. Its purpose
the water source such as agricultural runoff (e.g., pesticides,
is to protect public health by regulating the nation’s public
herbicides, and so forth) and industrial runoff (e.g., metals,
drinking water supply. The SDWA authorizes the U.S. Environ-
mine tailings, and so on). Some toxic bacteria can spawn algae
mental Protection Agency (EPA) to set national health-based
in warm, shallow water and turn it green.
standards for drinking water to protect against both naturally
Surface water generally contains larger quantities of tur-
occurring and human-made contaminants that may be found in
bidity (cloudiness) and bacteria than groundwater. Ground-
drinking water.
water generally contains higher concentrations of dissolved
In the United States, the National Primary Drinking
chemicals. Seawater contains high concentrations of dissolved
Water Regulations are legally enforceable mandatory standards
chemicals and some microscopic organisms. As surface water
that apply to public water systems and that protect public health
runs over the ground, it may pick up various organic sub-
by limiting the levels of contaminants in drinking water. A par-
stances. These include algae, fungi, bacteria, vegetable matter,
tial list of contaminants in drinking water, maximum accept-
animal decay and wastes, fertilizer, garbage wastes, and
able levels, common sources of contaminants, and potential
sewage. This contaminated runoff returns to the river, lake, or
health effects from ingestion of water is provided in Table 12.4.
reservoir. Unless treated, these waters remain tainted and are
These standards apply to public water systems that provide
not potable.
water for human consumption through at least 15 service con-
As groundwater percolates down through the soil, it dis-
nections, or regularly serve at least 25 individuals. Public water
solves minerals such as calcium, iron, silica, sulfates, fluorides,
systems include municipal water companies, homeowner asso-
and nitrates, and may also entrap gases such as sulfide, sulfur
ciations, schools, businesses, campgrounds, and shopping malls.
dioxide, and carbon dioxide. It may also pick up contamination
The National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations are
from public or private underground garbage and sewage
guidelines regulating contaminants that may cause undesirable
wastes. Generally, as it percolates, it will filter out any organic
cosmetic effects (such as skin or tooth discoloration), aesthetic
matter that may have been accumulated at the surface or in
effects (e.g., taste, odor, or color) and other characteristics (e.g.,
the ground.
corrosivity, pH) in drinking water. These secondary contami-
Characteristics of water sources will vary greatly. Impuri-
nants include metals (e.g., copper, aluminum, iron, manganese,
ties in the surface water and groundwater may be harmful, of
silver, and zinc) and other chemicals (e.g., chloride, fluoride,
no importance, or even beneficial to a person’s health. To deter-
sulfate, and so on). Individual states may choose to adopt these
mine what is in the water, it must be tested.
secondary standards as enforceable standards.
Water Testing
All potable water supplies should be tested and certified before Water Treatment
being put in use and periodically recertified during use. The Water quality and taste vary considerably from place to place,
governmental entity (e.g., special district, city, municipality, depending on the water source of the area, the chemical and
and so forth) that controls the supply of water to a community bacteria contents of the water, and the amount and type of treat-
regularly tests its water to be certain it is potable. Testing of ment given the water before it is put into the system.
private water supplies, such as wells and streams, is the respon- Potable water can have an objectionable odor and taste
sibility of the property owner or user. The responsible govern- and even be cloudy and slightly muddied or colored in appear-
mental health entity often refers the users of private water ance. Although the odor, taste, or appearance of potable water
supplies to independent testing laboratories. may not mean you want to drink it, it is still safe to drink. Sev-
The test for potable water provides a chemical analysis of eral methods are used to improve water quality and taste:
the water, indicating the parts per million (ppm) of each chem-
ical found in the water. A separate test is made for bacteriolog- • Problems with undesirable taste and odor are over-
ical quality of the water, providing an estimate of the density of come by use of filtration equipment or by aeration of
bacteria in the water supply. Of particular concern in this test is the water.
the presence of any coliform organisms, which indicate that the • Bacteria are destroyed by the addition of a few parts
water supply may be contaminated with human or animal per million of chlorine. The taste of chlorine is then re-
wastes (perhaps seepage from a nearby septic tank field or moved with sodium sulfite.
 TABLE 12.4 A PARTIAL LIST OF CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER, MAXIMUM ACCEPTABLE LEVELS, COMMON SOURCES
OF CONTAMINANTS, AND POTENTIAL HEALTH EFFECTS FROM INGESTION OF WATER (FROM NATIONAL PRIMARY
DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS, U.S. EPA).

Contaminant Maximum
Name Acceptable Level Common Sources Health Effects

Arsenic 0.010 mg/L Natural deposits, smelters, glass, Skin damage or problems with circulatory
electronics wastes, orchards systems, and may have increased risk
of getting cancer
Asbestos 7 MFL (million Natural deposits, asbestos, cement Increased risk of developing benign
fibers/liter) in water systems intestinal polyps
Barium 2 mg/L Natural deposits, pigments, epoxy Increase in blood pressure
sealants, spent coal
Bacteria/coliform n/a Animal and human waste, septic fields, Not a health threat in itself; it is used to
sewage, farming indicate whether other potentially
harmful bacteria may be present
Cadmium 0.005 mg/L Natural deposits, galvanized pipe Kidney damage
corrosion, batteries, paints
Chlordane 0.002 mg/L Leaching from soil, treatment for termites Liver or nervous system problems;
increased risk of cancer
Chlorine 4 mg/L Water disinfection Eye and nose irritation; stomach discomfort
Chromium 0.1 mg/L Natural deposits, mining, electroplating, Liver, kidney, circulatory disorders
pigments
Copper 1.3 mg/L Natural/industrial deposits, wood Gastrointestinal illness (e.g., diarrhea,
preservatives, plumbing vomiting, cramps)
Cryptosporidium Zero Animal or human waste, contaminated Gastrointestinal illness (e.g., diarrhea,
food products vomiting, cramps)
E. coli (bacteria) Zero Naturally occurring, human or animal Gastrointestinal disorders (often severe)
wastes
Fluoride 4 mg/L Natural deposits, fertilizer, aluminum Bone disease (pain and tenderness of the
industries, water additive bones); children may get mottled teeth
Giardia Zero Naturally occurring, human or animal Gastrointestinal illness (e.g., diarrhea,
wastes vomiting, cramps)
Hydrogen sulfide n/a Natural deposits Rotten egg taste and odor
Iron 0.3 mg/L Natural deposits Staining of laundry, plumbing, appliances
Mercury 0.002 mg/L Crop runoff, natural deposits, batteries, Kidney, nervous system disorders
electrical switches
Microbiological — Animal and human waste, septic fields, Various illnesses
contaminants sewage, farming
Nitrate/nitrite 10 mg/L Animal waste, fertilizer, natural deposits, Infants below the age of six months could
septic tanks, sewage become seriously ill; shortness of
breath and blue-baby syndrome
Radium 5 pCi/L Natural deposits Increased risk of cancer
Radon Natural deposits Increased risk of cancer
Selenium 0.05 mg/L Natural deposits, mining, smelting, Liver damage
coal/oil combustion
Total dissolved 500 mg/L Erosion of naturally occurring mineral Gastrointestinal irritation
solids deposits
Toxaphene 0.003 mg/L Insecticide formerly used on cattle, Increased risk of cancer
cotton, soybeans
Trihalomethanes 0.08 mg/L By-product of chlorination in drinking Liver, kidney, or central nervous system
(TTHM) (chlorination water problems; increased risk of cancer
by-products)
Turbidity n/a Soil runoff A measure of cloudiness of water; higher
turbidity levels are associated with
disease-causing microorganisms,
which cause symptoms such as
nausea, cramps, diarrhea
Uranium 0.03 mg/L Natural occurring Kidney disorders, cancer
Viruses — Animal and human waste, septic fields, Gastrointestinal illness (e.g., diarrhea,
sewage, farming vomiting, cramps)
Volatile organic Varies Varies Risk varies with compound: nervous
compounds (VOCs) system, reproductive system,
circulatory system, kidney, spleen, and
liver problems including cancer

401
402 CHAPTER 12

• Suspended organic matter that supports bacterial life TABLE 12.5 RESIDENTIAL END USES OF WATER IN THE
UNITED STATES BY CATEGORY OF USE.
and suspended mineral matter are removed by the ad-
dition of a flocculating and precipitating agent, such as
Percentage
alum, before settling or filtration. of Household Household per Capita Water Use
• Excessive hardness, which renders the water unsuit- Category of per Capita gpcd Lpcd
End Use Water Use (gal/person  day) (L/person  day)
able for many industrial purposes, is reduced by the
addition of slaked, or hydrated, lime or by an ion- Water closets 26.7% 18.5 70.0
exchange process. (toilets)
Clothes washers 21.7% 15.0 56.8
In addition to treating water for quality and taste, artificial
fluoridation of public water is done in many U.S. communities. Showers 16.8% 11.6 43.9
It is an established method of reducing tooth decay in children. Faucets 15.7% 10.9 41.3
In many regions, the need for additional potable water Leaks 12.7% 9.5 36.0
supply has forced the development of processing water. In the Baths 1.7% 1.2 4.5
desalination process, saline (salt) is removed from water (e.g., Dishwashers 1.4% 1.0 3.8
seawater) thereby making the water potable. This process is
Other indoor 2.2% 1.6 6.1
used in areas where seawater is the only source of water avail- domestic uses
able or where groundwater is high in saline. Desalination plants
Total 100% 69.3 262.4
provide much of the potable water on islands such as the
Bahamas, Malta, and Catalina and in arid countries such as
Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, and Qatar. Although the desali-
nation process is successful, the cost of treating seawater is
• Moderate use—noon to 5:00 PM (low around 3:00 PM)
much higher than that for treating high salinity in fresh water.
Additionally, desalination is used when river water is • Increasing evening use—5:00 to 11:00 PM (second
overused for irrigation; salt that dissolves from soil and rocks minor peak, 6:00 to 8:00 PM)
becomes concentrated in the water that returns to the river, Significant differences in use exist, depending upon
causing an increase in the salinity of the water in the river. High where water is drawn from. A typical family of four living in
salinity makes desalination of river water necessary. For exam- a dwelling connected to a community water system uses about
ple, a desalination plant near the U.S.–Mexico border removes 350 gal (1325 L) per day in and around their home. In con-
salt from the Colorado River and enables the United States to trast, a typical household that gets its water from a private
provide Mexico with usable water. well or cistern uses about 200 gal (757 L) for a family of four.
Additionally, in U.S. cities, an estimated 35 to 50 gal (132 to
Water Use 189 L) of water per person per day is used for public activities
Traditionally, water use rates are described in units of gallons such as firefighting, street washing, and park maintenance,
per capita per day (gpcd) or liters per capita per day (Lpcd). but this does not fully account for these considerable differ-
Of the potable water supplied by public water systems, only a ences in use.
small portion is actually used for drinking. Commercial and industrial businesses also place heavy
The United States uses more water than other industrial- demands on public water supplies in developed countries. In
ized countries, even those that are equally well developed. Sig- most water supply systems, the predominant number of user
nificant amounts of water are used for lawn and garden connections is residential, but the few connections to nonresi-
sprinkling, automobile washing, and kitchen and laundry appli- dential customers typically accounts for a significant fraction
ances. According to an American Water Works Association of the system-wide water use.
study on residential end uses of water in the United States,
daily indoor per capita water use in a typical single family Water Conservation
home in the United States is 69.3 gal (262.4 L). See Table 12.5
for a breakdown of end use. The average daily domestic de- Potable water is not an infinite resource. As population and de-
mands in commercial/industrial settings range between 20 and mand for water grows, it is in short supply and is becoming
35 gal per day (gpd) per employee. more expensive, particularly in arid and semiarid climates and
The amount of water we use in residences varies by time in all regions during periods of long drought. Efforts are under-
of day: way to cut back on its use. The introduction of running water
and waste systems in buildings is a rather new experience,
• Lowest rate of use—11:30 PM to 5:00 AM occurring only in the last hundred years. During this time, we
• Sharp rise/high use—5:00 AM to noon (peak use from have progressed from taking a bath once a week (the Saturday
7:00 AM to 8:00 AM) night bath) to bathing once or twice daily.
PLUMBING FUNDAMENTALS 403

Water Conservation is filtered and chlorinated and then reused as water to flush the
toilets. This water reuse system cuts water consumption by
Conservation methods, such as flow restrictors on all water out-
about one-half. The potable water system is kept completely
lets (such as sinks and showers), can reduce the amount of
separate from the reuse portion of the system to prevent cross-
water used by 50%, depending on the type installed. For exam-
contamination. Soiled water from water closets goes directly
ple, an older showerhead may have a water flow of 5 to 7 gpm
into the sewer. These are discussed in Chapter 15.
(19 to 26.6 L/min), so just a 5-min shower consumes 25 gal (95 L)
In another experiment, all of the household water, except
of water. Reduced-flow showerheads with 1.8 to 2.5 gpm (6.8
that from the garbage disposal and water closets, is processed
to 9.5 L/min) flow are now commonplace. Reduced flow not
for multiple reuses in the system. This results in savings of up
only conserves water but also energy used to heat water.
to 70% of overall household water consumption. In addition to
Similar savings are realized by using the modern water-
the reduced amount of water required, savings from such a sys-
saving toilets. Originally, the water tank used to flush a toilet
tem result in the following:
bowl was mounted high on the wall so the water would gain
enough velocity to flush away the waste. This could be accom- 1. Smaller community or private sewer systems
plished with between 1 and 11⁄2 gal (3.8 to 5.7 L) of water. Over 2. Smaller community treatment plants required to treat sewage
the years, it became fashionable to put the tank lower, and fi-
3. Smaller community treatment plants required to treat
nally units were designed that were single low-profile units. All
supply water (when required)
of these improvements meant that more water volume was nec-
essary to wash away the waste, and each flush used from 5 to
7 gal per flush (gpf, 19 to 26 Lpf) of water. 12.4 WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS
U.S. Energy and Water Conservation Standards require
toilets manufactured after January 1, 1994, use no more than In large metropolitan areas, most of the drinking water originates
1.6 gpf (6 Lpf). In addition, there are a number of devices avail- from a surface source such as a lake, stream, river, or reservoir. In
able for use in existing water closet tanks to cut the use of water rural areas, people are more likely to drink groundwater that was
by 50% and more. Additionally, urinals must operate at 1 gpf or pumped from a well. The design of any building water supply
less, whereas the historic (pre-1994) flush rate for a urinal was system begins with an evaluation of the system from which the
3 gpf (11 Lpf). Showerheads must operate at or below 2.5 gpm water will be obtained. Basically, water is available through sys-
(9.5 L/min). Kitchen faucets are limited to 2.2 gpm (8.4 L/min). tems that serve a community or through private systems.
These installations save significant amounts of potable water.
In addition, they greatly reduce the amount of water that must Community Systems
be treated by sewage treatment plants and reduce the need for
Community water supply systems are public or private entities
additional treatment plants.
that install and provide a central supply of water to a neighbor-
hood, city or special district. They are government owned, as in
Use of Untreated Water most cities, or privately owned, such as in a rural housing de-
Presently, potable water is used for many functions that could velopment where the builder or real estate developer develops
be done with nonpotable water. As the potable water supply the water system. The water for these systems may have been
becomes more valuable and costs increase, more communities obtained from any of the water sources discussed previously.
will require the use of nonpotable or untreated water wherever Quite often water is drawn from more than one source. For ex-
possible. These communities are installing separate water ample, part of the water may be taken from a river or reservoir,
mains to provide nonpotable water to homes and businesses to and it may be supplemented by deep wells.
preserve their supply of potable water. Water from nonpotable Before proceeding with the design of the water supply,
supplies is typically used for landscape irrigation. In some the following information should be obtained and evaluated:
communities, the cost of potable water is so high that many of 1. What is the exact location of the water main (pipe) in re-
the residents have put in shallow wells that provide them with lation to the construction site?
irrigation water for lawns and gardens and for washing cars.
2. If the main is on the other side of the street from the con-
struction site, what procedures must be followed to get
Use of Gray Water permission (in writing) to cut through the street, set up
Another approach to conserving potable water is a water reuse barricades, and patch the street? If available, obtain the
system. This system, known as a gray-water system, involves specifications (written requirements) concerning the cut-
the processing of household wastewater for reuse. In the design ting and patching of the street.
of the gray-water system, the water from the bathtub or shower 3. What permits are required from local authorities, how
and the washing machine is run into a collection tank instead of much do the permits cost, and who will inspect the work
going into the sewer lines. From the collection tank, the water and when?
404 CHAPTER 12

4. If the water main does not run to the construction site, Private Systems
can it be extended from its present location to the prop-
erty? Who pays for the extension? How long will it take? Approximately 42 million people in the United States obtain
water from their own private drinking water supplies. Private
5. Is there a charge to connect (tap) onto the community
systems may also use any of the water sources discussed. Most
system? Many communities charge a fee just to tap, and
private water is drawn from groundwater through wells (U.S.
the charge is often high (e.g., thousands or tens of thou-
Geological Survey, 1995).
sands of dollars).
Large industrial and commercial projects may draw all of
6. What is the water pressure in the main? Plumbing fix- their supply from one source (e.g., a stream) or they may draw
tures are manufactured to operate efficiently with water part of their supply from one source (such as a stream) and sup-
pressures from about 30 to 60 psi (200 to 400 kPa). Pres- plement the supply with another source (e.g., a well). Such sys-
sure outside this range may result in poor operation. tems often include treatment plants, water storage towers, and
sometimes reservoirs to store the water.
a. A storage tank and pump may be required to raise
Small private systems, such as those used for residences,
the pressure if the pressure is too low (below 30 psi
usually rely on a single source of water to supply potable water
or about 200 kPa for a residence). Such a system
to the system. Installing a well is the most commonly used
is often used on commercial and industrial proj-
method of obtaining a source of water. Springs may be used
ects where the pressure requirements may have to
when available. Most private water systems use wells to tap the
be quite high to meet the water demands.
underground water source.
b. Water pressure that is too high (above 80 psi or Many industries and businesses that draw their water
about 551 kPa for a residence) will probably from community systems have alternative private systems that
require a pressure-reducing valve in the system to can be put into operation in case of a water shortage from
decrease the pressure to an acceptable level. breakdown of the community system or a prolonged drought.
Experts (usually consulting mechanical engineers, geolog-
Low pressure may cause certain fixtures to operate at a
ical engineers, or water supply and treatment specialists) should
low flow rate, especially showers, flush valve water clos-
be consulted early in the planning for any large project requiring
ets (toilets), and garden hoses. Rapid wearing out of the
its own private water system. Such specialists can make tests, in-
washers and valves, and noises in the piping, is typical of
terpret what the tests mean to the project, and make recommen-
problems associated with high pressure. The required
dations as to the quality and amount of water available. Permits
water pressure at various fixtures and the water pressure
from state or local governmental entities are also required.
from the main to the fixtures are discussed in Chapter 13.
7. What is the cost of the water? Typically, a water meter is in-
stalled, either out near the road or somewhere in the project, Well Systems
and there is a charge for the water used. After determining
A modern well system consists of a well, a motor-driven pump,
what the charges are, a cost analysis may show that it is
and a storage tank. In most systems, the pump draws water
cheaper to put in a private system. Some areas do not allow
from the well where it is stored in a storage tank. A switch acti-
private systems for potable water, but quite often it will be
vated by water pressure controls the pump. As water is con-
desirable to put in a well to provide nonpotable water for
sumed in the building, it is drawn from the storage tank and the
irrigating the lawn and garden and for washing the car.
pressure in the tank decreases. When tank pressure drops to a
Where costs for potable water are extremely high, it may be
preset cut-in pressure level, the switch activates the well pump.
feasible to use separate potable and nonpotable water sup-
Pumped water replaces the water drawn from the tank. The
ply systems within the project. This consideration is espe-
pump is switched off when the tank pressure rises to a preset
cially true on industrial and commercial projects.
cut-out pressure.
Water meters are required in all community systems that
charge for water usage or in systems where water consumption
Types of Wells
must be monitored. The water meter measures the amount of
water that passes through it, and then the user is billed for that Wells are classified according to their depth and the method
amount. In cold-climate areas, the meter is usually located where used to construct the well:
it is least likely to freeze, typically in a basement or underground
Classification Depth Construction Method
below the frost line. The amount of water is transmitted to a
recording device outside the building so it can be read at any Shallow Less than 25 ft Dug, driven, and
time. In warm-climate regions, the water supply line is near the (7.6 m) in depth shallow bored
Deep 25 ft (7.6 m) or Drilled and bored
surface of the ground, and the meter is often located in a small
more in depth
box near the street.
PLUMBING FUNDAMENTALS 405

FIGURE 12.4 A dug well is shallow. It is excavated at surface level.

FIGURE 12.3 There are three common types of water wells: dug,
The top of a dug well extends above grade. A concrete cap has a drip
driven, and bored/drilled.
edge to prevent contamination.

The depth of the well is determined by the depth of the the bottom of the wall. This porous construction may be perfo-
water table and the amount of water that can be pumped from rated seepage pits or concrete masonry placed without mortar.
that depth. Where the water table is high, it may be necessary to The placing of washed gravel in the bottom of the dug
go less than 25 ft (7.6 m) into the earth. Where a suitable water well, and on the sides of the well when porous walls are used,
table is deep, it is not unusual for a well to be 1000 ft (305 m) will reduce the sand particles or discoloration in the well water.
or more deep. Washed gravel is gravel (rounded river stone) that has been put
There are three common types of water wells: dug, through a wash (water sprayed over the stone) to remove much
driven, and bored/drilled. (See Figure 12.3.) Today, the drilled of the sand or clay from the stone. To further protect the water
well is the most common type for private water supply. from possible contamination, a tight seal is required around the
suction line where it passes through the wall.
Dug Wells Dug wells are shallow wells, generally not more
Because they are shallow, dug wells are vulnerable to
than 25 ft (7.6 m) deep, and typically 3 to 6 ft (1 to 2 m) in di-
contamination from surface pollution sources such as cattle
ameter. They are typically made by excavation with a backhoe
manure, fertilizer, trash, and so forth. Surface flooding from
or excavator but can be hand shoveled, as this was the method
rivers and streams can also carry pollutants into the well. Be-
typically used for hundreds of years. (See Figure 12.4.)
cause of this susceptibility, dug wells are typically no longer
The excavation of a dug well is lined with rock, masonry,
permitted to provide potable water in developed areas. They
cast concrete, prefabricated concrete pipe, ceramic material, or
can be used for irrigation and industrial applications.
another substance. Water enters the well through joints in the top
20 ft or so of steel or concrete casing. To minimize the chances of Driven Wells Driven wells, also referred to as sand point wells,
surface contamination, the well should have a watertight top and consist of lengths of 11⁄4 to 2 in (32 to 50 mm) diameter pipe that
walls. The top should be either above the ground or sloped so that is driven into the ground. In driving this type of well, a sharp well
surface water will run away from it and not over it. The water- point and drive cap are attached to a pipe. An impact-loading
tight walls should extend at least 10 ft (3 m) into the earth. device such as a small pile driver is used to drive the assembly
Generally, groundwater will flow into the well through the into the earth by striking the drive cap. The drive cap allows the
bottom of the well and the water in the well will rise to about the assembly to be driven into the earth without the pipe end being
level of the water table. Some wells also allow water to seep damaged. The assembly is driven into the ground until the well
through the walls by using porous construction materials near point extends below the water table. As the well point is driven,
406 CHAPTER 12

FIGURE 12.5 A driven well.

additional lengths of pipe may be attached (usually 5 ft [1.5 m]

lengths are used) to the assembly by the use of a coupling. The
well point is a pointed perforated pipe or a pipe with a pointed
well screen that allows water to be sucked up the pipe to the
surface by a shallow well pump. (See Figures 12.5 and 12.6.)
Drilled/Bored Wells Drilling or boring methods are used for
deep wells. A well-drilling rig is used to create the well hole.
Drilled wells have the holes formed by using rotary bits. Bored
wells have the holes formed by using an auger and covered with
a casing. Only the drilling method is effective in cutting
through hard rock. Drilled wells typically have holes 200 feet
or more in depth. Shallow wells may have to be bored or drilled
if it is necessary to pass through rock to reach the water table.
The well shaft, or borehole, is lined with a solid pipe that seals
out contaminants and stabilizes the hole. (See Figure 12.7.)
During drilling or boring a hole, a pipe-like casing is low-
ered into the hole. This pipe is usually 4 to 6 in (100 to 150 mm)
in diameter in sections with threaded or welded joints that must
be watertight. Steel and thermoplastic pipe are the most practi-
cal casing materials for wells. Brass, copper, and stainless steel
pipe and tubing have been used where soil or water corrosion
FIGURE 12.6 Driven wells consist of lengths of pipe attached one
seriously limited the estimated life of steel pipe. Thermoplastic on top of another and driven into the ground. A sharp well point and
(e.g., styrene rubber [SR]) and fiberglass pipe have been used drive cap are attached to a pipe.
for casing rotary-drilled and straight percussion drilled
wells. The casing prevents collapse of the well hole and the must extend above the soil line, which is capped, then stabi-
entrance of contaminants. It also allows placement of a pump lized with a concrete slab. The slab slopes outward, and extends
or pumping equipment. at least 2 ft on all sides. The space between the casing and the
The wellhead is the top of the well, the part that rises sides of the hole provides a direct channel for surface water
above the surface of the soil. Usually, at least 12 in of casing (and pollutants) to reach the water table. To seal off that
PLUMBING FUNDAMENTALS 407

ing (manually filling with water) prior to initial use is required

for the pump to operate.
Shallow well jet pumps are used for wells with a pumping
level up to 25 ft (7.6 m) deep, which is the pump’s suction lift
limit. It has no working parts submerged in water. The jet assem-
bly is located on the suction side of the pump impeller. Water is
supplied to the nozzle under pressure from the pump. As the drive
water moves through the nozzle and venturi, a partial vacuum is
created, drawing more water from the well up the suction pipe.
A portion of the water is directed to the discharge outlet for the
distribution system; the rest is recirculated to the ejector.
Deep well jet pumps can be used for wells with a pump-
ing level up to 120 ft (37 m) deep. It works the same as the shal-
low well type but with the jet assembly located in the well 10 to
20 ft (3 to 9 m) below water table level. A two-pipe system uses
a drive pipe (pressure pipe) to push pressurized water from the
pump down into the ejector. Well water is drawn up through the
foot valve by suction at the ejector, and with the drive water
flows up a return pipe (suction pipe) to the pump. A portion of
the water is then recirculated back to the ejector and the rest
flows to the distribution system. Deep well jet pumps come in
single- or multistage models (i.e., two or more impeller and dif-
fuser). The convertible jet pump allows for conversion to either
shallow well or deep well operation.
Submersible Well Pumps Submersible well pumps are cen-
trifugal pumps designed to operate submersed in water near the
FIGURE 12.7 Drilled wells typically have holes 200 ft or more in
depth. A submersible pump is dropped into the well casing to pump
bottom end of the well shaft. It is typically used in wells with a
water up the well. pumping level of at least 75 ft (23 m) deep. The pump is sub-
merged into the well water, usually to about 20 ft (6 m) from
the bottom of the well. It may be set hundreds of feet beneath
channel the space between the casing and soil is filled with a
the water in a well. This system usually alleviates pump-freezing
mixture of gravel and cement called grout. To protect the inside
concerns by placing the pump deep inside the well.
of the casing, the driller installs a tight-fitting well cap. To fur-
Centrifugal pumps work by using their rotation of im-
ther protect against surface drainage and contamination, a
pellers to push water outward and then upward through the well
concrete apron, sloping away from the well, is generally cast
shaft. A small electric motor, called a driver, is installed in the
around the casing at the ground surface.
well shaft, usually below the pump itself. An electric cable is at-
tached to the pump’s motor. Electric cable runs through the length
Well Pumps
of the shaft and into the pump house or building. When the pump
Pumps are used to bring well water to the surface. Well pumps is activated, the motor rotates the impellers and pushes water up
are referred to as shallow well and deep well, depending on the out of the well. Because the diameter of wells is restrictive, the
type and depth of well. Pumping level, expressed in feet or me- impellers have to be stacked on top of each other to exert enough
ters, is the vertical distance between the pump and the lowest pressure to force the water up through the pipe; for this reason,
water level, taking into account level draw down by pumping submersible well pumps are very long. A standard 4 in (100 mm)
and lower levels during dry seasons. Most well pumps are pow- submersible pump measures 24 to 48 in (0.6 to 1.2 m) in length.
ered on 120 or 240 V AC single-phase electricity. They require
a motor control box, which includes motor starter, relay, ther- Well Tanks
mal overload, and capacitors.
Water drawn from a well is pumped into a storage tank where it
There are two general types of well pumps: submersible
is stored for use by building occupants. Elevated storage tanks
well pumps and jet pumps.
are discussed later in this chapter. A typical utility-powered well
Well Jet Pumps The well jet pump combines centrifugal and system consists of a pump delivering water into a pressure tank.
ejection pumping. In addition to a motor, impeller, and diffuser, A pressure tank is a type of closed storage container de-
the jet pump includes a jet (ejector) assembly that consists of a signed to store water under pressure. In a well system, a pres-
nozzle and venturi tube. Jet pumps are self-priming, but prim- sure tank is used to hold water under pressure after it is pumped
408 CHAPTER 12

TABLE 12.6 WELL LOCATION AND CONSTRUCTION ARE OFTEN CONTROLLED BY GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS THAT SET
MINIMUM DISTANCES BETWEEN THE WELL AND ANY POSSIBLE GROUND CONTAMINANT. REGULATIONS VARY
WITH BUILDING CODE. A TYPICAL SET OF MINIMUM DISTANCES IS PROVIDED.

Distances Between the Well and Any Possible Ground Contaminant

Possible Ground Contaminant ft m

Road or highway boundary, property line 25 12

Building sewer line 50 15
Distribution box 50 15
Grave or cemetery, termite-treated building slab, unplugged 100 15
abandoned wells, existing operating well, barnyards, agricultural
fields, home gardens
Drain field 100 30
Seepage pit 100 30
Landfill or lagoon, road salt stock piles, storage tank for petroleum, Varies 200 to 1000 Varies 61 to 305
petroleum products or chemicals, storage areas for manure,
commercial fertilizers or chemicals

to ensure steady water pressure in the building. This type of Once demand has been calculated, it can be compared to well
tank is divided into two internal compartments by a flexible di- yield to determine storage tank size and whether additional wells
aphragm or bladder. will be needed to provide the required water for the project. Meth-
In the diaphragm pressure tank, the diaphragm separates ods of estimating water demand are introduced in Chapter 13.
the water storage section from a pressurized air chamber. In the Well location and construction are often controlled by
bladder design, a balloon-like bladder holds pressurized air. government regulations that set minimum distances between
The pressurized chamber is charged with air, which applies a the well and any possible ground contaminant. See Table 12.6.
force against the water, inducing and maintaining a consistent Various authorities and government regulations require differ-
pressure in the stored water. The bladder or diaphragm separate ent minimum distances, and there is no single set of standards
the pressurized air from the water pumped into the tank. used. Additionally, when certain types of construction methods
A pressure tank stores the energy the pump has produced are used, these regulations may even require that licensed well
in the form of pressure. Air is compressed in the pressurized air drillers install the well. It is important that local regulations be
chamber. When water is drawn from a plumbing fixture, the observed for each project.
pressure in the tank is released in the form of water flow. After Possible well contamination from an underground flow of
about a third to half of the tank capacity is drained, a device contaminants through rock formations that allow free-flowing
called a pressure switch turns the pump on to restore the pres- groundwater to travel long distances is always possible, especially
sure in the tank. When the pressure in the tank reaches an upper through strata of eroded limestone. Frequent testing of water
limit, usually about 50 psi (340 kPa), the pump cycles off. The quality is required wherever there is a possibility of such contam-
pressure is stored in the tank until it is needed again. ination. For the well contaminated in this manner, three methods
A pressure tank will hold storage water on reserve under are used to eliminate the problem: water treatment, relocation of
pressure so small demands do not require the pump to switch the well, and elimination of the source of the contamination.
on. It extends the time between pumping cycles and therefore Before planning the well, local conditions should be ana-
prolongs the life of the pump and motor. The tank must be pro- lyzed to provide background information. For example, exist-
tected from freezing by locating it in a pump house or base- ing local wells should be checked for depth and yield of water.
ment, or by burying it in a pump pit below the frost line. This information can be obtained from local well drillers and
government agencies and, if possible, verified by testing exist-
ing or just-completed wells.
Well Design and Installation
All wells should be tested to determine the yield and the
The maximum flow rate of water drawn from a well is referred to quality of the water. It is important that this be done at an
as the yield or capacity of the well; it is expressed in gpm or L/m. early stage in the design so that the size of the water storage
A well yielding 10 gpm provides five times the water, as does a tank can be determined and so that any required water treat-
well yielding 2 gpm. A well testing company certifies well yield. ment equipment can be designed and space allowed in the de-
Water demand is the amount of water required to meet the sign of the project to locate the tank and equipment. Where
demands of the building served by the well system. For example, insufficient information on well yields is available, and espe-
a general average for each member of a household, for all pur- cially where large projects will require substantial water sup-
poses, including kitchen, laundry, bath, and toilet (but not includ- plies, it may be necessary to have test holes made so that the
ing irrigation water), is about 75 gal (284 L) per day per person. yield can be checked.
PLUMBING FUNDAMENTALS 409

When a large supply of water is required for the continuous

operation of the project, it may be necessary to put in other wells
to be certain that the water yield will be sufficient to meet the pro-
jected demand. For example, if one well provides adequate water,
it may be a good investment to have a second well put in to act as
a backup in case the first well should fail. A backup well is usu-
ally not required for residences. However, for industries or busi-
nesses that require large amounts of water such as a car wash,
farm, or apartment complex, it is a wise investment.
When more than one well is required, the wells must be
spaced so that the use of one well will not lower the water table
in the other well. In general, deep wells must be 500 to 1000 ft
(150 to 300 m) apart, while shallow wells must be 20 to 100 ft (6
to 30 m) apart. Because of geological variables, the minimum
distance between wells can be determined only by testing.

PHOTO 12.1 A private water storage tank. (Used with permission

Water Towers and Elevated of ABC)
Storage Tanks
Water towers used in community systems and elevated water
storage tanks used in private systems carry a reserve capacity Elevated water storage tanks serve buildings that are too
of water. They serve many additional purposes, including tall to rely on street water pressure. Water is pumped to a stor-
what follows: age tank located on top of the building. An elevated storage
tank that is 30 to 35 ft (10 to 12 m) above the highest plumbing
• To introduce pressure to the water supply system fixture being served is generally required. Elevated water stor-
• To equalize supply and demand over periods of high age tanks are sized to hold one to two days of water supply plus
consumption a reserve for firefighting. An alternative to an elevated storage
• To supply water during equipment failure or maintenance tank in tall buildings is a pressurized tank—a storage tank that
is pressurized to the appropriate pressure.
• To supply water for firefighting demand
A big benefit of a water tower and elevated water storage
A water tower must be tall enough to deliver adequate tanks is that water pumps are sized for average rather than peak
pressure to all of the houses and businesses in the area of the demand. During periods of high demand, water flows from the tank
tower. Each foot of water height provides 0.433 psi (pounds per to the consumer while during periods of low demand the tank
square inch) of pressure. (This is discussed in Chapter 13.) A refills. For example, water consumption for a pumping station
typical community water supply maintains pressures between averaging 750 gpm (2850 L/min) is equivalent to 1 080 000 gal/
50 and 100 psi (344 and 688 kPa), whereas plumbing fixtures day (4 100 000 L/day). During a period of high demand such
require 8 psi (55 kPa) to 30 psi (206 kPa). An example of a pri- as from 7 to 8 AM, water consumption may peak at 3000 gpm
vate water tower is shown in Photo 12.1. (11 400 L/min) and water is removed from the tank at a greater
Water in a water tower tank must be 100 to 200 ft (30 to rate than the pumping station is filling the tank. When demand
60 m) above the highest plumbing fixture being served. There- drops off, say at midnight, the tank is refilled. Even though
fore water towers are typically located on high ground, and water demand peaks at 3000 gpm (11 400 L/min), the smaller
they are tall enough to provide the necessary pressure. In 750 gpm (2850 L/min) pumping capacity is sufficient. A 3000 gpm
mountainous regions, a ground-level water storage tank or (11 400 L/min) pumping capacity is not needed.
reservoir located on the highest hill in the area can sometimes
substitute for a water tower.
The capacity of a community water tower for even a 12.5 PIPING MATERIALS
small community is quite large; normally it will hold 1 000 000 gal
(3 800 000 L) or more. In comparison, a typical in-ground resi- Pipe is a round, hollow channel used to transport liquids such
dential swimming pool might hold 20 000 gal (76 000 L). The as water or solid–liquid mixtures such as wastewater from one
tank of the water tower is typically sized to hold about two days point to the next. In a building plumbing system, pipes transport
of water supply. If the pumps fail during a power failure or are hot and cold water and remove liquid and solid wastes. Piping
down for maintenance, stored water provides an adequate sup- in buildings is also used in transporting natural and liquefied
ply under pressure. The extra supply also serves as a reserve for petroleum gases, fuel oil, compressed air, refrigerants, and irri-
the high demand for water during firefighting situations. gation water.
410 CHAPTER 12

Water pipe generally falls into one of two categories:

pressure pipe, which delivers supply water; and drain, waste, and
vent (DWV) pipe, which carries waste and soil water away. Both
categories are sold in metal and plastic; however, metal (copper in
plumbing systems) dominates the pressure category. Plastic and
cast iron are the most common piping material for DWV.
Pressure pipe must be heavy enough to hold continuous
pressure without rupture, and all connections must be leak proof.
This pipe tends to be of a smaller diameter, and it must be made of
material that will not react with the chemicals or minerals in the
water. DWV pipe provides a channel for waste materials to flow
freely away from the fixtures and the building by the force of PHOTO 12.4 Various copper fittings. (Used with permission of ABC)
gravity. It is typically lighter weight with thinner walls than pres-
sure pipe, and joints do not need to be as tightly sealed because
there is no pressure exerted on them. DWV pipe is generally
larger in size than pressure pipe to allow for free gravity flow, and
it must not react to common chemicals that might be poured down
a drain. In both pressure and DWV piping, fitting design and join-
ing techniques must be compatible with the pressures and temper-
atures encountered when the pipe is placed in service.

Piping Materials
Many types of piping materials most commonly used in build-
ing plumbing systems as described in the following sections.
PHOTO 12.5 Cast iron pipes and elbow connected with compression
Photos 12.2 to 12.7 show examples of piping materials. Table
fittings. (Used with permission of ABC)
12.7 provides a comparison of common pipe materials.

PHOTO 12.6 ABS pipe connected with a solvent welded connection.

PHOTO 12.2 Piping materials. (Used with permission of ABC)
(Used with permission of ABC)

PHOTO 12.3 A sweat soldered copper elbow. (Used with permission PHOTO 12.7 Various sanitary drainage fittings. (Used with permission
of ABC) of ABC)
PLUMBING FUNDAMENTALS 411

TABLE 12.7 A COMPARISON OF COMMON PIPE MATERIALS.

Water Flow Common Manner Usually

Type of Pipe Ease of Working Effectiveness Fittings Used Stocked Principal Uses Comments

Copper— Easier to work High Solder 20 ft rigid Water supply Most common pipe
hard temper with than steel connections lengths cut to used in building
size wanted plumbing
systems
Copper— Easier to work High Solder Common wall Water supply Good for
soft temper with than hard connections, thickness: remodeling
copper—bends flare fittings K (thick wall)
readily by using L (medium wall)
a bending tool coils (soft)
Black or Must be threaded; Lower than Screw Rigid lengths up Generally found Recommended if
galvanized more difficult copper because connections to 21 ft; usually in older lines are in a
steel to cut; of inner wall cut to size buildings location subject
measurements roughness needed to impact
for jobs must
be exact
Thermoplastic Easily cut with High Cement-solvent Rigid, semirigid— Good alternative Lightest, most
pipe a saw or knife welded; insert 10 ft, 20 ft to metal pipe flexible, and most
couplings; and lengths; some brittle of all pipe
clamps pipes are materials
flexible

Copper Pipe and Tubing Type L Type L copper tube is also available in either hard or
soft temper and in coils (soft temper only) and straight lengths
Copper tubing is traditionally the most popular water supply
much like Type K. It is available in the following nominal diam-
pipe material. It is also used in water space heating (hydronic)
eters: 3⁄8, 1⁄2, 3⁄4, 1, 11⁄4, 11⁄2, 2, 21⁄2, 3, 31⁄2, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 10 in. The soft
systems, air conditioning and refrigeration systems, sanitary
temper tubing is often used as replacement plumbing because the
drainage, and natural gas and liquid petroleum gas piping. The
flexibility of the tube allows easier installation. Hard temper tub-
thin walls of copper tubing are usually soldered to fittings. This
ing is often used for new installations, particularly in commercial
allows the pipes and fittings to be set into place before the
work. Type L copper tubing is color coded blue. This type of tub-
joints are connected with solder. This advantage generally al-
ing is most popular for use in water supply systems.
lows faster installation of copper pipe in comparison to treaded
steel or brass.
The types of copper tubing available are K, L, and M, Type M Type M copper tube is made in hard temper only and
with K having the thickest walls, then L, and finally M, with the is available in straight lengths of 12 and 20 ft (3.7 and 6.1 m). It
thinnest walls of this group. DWV copper tubing is used for is used for branch supplies where water pressure is not too
drainage, waste, and vent piping. Types K and L are preferred great, but it is not used for risers and mains. It is available in the
for pressure applications. Type M and DWV are used for low- following nominal diameters: 1⁄2, 3⁄4, 1, 11⁄4, 11⁄2, 2, 21⁄2, 3, 31⁄2, 4, 5,
and no-pressure applications. Types of commercially available 6, 8, and 10 in. It is also used for chilled water systems, ex-
copper tubing are summarized in Table 12.8. They are de- posed lines in hot water heating systems, and drainage piping.
scribed in the following: Type M copper tubing is color coded red.

Type K Type K copper tube is available as either rigid (hard DWV DWV copper tube is the thinnest copper tube and is
temper) or flexible (soft temper). Type K is used primarily for used in nonpressure applications. It is made in hard temper only
underground water service in water supply systems. It is avail- and is obtainable in straight lengths of 20 ft (6.1 m). It is avail-
able in the following nominal diameters: 3⁄8, 1⁄2, 3⁄4, 1, 11⁄4, 11⁄2, 2, able in the following nominal diameters: 11⁄4, 11⁄2, 2, 21⁄2, 3, 31⁄2, 4,
21⁄2, 3, 31⁄2, 4, 5, 6, and 8 in. 5, 6, 8, and 10 in.
Soft temper tubing 1 in and smaller is usually available The diameter of copper pipe is expressed in nominal size.
in coils 60 or 100 ft (18.3 or 30.5 m) long, while 11⁄4 and 11⁄2 in The actual size is 1⁄8 in larger than the nominal size expressed
tubing is available in 40- or 60-ft (12.2 or 18.3 m) coils. Hard (e.g., a 1-in copper pipe has an actual outside diameter of 11⁄8 in).
temper is available in 12- and 20-ft (3.7 and 6.1 m) straight Regardless of type, the outside diameter does not vary for a
lengths. Type K copper tubing is color coded in green for quick specific nominal diameter. Inside diameter will vary with wall
visual identification. thickness. The inside diameter of a thin-wall pipe will be
412 CHAPTER 12

TABLE 12.8 TYPES OF COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE COPPER TUBING.

Tube Type Color Code Typical Application or Use Nominal Sizes (in) Drawn (Hard) Annealed (Soft)

Straight
1
⁄4 in to 8 in 20 ft 20 ft
Domestic water
10 in 18 ft 18 ft
Service/distribution
12 in 12 ft 12 ft
Fire protection
Type K Green Coils
Solar
— 60 ft
Fuel/fuel oil 1
⁄4 in to 1 in
— 100 ft
HVAC
11⁄4 in and 11⁄2 in — 60 ft
Snow melting
— 40 ft
2 in
— 45 ft
Domestic water Straight:
Service/distribution
1
⁄4 in to 8 in 20 ft 20 ft
Fire protection 12 in 18 ft 18 ft
Solar Coils
Type L Blue Fuel/fuel oil — 60 ft
⁄ in to 1 in
14

LP gas — 100 ft
Snow melting 11⁄4 in to 11⁄2 in — 60 ft
— 40 ft
2 in
— 45 ft
Domestic water Straight
Service/distribution
Solar ⁄4 in to 12 in
1
20 ft N/A
Type M Red
Fuel/fuel oil
HVAC
Snow melting
Drain, waste, vent Straight
DWV Yellow Solar
11⁄4 inch to 8 inch 20 ft N/A
HVAC
ACR Blue Air conditioning Straight:
Refrigeration 3
⁄8 in to 41⁄8 in 20 ft N/A
Natural gas Coils:
LP gas 1
⁄8 into 15⁄8 in — 50
OXY, MED Straight
OXY/MED (K) Green Medical gas
OXY/ACR (L) Blue ⁄4 in to 8 in
1
20 ft N/A
ACR/MED
Straight
3 12 ft 12 ft
⁄8 in to 11⁄8 in
Type G Yellow Natural gas 20 ft 20 ft
LP gas Coils
3 — 60 ft
⁄8 in to 7⁄8 in
— 100 ft

greater than the inside diameter of a thick-wall pipe. Weights Copper piping should not be installed if it will carry
and dimensions of copper tubing are provided in Table 12.9. water having a pH of 6.8 or less, as this could cause copper to
Weights and dimensions of copper and brass pipes are provided corrode from the acidic nature of the water at this pH. The ma-
in Table 12.10. jority of public utilities supply water at a pH between 7.2 and
Compared with iron or steel pipe, copper pipe has the 8.0. Private well water systems often have a pH below 6.8.
advantage of not rusting and of being highly resistant to any When this it the case, it is suggested that a treatment system be
accumulation of scale (particles) in the pipe. Copper tubing installed to make the water less acidic.
has a lower friction loss than wrought iron or steel, providing
an additional advantage. Also, the outside dimensions of the
Brass Pipe
fittings are smaller, which makes a neater, better-looking job.
With wrought iron and steel pipe, the larger outside dimen- Red brass piping, consisting of approximately 85% copper and
sions of the fittings sometimes require that wider walls be used 15% zinc, is used as water supply piping. The pipe is threaded
in the building. for fitting connections, but this requires thicker walls to
PLUMBING FUNDAMENTALS 413

TABLE 12.9 WEIGHTS AND DIMENSIONS OF COPPER TUBING.

Type K Type L Type M

Nominal Outside Inside Weight Inside Weight Inside Weight
Size Diameter Diameter per ft Diameter per ft Diameter per ft
(in) (in) (in) (lb) (in) (lb) (in) (in)

⁄8
1
0.250 0.186 0.085 0.200 0.068 0.200 0.068
⁄4
1
0.375 0.311 0.134 0.315 0.126 0.325 0.106
3
⁄8 0.500 0.402 0.269 0.430 0.198 0.450 0.144
1
⁄2 0.625 0.527 0.344 0.545 0.284 0.569 0.203
5
⁄8 0.750 0.652 0.418 0.666 0.362 0.690 0.263
3
⁄4 0.875 0.745 0.641 0.785 0.454 0.811 0.328
1 1.125 0.995 0.839 1.025 0.653 1.055 0.464
11⁄4 1.375 1.245 1.04 1.265 0.882 1.291 0.681
11⁄2 1.625 1.481 1.36 1.505 1.14 1.571 0.940
2 2.125 1.959 2.06 1.985 1.75 2.009 1.46
21⁄2 2.625 2.435 2.92 2.465 2.48 2.495 2.03
3 3.125 2.907 4.00 2.945 3.33 2.981 2.68
31⁄2 3.625 3.385 5.12 3.425 4.29 3.459 3.58
4 4.125 3.857 6.51 3.905 5.38 3.935 4.66
5 5.125 4.805 9.67 4.875 7.61 4.907 6.66
6 6.125 5.741 13.87 5.845 10.20 5.881 8.91
8 8.125 7.583 25.90 7.725 10.29 7.785 16.46

TABLE 12.10 WEIGHTS AND DIMENSIONS OF COPPER AND BRASS PIPES.

Weight per ft (in lb)

Nominal Size Outside Diameter Inside Diameter
(in) (in) (in) 67% Copper 85% Copper 100% Copper

1
⁄8 0.405 0.281 0.246 0.253 0.259
1
⁄4 0.540 0.375 0.437 0.450 0.460
3
⁄8 0.675 0.494 0.612 0.630 0.643
1
⁄2 0.840 0.625 0.911 0.938 0.957
3
⁄4 1.050 0.822 1.24 1.27 1.30
1 1.315 1.062 1.74 1.79 1.83
11⁄4 1.660 1.368 2.56 2.63 2.69
11⁄2 1.900 1.600 3.04 3.13 3.20
2 2.375 2.062 4.02 4.14 4.23
21⁄2 2.875 2.500 5.83 6.00 6.14
3 3.500 3.062 8.31 8.56 8.75
31⁄2 4.000 3.500 10.85 11.17 11.41
4 4.500 4.000 12.29 12.66 12.94
41⁄2 5.000 4.500 13.74 14.15 14.46
5 5.563 5.063 15.40 15.85 16.21
6 6.625 6.125 18.44 18.99 19.41
7 7.625 7.062 23.92 24.63 25.17
8 8.625 8.000 30.05 30.95 31.63

accommodate the threading, making installation and handling typically sold in lengths of 21 ft. When steel pipe is forged, a
more difficult than for copper. In addition, its relatively higher black oxide scale forms on its surface that gives it a dull
total cost, installed on the job, limits its usage. Brass piping has black finish, and as a result it is called black pipe. Because
seen limited use in new construction. steel is subject to rust and corrosion, the pipe manufacturer
also coats it with protective oil. Black pipe is most commonly
used for natural gas supply lines and fire suppression sprin-
Steel and Iron Pipe
kler system lines.
Steel pipe is available in the following nominal diameters: 3⁄8, Galvanized steel pipe is covered with a protective coating
1
⁄2, 3⁄4, 1, 11⁄4, 11⁄2, 2, 21⁄2, 3, 31⁄2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, and 12 in. It is of zinc that greatly reduces its tendency to corrode and thus
414 CHAPTER 12

TABLE 12.11 WEIGHTS AND DIMENSIONS OF STANDARD WEIGHT SCHEDULE 40 STEEL PIPE.

Nominal Outside Inside Wall Weight per Inside gpm at

Size Diameter Diameter Thickness Foot Plain Cross-Sectional 10 ft/s
(in) (in) (in) (in) Ends Pounds Area (in2) Velocity

⁄81
0.405 0.269 0.068 0.244 0.057 1.8
⁄41
0.540 0.364 0.088 0.424 0.104 3.2
3
⁄8 0.675 0.493 0.091 0.567 0.191 6.0
1
⁄2 0.840 0.622 0.109 0.852 0.304 9.5
3
⁄4 1.050 0.824 0.113 1.130 0.533 16.6
1 1.315 1.049 0.133 1.678 0.864 26.9
11⁄4 1.660 1.380 0.140 2.272 1.495 46.6
11⁄2 1.900 1.610 0.145 2.717 2.036 63.5
2 2.375 2.067 0.154 3.652 3.355 105.0
21⁄2 2.875 2.469 0.203 5.793 4.788 149.0
3 3.500 3.068 0.216 7.575 7.393 230.0
31⁄2 4.000 3.548 0.226 9.109 9.886 308.0
4 4.500 4.026 0.237 10.79 12.73 397.0
5 5.563 5.047 0.258 14.62 20.01 623.0
6 6.625 6.065 0.280 18.97 28.89 900.0

extends its life expectancy. It is moderately corrosion resistant Concerns arise as galvanized steel pipe ages: corrosion
and suitable for mildly acid water. It was commonly used for of the inner surface of the pipe restricts water flow; develop-
water supply, waste, and vent lines in plumbing systems through ment of rust flakes loosen, collect, and restrict water flow
the early 1950s. It is not frequently used for water supply lines in fittings and valves; and leaks form from corrosion. There-
today because the minerals in the water react with the galvaniz- fore, galvanized steel pipe is not used extensively in water
ing material and form scale, which builds up over time and will supply systems. Steel pipe is connected to its fittings with
eventually clog the pipe. threaded connections. Steel pipe also has a higher friction loss
Weights and dimensions of standard weight steel pipe are than copper.
provided in Tables 12.11, 12.12, 12.13, and 12.14. Lightweight wrought-iron pipe, designated Standard (or
Steel pipe is typically cut and threaded to fit the job. Fit- Schedule 40), is the type most commonly used for water supply
tings for this type of pipe are of malleable (soft) cast iron. They and fire suppression sprinkler systems. The most commonly
connect by screwing onto the threaded pipe, after applying used wrought-iron pipe is galvanized. The zinc-galvanized
a small amount of pipe joint compound on the threads. Larger coating adds extra corrosion resistance. Occasionally, it is used
diameter pipe is typically welded rather than threaded. as the service main from the community main to the riser.

TABLE 12.12 WEIGHTS AND DIMENSIONS OF EXTRA STRONG (XH) WEIGHT SCHEDULE 80 STEEL PIPE.

Nominal Outside Inside Wall Weight per Inside gpm at

Size Diameter Diameter Thickness Foot Plain Cross-Sectional 10 ft/s
(in) (in) (in) (in) Ends Pounds Area (in2) Velocity

1
⁄8 0.405 0.215 0.095 0.314 0.036 1.1
1
⁄4 0.540 0.302 0.119 0.535 0.072 2.2
3
⁄8 0.675 0.423 0.126 0.738 0.141 4.4
1
⁄2 0.840 0.546 0.147 1.087 0.234 7.3
3
⁄4 1.050 0.742 0.154 1.473 0.433 13.5
1 1.315 0.957 0.179 2.171 0.719 22.4
11⁄4 1.660 1.278 0.191 2.996 1.283 40.0
11⁄2 1.900 1.500 0.200 3.631 1.767 55.0
2 2.375 1.939 0.218 5.022 2.953 92.0
21⁄2 2.875 2.323 0.276 7.661 4.238 132.0
3 3.500 2.90 0.300 10.25 6.605 206.0
31⁄2 4.000 3.364 0.318 12.51 8.888 277.0
4 4.500 3.826 0.337 14.98 11.50 358.0
5 5.563 4.813 0.375 20.78 18.19 567.0
6 6.625 5.761 0.432 28.57 26.07 812.0
PLUMBING FUNDAMENTALS 415

TABLE 12.13 WEIGHTS AND DIMENSIONS OF SCHEDULE 160 STEEL PIPE.

Nominal Outside Inside Wall Weight per Inside gpm at

Size Diameter Diameter Thickness Foot Plain Cross-Sectional 10 ft/s
(in) (in) (in) (in) Ends Pounds Area (in2) Velocity

1
⁄2 0.840 0.466 0.187 1.310 0.171 5.3
3
⁄4 1.050 0.614 0.218 1.940 0.296 9.2
1 1.315 0.815 0.250 2.850 0.522 16.3
11⁄4 1.660 1.160 0.250 3.764 1.057 32.9
11⁄2 1.900 1.338 0.281 4.862 1.406 43.8
2 2.375 1.689 0.343 7.450 2.240 69.8
21⁄2 2.875 2.125 0.375 10.01 3.547 111.0
3 3.500 2.626 0.437 14.30 5.416 169.0
4 4.500 3.438 0.531 22.60 9.28 289.0
5 5.563 4.313 0.625 32.96 14.61 455.0
6 6.625 5.189 0.718 45.30 21.15 659.0

TABLE 12.14 WEIGHTS AND DIMENSIONS OF DOUBLE EXTRA STRONG (XXH) WEIGHT STEEL PIPE.

Nominal Outside Inside Wall Weight per Inside gpm at

Size Diameter Diameter Thickness Foot Plain Cross-Sectional 10 ft/s
(in) (in) (in) (in) Ends Pounds Area (in2) Velocity

1
⁄2 0.840 0.252 0.294 1.714 0.050 1.6
3
⁄4 1.050 0.434 0.308 2.440 0.148 4.6
1 1.315 0.599 0.358 3.659 0.282 8.8
11⁄4 1.660 0.896 0.382 5.214 0.630 19.6
11⁄2 1.900 1.100 0.400 6.408 0.950 29.6
2 2.375 1.503 0.436 9.029 1.774 55.3
21⁄2 2.875 1.771 0.552 13.70 2.464 76.8
3 3.500 2.300 0.600 18.58 4.155 129.0
31⁄2 4.000 2.728 0.636 22.85 5.845 182.0
4 4.500 3.152 0.674 27.54 7.803 243.0
5 5.563 4.063 0.750 38.55 12.97 404.0
6 6.625 4.897 0.864 53.16 18.84 587.0

Wrought-iron pipe is threaded for connection to the fittings, Thermoplastic Pipe

and it can be identified by a red spiral stripe on the pipe. The
Thermoplastic pipe, sometimes referred to simply as plastic
higher cost of wrought-iron pipe limits its increased use.
pipe, is used for water supply systems because its economy and
Wrought-iron pipe also has a higher friction loss than copper.
ease of installation make it popular, especially on projects such
Wrought-iron pipe used in buildings is available in the follow-
as low-cost housing or apartments where cost economy is im-
ing nominal diameters: 3⁄8, 1⁄2, 3⁄4, 1, 11⁄4, 11⁄2, 2, 21⁄2, 3, 31⁄2, 4, 5, 6, 8,
portant. It is important to check the plumbing code in force in
10, and 12 in.
your locale because some areas still do not allow the use of
Cast iron pipe is commonly used in gravity building
plastic pipe for water supply systems.
and storm drain/sewer systems. Cast iron pipes and fittings
A variety of thermoplastics are used for pipe and fittings
are limited to gravity pressure systems. It is available in two
in building plumbing systems. Types of thermoplastic materials
grades: Service (SV) for above-grade installations; and,
and their uses are summarized in Table 12.16.
Extra Heavy (XH) for applications below grade. Cast iron
pipes are available in 5 and 10 ft lengths with the following Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) thermoplastic pipe is
nominal diameters: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 15 in. Cast typically black in color. It is generally approved for use in
iron pipes and fittings are connected using two methods: hub DWV applications. It is available in two grades: Schedule
(female end) and spigot (male end) that are joined by sliding 40 and Service. It is available in straight lengths in the fol-
the spigot into the hub; and the no-hub connection that is lowing nominal diameters: 1, 11⁄4, 11⁄2, 2, 21⁄2, 3, 31⁄2, 4, 5, 6, 8,
connected with a rubber gasket and screw-type clamp that is and 10 in. Solvent-cement welding is used to join ABS
similar to a hose clamp. Dimensions of cast iron pipe are pro- pipe and fittings. Dimensions of ABS pipe for drainage,
vided in Table 12.15. waste, and vent systems are provided in Table 12.17.
416 CHAPTER 12

TABLE 12.15 DIMENSIONS OF CAST IRON PIPE.

CLASS A 100 Foot Head 43 Pounds Pressure CLASS B 200 Foot Head 86 Pounds Pressure
Nominal Outside Wall Inside Outside Wall Inside
Diameter Diameter Thickness Diameter Diameter Thickness Diameter
(in) (in) (in) (in) (in) (in) (in)

3 3.80 0.39 3.02 3.96 0.42 3.12

4 4.80 0.42 3.96 5.00 0.45 4.10
6 6.90 0.44 6.02 7.10 0.48 6.14
8 9.05 0.46 8.13 9.05 0.51 8.03
10 11.10 0.50 10.10 11.10 0.57 9.96
12 13.20 0.54 12.12 13.20 0.62 11.96
14 15.30 0.57 14.16 15.30 0.66 13.98
16 17.40 0.60 16.20 17.40 0.70 16.00
18 19.50 0.64 18.22 19.50 0.75 18.00
20 21.60 0.67 20.26 21.60 0.80 20.00
24 25.80 0.76 24.28 25.80 0.89 24.02
30 31.74 0.88 29.98 32.00 1.03 29.94
36 37.96 0.99 35.98 38.30 1.15 36.00
42 44.20 1.10 42.00 44.50 1.28 41.94
48 50.50 1.26 47.98 50.80 1.42 47.96
54 56.66 1.35 53.96 57.10 1.55 54.00
60 62.80 1.39 60.02 63.40 1.67 60.06
72 75.34 1.62 72.10 76.00 1.95 72.10
84 87.54 1.72 84.10 88.54 2.22 84.10

CLASS C 300 Foot Head 130 Pounds Pressure CLASS D 400 Foot Head 173 Pounds Pressure
Nominal Outside Wall Inside Outside Wall Inside
Diameter Diameter Thickness Diameter Diameter Thickness Diameter
(in) (in) (in) (in) (in) (in) (in)

3 3.96 0.45 3.06 3.96 0.48 3.00

4 5.00 0.48 4.04 5.00 0.52 3.96
6 7.10 0.51 6.08 7.10 0.55 6.00
8 9.30 0.56 8.18 9.30 0.60 8.10
10 11.40 0.62 10.16 11.40 0.68 10.04
12 13.50 0.68 12.14 13.50 0.75 12.00
14 15.65 0.74 14.17 15.65 0.82 14.01
16 17.80 0.80 16.20 17.80 0.89 16.02
18 19.92 0.87 18.18 19.92 0.96 18.00
20 22.06 0.92 20.22 22.06 1.03 20.00
24 26.32 1.04 24.22 26.32 1.16 24.00
30 32.40 1.20 30.00 32.74 1.37 30.00
36 38.70 1.36 39.98 39.16 1.58 36.00
42 45.10 1.54 42.02 45.58 1.78 42.02
48 51.40 1.71 47.98 51.98 1.96 48.06
54 57.80 1.90 54.00 58.40 2.23 53.94
60 64.20 2.00 60.20 64.82 2.38 60.06
72 76.88 2.39 72.10 — — —
84 87.54 1.72 84.10 88.54 2.22 84.10

Polybutylene (PB) pipe is a flexible (coils) thermoplastic PB is available in copper tube size (CTS) and iron pipe
pipe generally approved for use in potable hot and cold size (IPS). PB pipe cannot be solvent-cement welded, so
water supply applications. Because of several lawsuits special fittings are used: a brass, copper, or acetyl plastic
tied to this type of pipe, it is no longer recommended for insert fitting that slides into the pipe and a crimp ring
use in building plumbing systems. around the outside of the pipe; a compression fitting with
Interior PB pipe is easily recognized by its gray color. a nut, ring, and cone; and an instant connect fitting that
Underground service laterals are typically blue in color. involves sliding the pipe into the fitting and rotating the
PLUMBING FUNDAMENTALS 417

TABLE 12.16 TYPES OF THERMOPLASTIC PIPE MATERIALS.

Plastic Characteristics Joins By Colors Uses

ABS (acrylonitrile-butadiene- Rigid Solvent welding Black DWV, sewer, and drain pipe;
styrene) tubular parts
CPVC (chlorinated polyvinyl Rigid, heat resistant Solvent welding Beige Hot and cold water supply tubes,
chloride) indoors and buried
PB (polybutylene) Flexible, Mechanical couplings Gray, beige Hot and cold water supply tubes,
heat resistant or blue indoors and buried; riser tubes
PE (polyethylene) Flexible, low cost Clamped couplings Black or milky Cold water only, outdoor piping,
white buried
PEX (cross-linked polyethylene) Flexible, Mechanical couplings Colored Hot and cold water supply tubes,
heat resistant indoors; riser tubes
PP (polypropylene) Semirigid with high Slip-jam-nut couplings Beige Tubular drainage products for
heat and chemical fixtures
resistance
PVC (polyvinyl chloride) Rigid with high Solvent welding White, gray, DWV, sewer, and drain pipe; cold
chemical resistance beige, and water buried pressure pipe;
many others tubular goods
S or RS (styrene or Rigid, low cost Solvent welding Black or milky Drain pipe outdoors and buried
rubber-styrene) white

TABLE 12.17 DIMENSIONS OF ACRYLONITRILE-BUTADIENE-STYRENE (ABS) PLASTIC

PIPE FOR DRAINAGE, WASTE, AND VENT SYSTEMS.

Nominal Pipe Size Outside Diameter Average Wall Thickness Inside Diameter Average Length
(in) (in) (in) (in) (ft)

11⁄4 1.660 0.140 1.380 20

11⁄2 1.900 0.145 1.610 10, 20
2 2.375 0.154 2.067 10
3 3.500 0.216 3.068 10, 20
4 4.500 0.237 4.026 10, 20
6 6.625 0.280 6.065 20

fitting, which causes the fitting and pipe to press together. attack, and creep deformation. In contrast to metal
It is available for water distribution applications in the pipes, it is freeze-break resistant. As a result, PEX plas-
following nominal diameters: 1⁄2, 3⁄4, 1, 11⁄4, 11⁄2, and 2 in. tic pipe is ideally suited for interior potable cold and
Polyethylene (PE) is a flexible (coils) thermoplastic pipe. hot water plumbing applications. PEX tubing has been
Black PE pipe is used for buried cold building water sup- in use successfully in Europe for plumbing, radiant
ply and irrigation (yard) piping. PE pipe is also approved heating, and snow melt applications since the 1960s.
for use in piping for natural gas and liquefied petroleum PEX is commonly available in 1⁄2, 3⁄4, 1, 11⁄2, and 2 in out-
gas (LPG) applications, but only when it is directly side diameter CTS and is packaged in coils or 20 ft
buried and outside the building foundation. Fusion straight lengths. See Table 12.18. Some tubing is color
(melt) welding and compression and flanged connec- coded for easy identification of hot (red) and cold
tions are used to join PE pipe and fittings carrying gas. (blue) lines. PEX fittings are generally made of brass,
PE pipe is available for water distribution applications in copper, and engineered plastic barbed insert fittings
the following nominal diameters: 1⁄2, 3⁄4, 1, 11⁄4, 11⁄2, and specifically designed for PEX.
2 in IPS. PE fittings are typically copper alloy or plastic Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a rigid thermoplastic pipe
barbed insert. generally approved for use in pressure applications such
Cross-linked polyethylene (PEX) is a specific type of as cold water supply applications outside the building
medium- or high-density polyethylene with individual (e.g., the building service and in DWV and irrigation pip-
molecules linking one polymer chain to another. This ing). It is generally white or gray in color, but can be
type of bond makes PEX stronger and more stable than other colors. PVC is typically rated at 73°F (23°C) and
PE with respect to temperature extremes, chemical 100 psi (690 kPa), so it is not suitable for potable hot
418 CHAPTER 12

TABLE 12.18 DIMENSIONS OF CROSS-LINKED POLYETHYLENE 80 in straight lengths in the nominal diameters from 1⁄2
(PEX) TUBING.
to 12 in. Dimensions of Schedule 40 and Schedule
80 CPVC pipe are provided in Table 12.19. CPVC is also
Nominal Outside Wall Inside
Pipe Size Diameter Thickness Diameter available CTS, which is designed for use in hot and cold
(in) (in) (in) (in) water distribution systems in buildings. Dimensions of
CTS-CPVC plumbing pipe are provided in Table 12.20.
⁄4
1
0.375 0.065 0.250 CPVC pipe with a standard dimension ratio (SDR) of
⁄8
3
0.500 0.075 0.350
13.5 is used for fire sprinkler piping (see Table 12.21).
1
⁄2 0.625 0.075 0.475
5
⁄8 0.750 0.088 0.574 Solvent-cement welding and threaded and flanged con-
3
⁄4 0.875 0.102 0.671 nections are used to join CPVC pipe and fittings.
1 1.125 0.132 0.863 Styrene rubber (SR) is a rigid thermoplastic pipe that is
11⁄4 1.375 0.161 1.053
generally approved for use in septic tanks, drain fields,
11⁄2 1.625 0.191 1.243
2 2.125 0.248 1.629 and storm sewers. It is available in straight lengths in the
following nominal diameters: 3, 31⁄2, 4, 5, 6, and 8 in.
Polypropylene (PP) is a thermoplastic pipe material that
water distribution. It is available in straight lengths in the is typically used in chemical waste lines. It can also be
following nominal diameters: 1, 11⁄4, 11⁄2, 2, 21⁄2, 3, 31⁄2, 4, 5, used for hot and cold water applications. It is rarely used
and 6 in. Solvent-cement welding and threaded or in building plumbing systems, likely because it is joined
flanged connections are used to join PVC pipe and fit- by heat fusion.
tings. Dimensions of PVC pipe for drainage, waste, and Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) is an extremely expen-
vent systems are provided in Table 12.19. sive thermoplastic pipe that is used in ultrapure water
Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) is a rigid thermo- systems and industrial applications (e.g., pharmaceutical
plastic pipe generally approved for use in potable hot and industry). It is joined by heat fusion and, for smaller pipe
cold water supply, fire suppression sprinkler systems in sizes, by mechanical joining techniques. PVDF is not
residences, and in process piping. CPVC is rated at 180°F used in building plumbing systems.
(82°C) and 100 psi (690 kPa), making it suitable for Reinforced thermosetting plastic pipe is a thermoplastic
potable hot water distribution. Because of its excellent resin used in combination with reinforcement and fillers.
chemical resistance, it can also be used in sanitary drainage The most commonly used reinforced thermosetting plas-
applications. CPVC tubing and fittings are beige or tan in tic pipe products are based on polyester or epoxy resins.
color. CPVC pipe is available as Schedule 40 and Schedule The reinforcement may be organic (e.g., synthetic fiber)

TABLE 12.19 DIMENSIONS OF POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC) AND CHLORINATED POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (CPVC) PIPE.

Schedule 40 Schedule 80
Outside Wall Inside Wall Wall Inside Wall
Diameter Diameter Thickness Diameter Pressure Thickness Diameter Pressure
(in) (ins) (in) (in) 73°F (psi) (in) (in) 73°F (psi)

⁄2
1
0.840 0.109 0.602 600 0.147 0.526 850
⁄4
3
1.050 0.113 0.804 480 0.154 0.722 690
1 1.315 0.133 1.029 450 0.179 0.936 630
11⁄4 1.660 0.141 1.360 370 0.191 1.255 520
11⁄2 1.900 0.145 1.590 330 0.200 1.476 470
2 2.375 0.154 2.047 280 0.218 1.913 400
21⁄2 2.875 0.203 2.445 300 0.276 2.290 420
3 3.500 0.216 3.042 260 0.300 2.864 370
4 4.500 0.237 3.998 220 0.337 3.786 320
6 6.625 0.280 6.031 180 0.432 5.709 280
8 8.625 0.322 7.941 160 0.500 7.565 250
10 10.750 0.365 9.976 140 0.593 9.493 230
12 12.750 0.406 11.888 130 0.687 11.294 230
14 14.000 0.438 13.072 130 0.750 12.412 220
16 16.000 0.500 14.936 130 0.843 14.224 220
18 18.000 0.562 16.809 130 0.937 16.014 220
20 20.000 0.593 18.743 120 1.031 17.814 220
24 24.000 0.687 22.544 120 1.218 21.418 210
PLUMBING FUNDAMENTALS 419

TABLE 12.20 DIMENSIONS OF COPPER TUBE SIZE CHLORINATED POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (CTS-CPVC)
PLUMBING PIPE.

Nominal Outside Inside Wall

Pipe Size Diameter Diameter Thickness Wall Pressure Wall Pressure
(in) (in) (in) (in) 73°F (psi) 180°F (psi)

1
⁄2 0.625 0.469 0.068 400 100
3
⁄4 0.875 0.695 0.080 400 100
1 1.125 0.901 0.102 400 100
11⁄4 1.375 1.105 0.125 400 100
11⁄2 1.625 1.309 0.148 400 100
2 2.125 1.716 0.193 400 100

TABLE 12.21 DIMENSIONS OF CHLORINATED POLYVINYL proved groundless. Another concern is thermal expansion:
CHLORIDE (CPVC) WITH A STANDARD
DIMENSION RATIO (SDR) OF 13.5. USED
plastics expand several times more than metal from tempera-
FOR FIRE SPRINKLER PIPE. ture increases. Additionally, some thermoplastics degrade in
sunlight so they must be protected (e.g., painted or covered).
Nominal Outside Wall Inside In recent years, there have been reports of premature de-
Pipe Size Diameter Thickness Diameter terioration and catastrophic failure of ABS and PB pipe in
(in) (in) (in) (in)
building plumbing systems. Several class-action lawsuits worth
3
⁄4 1.050 0.078 0.874 nearly a billion dollars have been filed. Problems range from
1 1.315 0.097 1.101 the development of leaks at the fittings, to cracking, splitting,
11⁄4 1.660 0.123 1.394 and deterioration of the pipe material. Reportedly, failure
11⁄2 1.900 0.141 1.598 caused by many factors including the nature of the material,
2 2.375 0.176 2.003
flaws in manufacture of fittings and pipe, and improper instal-
21⁄2 2.875 0.213 2.423
3 3.500 0.259 2.950 lation. Although the early pipe and fitting failures were attrib-
uted mostly to defective materials, the industry is placing
blame for current problems on poor installation.
PEX tubing is an approved material in the current model-
or inorganic (e.g., glass fiber). Glass fiber is the most plumbing codes. It is replacing copper as the material of choice
common reinforcement used in this type of pipe. Rein- in residential water supply systems. In some jurisdictions using
forced thermosetting plastic pipe will typically consist of older versions of these codes may not have amended the code
15 to 70% glass fiber, 0 to 50% filler (e.g., sand), and 30 to include PEX tubing.
to 75% thermosetting resin.
Reinforced thermosetting plastic pipe is produced as a Composite Pipe
standard product with a full line of fittings. It is espe- Composite pipe is a flexible pipe material that is constructed of
cially suited to applications such as water distribution, an aluminum tube laminated between two layers of polyethyl-
sewage, and effluent disposal exposed to highly corrosive ene thermoplastic. It is available in 3⁄8, 1⁄2, 5⁄8, 3⁄4, and 1 in nominal
conditions. Pipes made from conventional polyester diameter coils ranging from 100 to 1000 ft (30 to 30 m). Fit-
range in diameter from 1 in to 16 ft (25 mm to 4.9 m) or tings are joined to the pipe with a compression or crimped con-
more. Because of high cost, reinforced thermosetting nection and to fixtures and other fittings with a threaded
plastic-based pipes constitute only a small proportion of connection. Branches can extend from a main manifold and ex-
the total plastic piping in use. tend uninterrupted to the plumbing fixture (e.g., sink, lavatory,
Thermoplastic piping materials are available in two sizes: bathtub, and so on). It is available in two types:
pipe sizes and tubing sizes. Although both are sized nominally PE-AL-PE Pipe PE-AL-PE pipe is an aluminum (AL) tube
according to inside diameter, pipes go by IPS and tubes go by laminated between two layers of PE plastic. It carries long-term
CTS. Pipes and tubes and their fittings, even in the same desig- pressure and temperature ratings of 200 psi at 73oF, and 160 psi
nated sizes, should not be interchanged. With plastic piping, at 140oF, which is approved for use in cold water and compressed
you can choose from a wide selection of materials. air applications. PE-AL-PE pipe is coded dark blue in color.
Many plumbing subcontractors, engineers, and architects
still prefer copper for the water supply systems. This dates back PEX-AL-PEX Pipe PEX-AL-PEX pipe is an aluminum (AL)
to very early concerns about possible toxicity (poisoning) re- tube laminated between two layers of temperature-resistant, PEX
sulting from the use of plastic pipe; this concern has since been plastic. Cross-linking of PE means that the molecular chains are
420 CHAPTER 12

TABLE 12.22 DIMENSIONS OF AND BENDING REQUIREMENTS FOR PEX-AL-PEX COMPOSITE PIPE.

Nominal Pipe Size Outside Diameter Inside Diameter Minimum Bend Radius

in mm in mm in mm in mm
3
⁄8 9 0.500 12.7 0.364 9.2 3.0 76
1
⁄2 12 0.625 16.5 0.485 12.3 3.8 97
3
⁄4 30 0.875 22.2 0.681 17.3 7.0 178
1 25 1.125 28.6 0.875 22.2 9.0 229

linked into a three-dimensional network that makes PEX remark- the IPS designation, female fittings are identified by FIP and
ably durable within a wide range of temperatures, pressures, and male fittings are MIP. The terms nominal pipe size (NPS) and
chemicals. It is color coded orange, light blue, or black. Black is IPS are interchangeable and refer to the nominal diameter of
used in exposed installations. It is approved for use in cold and the pipe, not the actual diameter.
hot water and high-pressure applications and can also be used in Pipe is distinguished from tubing by the standard by
radiant floor heating systems. It has a long-term pressure rating which it is measured. When copper tubing was developed, the
of 125 psi at 180oF. PEX-AL-PEX pipe is more costly than PE- walls were much thinner than cast iron or steel. Because of cop-
AL-PE pipe and tends to be used in hot water applications only. per’s unique characteristics, it was not necessary that it be made
Composite pipe is extremely light; a 1000 ft (300 m) coil in IPS sizes. A new standard called copper tube size (CTS) was
weighs about 40 lb (178 N). Dimensions of and bending re- developed. The actual size of CTS is much closer to its nominal
quirements for PEX-AL-PEX composite pipe are provided in size than that of pipe.
Table 12.22. As a flexible pipe, minimum radius requirements The standard has evolved so that any product made in IPS
limit the minimum size of bend based upon the diameter of the size is called pipe and any product made in CTS size is called
pipe. Ease of handling and installation makes this type of pipe a tubing, without regard to any differences in material or manu-
cost-effective alternative to copper. facturing process. CPVC is an exception, being called pipe but
sold in CTS.
Clay and Concrete Pipe Pipe is available in a number of different thicknesses or
schedules. The American Society for Testing and Materials
Clay pipe is made from vitrified clay. Concrete pipe is cast
(ASTM) establishes the standards by which they are graded.
from concrete. These pipes are traditionally used for sewage,
The ASTM has assigned standards to each schedule of pipe
industrial waste, storm water, and drain field applications. Con-
made, and those standards dictate their use.
crete pipe is also used as large water supply pipe. These materi-
als are not commonly used in building plumbing systems.
Pipe is normally supplied in three end styles: PE or plain Pipe Pressure Rating
end; BE, or beveled end for welding; or T&C for threaded and
With the exception of sewer and drainage pipe, all pipe is pres-
supplied with one coupling per length. Steel pipe can be cut to
sure rated. There are several different methods of determining
any length and sold threaded both ends (TBE) or threaded on one
pressure ratings:
end only (TOE). Copper and thermoplastic pipe are sold PE only.
The schedule number is obtained from the expression
Tubing and Pipe Sizes 1000  P/S, where P is the service pressure and S is the al-
lowable stress, both being expressed in the same units. For
Historically, pipe size was based on the inside diameter of the
example, on types of steel pipe with IPS sizes thru 12 in,
pipe that was characteristic of the period, which was cast iron.
wall thickness is assigned schedule numbers from Schedule
For example, a half-inch cast iron pipe had an inside diameter
10 (S.10) thru Schedule 160 (S.160), which represent ap-
(ID) that was exactly one-half inch. The thickness of its wall de-
proximate values for 1000 times the pressure–stress ratios.
termined the outside diameter. Later, the standard was changed
so that pipe size related to a specific outside diameter to ensure The SDR is calculated by dividing the outside diameter of
that all pipes and fittings would fit together for a specific size. the pipe by its wall thickness. Pipe with an SDR of 13.5
Pipe is thick walled and available in standard iron pipe has an outside diameter that is 13.5 times thicker than the
size (IPS). IPS remains the standard by which pipe size is meas- wall thickness.
ured. With materials other than iron, the wall thickness of pipe The pressure-level rating provides the pressure rating of
is different. Consequently, inside diameters of pipes of different the pipe at a given temperature. Pipes are available com-
materials vary for a specific pipe size. Thus, a half-inch pipe is mercially at many pressure ratings, and the most popular
neither a half-inch on the inside nor the outside, but it is still of these are 50, 100, and 125 psi (340, 690, and 860 kPa);
called a half-inch pipe based on the nominal diameter. Under 160, 200, 250, and 315 psi (1.1, 1.4, 1.7, and 2.2 MPa).
PLUMBING FUNDAMENTALS 421

Weights designations are used for steel and iron pipe: tions; hub and spigot; and flared (metal to metal) joints are pop-
standard wall (Std), extra strong wall (XS), and double ular mechanical joining techniques. Fire suppression sprinkler
extra strong wall (XXS). These last two designations are pipes are frequently joined using a grooved Victaulic fitting.
sometimes referred to as extra heavy wall (XH) and dou- A compression fitting is a type of connection for tubing
ble extra heavy wall (XXH), respectively. Wrought-iron or pipe where a nut, and then a sleeve or ferrule, is placed over
pipe is referred to as Std, XS, and XXS and not by sched- a copper or plastic tube, and is compressed tightly around the
ule numbers. tube as the nut is tightened, forming a positive grip and seal
without soldering.
Soldering, brazing, and welding are ways of joining metal
12.6 FITTINGS AND VALVES surfaces. Soldering and brazing are methods of joining two or more
metal surfaces by melting nonferrous filler metal with a melting
Fittings temperature well below the metals to be joined. The melted filler
metal distributes itself between the surfaces to be bonded by cap-
A variety of fittings must be used to connect pipe lengths and
illary action. Soldering involves melting solder to a temperature
make all the pipe turns, branch lines, couplings that join the
below 840°F (449°C), usually in the range of 350° to 550°F (177°
straight runs, and stops at the end of the runs. Fittings for steel
to 288°C). Brazing involves melting the metal filler above 430°C
and wrought-iron pipe are made of malleable iron and cast iron.
(800°F), usually in the range of 1100° to 1500°F (593° to 816°C),
The fittings for plastic, copper, and brass pipe are made of the
but still below the melting temperature of the metals to be joined.
same materials as the pipe being connected.
Soldered joints are used when the service temperature does not
exceed 205°F (96°C). Brazed joints offer greater strength and
Elbows
should be used where operating temperatures are up to 400°F
Elbows, usually at 45° and 90°, are angular fittings used to change (204°C). Welding typically involves joining two or more pieces of
the direction of a supply pipe. On a sanitary drainage system, a metal by the application of heat. Unlike soldering or brazing,
sanitary bend makes a more gradual turn to prevent blockage. welding involves a partial melting of the surfaces of the metals to
be joined. It offers the greatest physical strength.
Tees Solvent-cementing and fusion welding can join some
plastic pipe materials. Solvent cementing involves coating the
Tees are used in a supply system when a line must branch off at
plastic surfaces with a prime coat and a solvent cement coat
a straight run. A reducing tee allows different pipe sizes to be
before they are joined. The cement cures joining the surfaces
joined together in a supply system. Sanitary T and sanitary Y are
in a manner similar to the cementing technique used to attach
tee-like fittings used in sanitary drainage systems that make a
the pieces of a plastic model airplane. Fusion welding
more gradual turn to prevent blockage. A sanitary Y can accept
involves heating the surfaces until they melt, allowing them to
two or three branches before combining flow into one pipe.
be joined.
Couplings
Valves
Couplings are used to join straight runs of pipe. A union joins
Valves are used to control flow of the water throughout the sys-
straight runs of pipe but also allows the pipes to be more easily
tem. Proper location of valves simplifies repairs to the system,
disconnected when future piping revisions are expected or
fixtures, or equipment being serviced. Valves also regulate flow
equipment needs to be replaced.
to deliver the appropriate quantity of water and reduce water
A reducer is a straight fitting used to decrease the diame-
consumption. In building plumbing systems, there are usually
ter in a pipe in a water supply system. An increaser is a straight
valves at risers (vertical pipe serving the building), branches
fitting used to increase the diameter in a pipe in a sanitary
(horizontal pipe serving the fixtures), and pipes to individual
drainage system.
fixtures or equipment. The inner workings of most valves are
generally accessible for repairs.
Adapters
Valves generally fall into four categories: gate, globe,
Adapters are used in a supply system where threaded pipe is check and angle. These are described below.
being connected to copper or thermoplastic. Adapters have one
threaded end to accommodate threaded pipe. Gate Valves
The gate valve is a manual valve that has a wedge-shaped leaf
Joining Pipes and Fittings
that, when closed, seals tightly against two metal seats that are
Pipes and fittings are joined through a number of techniques. set at slight angles. (See Figure 12.8.) This type of valve is usu-
Pipes and fittings can be joined mechanically. Threaded joints, ally used where the flow of the water is left either completely
insert fittings with crimped connections or clamped connec- opened or closed for most of the time. Because the flow of
422 CHAPTER 12

FIGURE 12.10 A cross-section of an angle valve.

FIGURE 12.8 A cross-section of a gate valve.

Check Valves
The check valve opens to allow the flow of water in the direc-
water passes straight through the valve, there is very little water
tion desired and prevents flow in the other direction. There
pressure lost to friction. The gate valve is not used to regulate
are two types of check valves, swing types and spring types. In
flow of water. Instead, it is used to shut off the flow of water
the swing check valve design, the pressure of the water forces
such as to fixtures and equipment when repairs or replacement
the valve gate to swing open, but once the flow stops, gravity
must be made.
causes the gate to fall closed, preventing a reversal of the flow.
This type of valve must be mounted vertically or horizontally to
Globe Valves
work properly. (See Figure 12.11.)
The globe valve is a manual, compression-type valve, com- In contrast, the gate in a spring check valve is spring
monly used where there is occasional or periodic use, such as loaded. Water pressure forces the gate open much like the
lavatories (faucets) and hose connections (called hose bibbs). swing type, but when the flow stops, a spring (not gravity)
This type of valve regulates the flow of water. Design of the forces the gate closed. This enables the valve to be mounted
globe valve is such that the water passing through is forced to in any position and at any angle. This valve is used in such
make two 90° turns, which greatly increases the friction loss in places as the water feed line to a boiler (heating unit) where
this valve compared with that in a gate valve. (See Figure 12.9.) the water from the boiler might pollute the system if it
backed up.
Angle Valves All valves are modifications of these fundamental types.
Valves can also be categorized by their function. There are sev-
The angle valve is a manual valve similar in operation to the
eral types of special valves that justify a description.
globe valve, utilizing the same principle of compressing a
washer against a metal seat to cut the flow of water. It is com-
monly used for outside hose bibbs. (See Figure 12.10.) The Ball Valves
angle valve has a much higher friction loss than the gate valve
A ball valve is a manual valve that has a ball with a hole
and about half the friction loss of the globe valve.
through it that is mounted between two seats. When the ball
hole is in line with the valve openings, full flow of water oc-
curs. A 90° rotation of the ball causes the valve to be fully
closed. Ball valves are available in both on/off shutoff control
and controlled-flow designs. Controlled-flow ball valves are
designed to regulate the flow of water.

FIGURE 12.9 A cross-section of a globe valve. FIGURE 12.11 A cross-section of a check valve.
PLUMBING FUNDAMENTALS 423

Metered Valves
Metered valves are designed to automatically discharge for a
specific length of time and thus deliver a fixed quantity of water
before closing off flow. They operate by pushing down or
against the valve handle. They are used on lavatories in public
restrooms such as in transportation terminals, restaurants, and
convention halls to ensure that water is shut off after a short
period of time. A flushometer valve is a metered valve that
discharges a predetermined quantity of water to fixtures for
flushing purposes (e.g., water closets and urinals) and is closed
by direct water pressures. PHOTO 12.9 A freezeless hose bibb or sill cock. (Used with
permission of ABC)
Flow Control Valves
A flow control valve automatically adjusts the rate of water
Hose Bibbs
flow to a predetermined flow rate as pressure in the system
varies. They can be used to limit flow at a fixture outlet thereby A hose bibb, sometimes called a sill cock, is a valve designed to
holding demand to a required minimum. accept the threaded connection of a hose. A freezeless hose
bibb has a long body that when placed in an exterior wall, cuts
Thermostatic Valves off the water supply near the interior wall surface. This allows
water near the exterior wall surface to drain out when the valve
A thermostatic valve, frequently called a tempering valve or
is closed to avoid freezing of water and valve damage in severe
mixing valve, is an automatic valve thermostatically blends hot
winter temperatures. Secured hose bibbs require a specially
and cold water to desired temperatures and to prevent scalding.
designed knob to open the valve, which prevents use by the
general public. A hose bibb is shown in Photo 12.9.
Temperature-Pressure Relief Valves
A temperature-pressure relief (T/P) valve is a safety valve de- Flushometer
signed to limit pressure of a liquid vapor or gas. These valves
A flushometer is a valve-like device designed to supply a fixed
are specified such that the valve remains closed at normal oper-
quantity of water for flushing toilets and urinals. When operated,
ating pressures yet it is allowed to open to release excessive
it automatically shuts off after a measured amount of water flow
pressure. They are commonly found as a safety feature on
in order to conserve water. It uses pressure from the water supply
water heaters and boilers.
system rather than the force of gravity to discharge water.
Pressure-Reducing Valves
Sensor-Operated Valves
A pressure-reducing valve is an adjustable valve designed to re-
Modern urinals and water closets (toilets) use a sensor-operated
duce pressure to a specific setting. These valves are commonly
valve that automatically flushes the fixture when a user departs.
used in building plumbing systems where street water pressure
The unit uses an infrared proximity sensor to detect a user
is excessive and needs to be reduced before being sent to plumb-
approaching the fixture, then waits until the user departs. A
ing fixtures. A pressure-reducing valve is shown in Photo 12.8.
solenoid is used to actuate the flush. Typically, a batter con-
tained within the unit powers the sensor circuit.
Valves referred to as standard weight are designed to
withstand pressures up to 125 psi (860 kPa). High-pressure
valves are also available. Most small valves have bronze bod-
ies, while large valves (2 in [50 mm] and larger) have iron bod-
ies with noncorrosive moving parts and seats that must be
replaced periodically. They are available threaded or soldered
to match the pipe or tubing used.
Valves must be installed in the appropriate direction of
flow. An arrow cast in the body of the valve usually indicates
direction of flow. Some valves are better than others in regulat-
ing flow. Gate valves and ball valves undergo excessive wear
(from cavitation) when they are partially closed. Globe valves
PHOTO 12.8 A pressure-reducing valve. (Used with permission of ABC) are designed to more easily and effectively regulate flow.
424 CHAPTER 12

12.7 PLUMBING FIXTURES

A plumbing fixture is an approved receptacle, device, or appli-

ance that uses water and discharges wastewater such as a water
closet, urinal, faucet, shower, dishwasher, drinking fountain,
hose connection, hose bibb, water heater, water softener, under-
ground sprinkler, hot tub, spa, and clothes washer. They must
be made of dense, durable, nonabsorbent materials with smooth,
impermeable surfaces. Plumbing fixtures are the only part of
the plumbing system that the owners or occupants of the build-
ing will see regularly, because most of the plumbing piping is
concealed in walls and floors.
The designer of the plumbing system, the architect, the
engineer, the plumber, and/or the owner may select plumbing
fixtures. It is important that the designer of the plumbing sys-
tem know what fixtures will be used (and even the manufac- PHOTO 12.10 A flush tank water closet. (Used with permission of ABC)
turer and model number, if possible) in order to do an accurate
job in designing the system. All fixtures should be carefully
selected as they will be in use for years, perhaps for the life of
the building.
The available sizes for each fixture should be carefully
checked in relation to the amount of space available. Most man-
ufacturers supply catalogs that show the dimensions of the fix-
tures they supply. Whoever selects the fixtures should check
with the local supplier to be certain that those chosen are read-
ily available; if not, they may have to be ordered far in advance
of the time they are required for installation. Most of the
fixtures are available in white or colors, so the color must also
be selected.
Plumbing fixtures are classified according to their use.
Groups of two or more like fixtures that are served by a
common drainage branch are known as a group of fixtures.
Types of plumbing fixtures and related design concerns are
as follows.
PHOTO 12.11 A wall-mounted, flush valve water closet. Note the
Water Closets
wall cleanout cover at the floor line to the right of the water closet.
A water closet is a plumbing fixture that serves as an indoor re- (Used with permission of ABC)
ceptacle and removal system for human waste. Although this
fixture is commonly called a toilet or commode, the building
code specifically refers to it as a water closet. Water closets A flush tank water closet has a water tank as part of the fix-
are typically made of solid vitrified china cast with an inte- ture. (See Figure 12.12.) As the handle or button on a water closet
gral (built-in) trap. They are also available in stainless steel is pushed, it lifts the valve in the tank, releasing the water to flush
that is typically specified for high-vandalism installations out the bowl. Then, when the handle is released, the valve drops
such as at highway rest stops, outdoor recreation areas, jails, and the tank fills through a tube attached to the bottom of the tank.
and detention centers. Examples of water closets are shown This type of water closet cannot be effectively flushed again until
in Photos 12.10 and 12.11. the tank is refilled. Foam lining can be installed in the tank to min-
In North America, water closets are available as single- imize condensation on the outside of a toilet tank by insulating the
flush, flush tank, or flush valve fixtures. Present require- cold water in the tank from warm, humid air.
ments limit average water consumption to 1.6 gal (6.0 L) Flush tank models range from those having the tank as a
per flush. These are known as ultra-low flush (ULF) water separate unit set on the closet bowl to those having a low tank
closets. Infrared and ultrasonic sensors can be built into the silhouette with the tank cast as an integral part of the water
flush valve to automatically flush and avoid nonflushing or closet. Generally, clients prefer this low-slung appearance but it
double flushing. is considerably more expensive.
PLUMBING FUNDAMENTALS 425

Two piece One piece

FIGURE 12.12 Flush tank water closets.

Floor mounted Wall mounted

FIGURE 12.13 Flush valve water closets.

Flush valve water closets have no tank to supply water. toilets perform. The development of the measure is indicative
Instead, when the handle is pushed, the water to flush the bowl of the demand for a functioning toilet.
comes directly from the water supply system at a high rate of
flow. When used, it is important that the water supply system be Urinals
designed to supply the high flow required. Although most of Urinals are plumbing fixtures that are commonly used in public
the fixtures operate effectively at a pressure of 20 psi (140 kPa), restrooms where it is desirable to reduce possible contamina-
the manufacturer’s specifications should be confirmed because tion of the water closet seats. They are commonly available in
higher pressure is often required.
Water closets may be floor or wall mounted. The floor-
mounted fixture is much less expensive in terms of initial cost,
but the wall-mounted fixture allows easier and generally more
effective cleaning of the floor. It is acceptable for most residen-
tial applications. Wall-mounted fixtures are considered desir-
able for public use, and some codes even require their use in
public places. When wall-mounted fixtures are used in wood
stud walls, a wider wall will be required than is sometimes used
with floor-mounted fixtures.
The dual-flush water closet, a technology first developed
in the early 1980s, takes water conservation one step further
by using 1.6 gal (6.0 L) of water to flush solid waste but only
0.8 gal (3.0 L) to flush liquid waste. Although this technology
is mandated in some countries (e.g., Australia and Singapore),
it is optional in North America.
The National Association of Home Builders Research
Center (NAHB) completed performance tests on 49 popular
toilet models. One element of this study provided a relative rat-
ing called the Flush Performance Index (FPI). FPI ratings
ranged from 0 to 82, with lower numbers being better. The FPI
for each toilet was calculated from the ability of a toilet to flush
varying amounts of sponges and paper. The study was limited:
Only two specimens of each toilet model were tested, and the FIGURE 12.14 Types of flushing actions used in a water closet.
Water flows into the bowl from the bowl rim. This raises the water level
sponges and paper used in the testing may not be a suitable sub- in the bowl to fill the gooseneck pathway. As water fills the gooseneck,
stitute for measuring real-world toilet performance. Thus, the the water and waste remaining in the bowl is sucked up and into the
testing results do not serve as an exact measure of how specific gooseneck by a siphoning action.
426 CHAPTER 12

Wallhung

PHOTO 12.13 A group of urinals separated by partitions. (Used with

permission of ABC)

Waterless Urinals
A waterless urinal is a urinal that is specifically engineered to
eliminate potable water consumption for urinal flushing. It
looks very much like a conventional urinal except the flush
valve and piping that is normally positioned above the fixture is
Stall Pedestal omitted. See Photo 12.14. Conventional urinals use about 3.5
(13 L) of water per flush and modern water-saving urinals use
FIGURE 12.15 Types of urinals. about 0.5 to 1 gal (2 to 4 L) of water per flush. The chief benefit
of waterless urinals is that they do not use water. In office build-
vitreous china and sometimes in enameled iron. They are also ings and schools, waterless urinals can save up to 25 000 gal
available in stainless steel for high-vandalism installations. (100 000 L) of potable water per year per fixture, saving water
Floor and trough-type urinals are no longer allowed in new and sewer costs and reducing the burden on the municipal
construction. Examples of urinals are shown in Figure 12.15 sewage and sewage treatment system.
and Photos 12.12 and 12.13. A waterless urinal fixture blocks odors and gasses by a
Urinals are available as flush tank or flush valve fixtures. means other than a traditional trap. Each manufacturer con-
Present requirements typically limit average water consump- structs its waterless urinal fixture differently. The most popular
tion to 1.0 gal (3.8 L) per flush. These are known as the ULF
urinals. Special metal urinals with straight drain lines limit av-
erage water consumption to 0.5 gal (1.9 L) per flush.

PHOTO 12.14 A waterless urinal, which represents the most

water-efficient urinal option because they provide first-cost savings
(e.g., eliminating the need to provide a water line and flush valve)
PHOTO 12.12 A wall-mounted, flush valve urinal. (Used with and less maintenance (e.g., leaks, valve repairs, and water overflows)
permission of ABC) over the conventional urinals. (Courtesy of NREL/DOE)
PLUMBING FUNDAMENTALS 427

types use a removable cartridge that needs to be replaced on a

regular maintenance schedule, or a liquid sealant that must be
regularly flushed and refilled periodically, usually by the house-
keeping staff. With most designs, urine flows by gravity off the
smooth surface of the urinal into a trapped liquid with a lighter-
than-water specific density. The liquid floats, allowing the urine
to flow through it to the drain. The liquid remains and serves to
trap the odor. One manufacturer recommends cartridge replace-
ment after an estimated 12 000 to 15 000 uses, which on average
will be every 3 to 4 months depending on usage.
Waterless urinals are easier to install than conventional
urinals in both new construction and retrofit applications. No
water connection and no flush mechanisms must be installed,
saving construction time and costs. Waterless urinal systems
also avoid the need for frost- and vandal-prone plumbing acces-
sories. They avoid flooding when the drain is blocked from
scale or vandalism. Most problems with the waterless urinals PHOTO 12.15 A luxurious bathtub with power jets in a residential
arise from faulty installation or improper maintenance. bathroom. (Used with permission of ABC)
Waterless urinals are much more hygienic than conven-
tional flush urinal systems. The dry surface of a waterless urinal
does not allow bacteria to survive. In contrast, the conventional
flush urinal discharges an unavoidable bacterial spray with each
flush, which then falls on nearby wall and floor surfaces and
forms new bacterial growth. Additionally, the dry seal of a wa-
terless urinal is more sanitary than the pool of diluted urine that
seals the conventional urinal drain, which also eliminates urinal
odor by isolating urine from the restroom atmosphere.

Bidets
Bidets are personal hygiene plumbing fixtures used for genital
and perineal cleanliness. It is typically used after using the water
closet. Equipped with valves for hot and cold water, the inside
PHOTO 12.16 A bathtub for a master bathroom. (Used with
walls of the bowl are washed the same way as a standard toilet. permission of ABC)
The bidet is not designed or intended to carry away solid human
waste. It is installed alongside the water closet. The user sits on
the fixture facing the wall (and the water controls) and is
cleansed by a rinsing spray. Bidets are available in vitreous
china. Some bidets have a warm air dryer that is used to blow dry
the genital and perineal area after washing. The bidet is used ex-
tensively in Europe and South America and is enjoying increased
usage in Canada and the United States. (See Figure 12.16.)

Bathtubs
Bathtubs are plumbing fixtures used for bathing. See Photos
12.15 through 12.17. They are available in enameled iron, cast

PHOTO 12.17 An enameled iron bathtub stored before installation.

FIGURE 12.16 A bidet. (Used with permission of ABC)
428 CHAPTER 12

iron, or fiberglass. Tubs are available in a variety of sizes, the

most common being 30 or 32 in (760 or 810 mm) wide; 12, 14,
or 16 in (300, 350 or 400 mm) high; and 4 to 6 ft (1.2 to 1.8 m)
long. Whirlpool bathtubs are fitted with jets that propel a cur-
rent of warm water in a swirling motion.
Enameled iron tubs are formed of steel that is clad with a
porcelain enamel finish. They are generally available in lengths
of 41⁄2 and 5 ft (1.37 and 1.53 m); widths of 30 to 31 in (760 to
785 mm); and typical depths of 15 to 151⁄2 in (375 to 387 mm).
The most commonly available length of fiberglass bath-
tubs is 5 ft (1.5 m), and it takes 34 to 36 in (865 to 915 mm) of
width to install. Generally, the fiberglass units are cast in a sin-
gle piece. Many include three walls (eliminating the need for a
ceramic tile tub surround). It is this single-piece feature, with
no cracks or sharp corners to clean, which makes the fiberglass
tub so popular with clients. PHOTO 12.18 A tub faucet with tub/shower control. (Used with
The size of the fiberglass unit typically makes it almost permission of ABC)
impossible to fit it through the standard bathroom door; it must
therefore be ordered and delivered early to be set in place before
walls and doors are finished. In wood-frame buildings, these units
are usually delivered to the job and put in place before the plas-
ter or gypsum board is put on the walls or the doors installed.
When selecting fiberglass tubs, be certain to specify only
manufacturers who are widely known and respected, with long
experience in the plumbing fixture field. Off-brands often give
unsatisfactory results in that the fiberglass “gives” as it is
stepped on, making a slight noise. In addition, some may be far
more susceptible to scratching and damage.
Bathtub fittings may be installed on only one end of a tub,
and the end at which they are placed designates the tub. As you
face the tub, if the fittings are placed on the left, it is called a left-
PHOTO 12.19 A showerhead. (Used with permission of ABC)
handed tub, and if placed on the right, it is right-handed.

Showers
A showerhead is an overhead nozzle that sprays water down on
the bather. Shower fittings may be placed over bathtubs instead
of having a separate shower space; this is commonly done in
residences, apartments, and motels. However, it is important
that when a showerhead is used with a bathtub fixture, the walls
be constructed of an impervious material such as ceramic tile.
See Photos 12.18 through 12.21.
Present requirements for average water consumption by a
showerhead are that flow rates not exceed 2.5 gpm (9.5 L/min).
These are known as low-flow showerheads. A handshower is a PHOTO 12.20 A roughed-in plastic shower pan. (Used with
permission of ABC)
showerhead attached to the end of a flexible hose, which the
bather can hold during bathing or showering.
Shower surrounds cover the walls that enclose a shower shower surrounds available include corner units and gang head
stall. A shower enclosure consists of glass panels, either framed units. A gang head shower has multiple showerheads extending
or frameless, used to enclose bathtubs, shower modules, from the top of a post. It is commonly used in institutions,
shower receptors, and custom-tiled showering spaces. A schools, factories where workers must shower after work, and
receptor or shower pan is a shallow basin used to catch and other locations where large numbers of people must shower.
contain water in the bottom of a showering space. They are Shower surrounds and receptors of tile, concrete, or mar-
available in units of porcelain enameled steel, fiberglass, ble may be built to any desired size or shape. Typically lead or
tile, terrazzo, marble, cement, or molded compositions. Special plastic sheets are site-formed into shower pans on custom-made
PLUMBING FUNDAMENTALS 429

shower designed to accommodate a 32 in by 32 in (800 mm by

800 mm) roughed-in opening, provided it has at least 900 in2
(.56 m2) of interior area.

Lavatories
A lavatory is a bathroom basin or sink used for personal
hygiene. Lavatories are generally available in vitreous china or
enameled iron, or they may be cast in plastic or a plastic com-
pound with the basin an integral part of the countertop. They
are also available in stainless steel for high-vandalism applica-
tions. See Figure 12.17 and Photos 12.22 through 12.24.
PHOTO 12.21 A three-quarter bathroom (lavatory, water closet, Present requirements for nonmetered lavatory faucets
and shower) with glass doors on the shower stall. (Used with permission limit the average water consumption to 2.2 gpm (8.4 L/min).
of ABC) Metered lavatory faucets are designed to shut off after a short
period of time. They are used in public restrooms such as in
showers. Preformed shower stall surrounds are most commonly transportation terminals, restaurants, and convention halls to
available in sizes of 30 in by 30 in (760 mm by 760 mm) and ensure that water is shut off and not flowing freely. Metered
30 in by 36 in (760 mm by 915 mm). Other sizes may be ordered. faucets used on lavatories should not deliver more than 0.25 gal
Steel shower surrounds are usually available in sizes of 30 in (1.0 L) per use. Infrared and ultrasonic sensors can be installed
by 30 in (760 mm by 760 mm) and 30 in by 36 in (760 mm by to operate faucets and limit waste.
915 mm). Special sizes may also be ordered. Fiberglass shower Lavatories are available in a large variety of sizes and
surrounds are commonly available in sizes of 36 in by 36 in the shapes are usually square, rectangular, round, or oval. The
(915 mm by 915 mm) and 36 in by 48 in (915 mm by 1220 mm). lavatory may be wall-hung, set on legs, set on a stand, or built
Code generally sets a minimum shower size (except as into a cabinet. Lavatory styles are usually classified as flush-
permitted herein) of at least 1024 in2 (0.66 m2) of interior cross- mount, self-rimming, undercounter, integral, or as units that
sectional space with a minimum interior dimension of 30 in can be wall-hung or supported on legs. Self-rimming lavatories
(760 mm). The only exception is a prefabricated one-piece have a finished rim that is placed directly over the countertop

Countertop

Corner, wall Floor mounted

or floor mounted

FIGURE 12.17 Types of lavatories.

430 CHAPTER 12

opening. Undercounter lavatories are an installation in which a

lavatory (or sink) is attached to the underside of a countertop.
Pedestal lavatories have a basin that is supported primarily by a
freestanding pedestal leg.
Special fittings for lavatories include the following: foot
controls (often used in institutions such as hospitals and nurs-
ing homes); self-closing faucets, which are commonly used in
public facilities (especially on hot water faucets) to conserve
water; and automatic “no-touch” flow, which operates automat-
ically when a sensor recognizes that hands are positioned under
the faucet. Residential lavatories have a lift rod that opens the
PHOTO 12.22 Luxurious lavatories in a residential bathroom. (Used pop-up drain when the lift rod is depressed. When rod is lifted,
with permission of ABC) the drain closes so the lavatory will retain water.

Sinks
Kitchen sinks are most commonly made of enameled cast iron
or stainless steel. Sinks are usually available in a single- or a
double-bowl arrangement; some even have a third bowl, which
is much smaller. A waste disposal is typically connected to
one of the sink drains. Kitchen sinks are generally flush-
mounted into a plastic laminate or into a composition plastic
counter. Present water conserving requirements for residential
kitchen sink faucets limits the average water consumption
to 2.5 gpm (9.5 L/min). A common sink width for the kitchen
is 30 in.
A utility or service sink has a deep, fixed basin that is
supplied with hot and cold water and is used for rinsing mops
and disposing cleaning water. They are often called slop
sinks or mop sinks. These sinks are made of enameled cast
iron or vitreous china. Most service sinks have high backs,
and there may be two or as many as three bowl compart-
PHOTO 12.23 A pedestal lavatory. (Used with permission of ABC) ments. Other sinks commonly used are laundry trays, pantry
sinks, bar sinks, and surgeon’s sinks. Service sinks are gener-
ally available in enameled iron or in stainless steel. A floor-
mount sink is installed into the center of a concave floor to
dispose of water. The dome strainer and grate provide a con-
venient drain and catch basin for general cleaning and main-
tenance tasks. Examples of types of sinks are shown in
Photos 12.25 through 12.28.

PHOTO 12.24 A cast, vitrified china wall-mounted lavatory in a PHOTO 12.25 An enameled cast iron kitchen sink. (Used with
public restroom. (Used with permission of ABC) permission of ABC)
PLUMBING FUNDAMENTALS 431

PHOTO 12.26 A stainless steel kitchen sink. (Used with permission

of ABC)

PHOTO 12.29 A laundry tray. (Used with permission of ABC)

Drinking Fountains
and Water Coolers
Drinking fountains offer users a limitless supply of drinking
water at any location where water and sanitary drainage are
readily available. Water coolers can deliver 8 gal/hr (30 L/hr) or
more of chilled drinking water. They require connections to
PHOTO 12.27 A stainless wet bar with sink. (Used with permission power, water, and drainage. Drinking fountains and water cool-
of ABC)
ers are available in wall-mounted and floor units. Drinking
fountains and water coolers should not be installed in public
restrooms. (See Photo 12.30.)

Other Fixtures
Emergency fixtures include eye-face washes, drench showers,
decontamination units, portables, and accessories designed for
use wherever hazardous substances are present. Other types of
fixtures include baptisteries, ornamental ponds, fountains, and
aquariums. An emergency drench shower at a university labo-
ratory is shown in Photo 12.31.

PHOTO 12.28 A stainless steel service sink. (Used with permission

of ABC)

Laundry Tubs and Trays

Laundry tubs, sometimes called trays, are a large deep sink
used in laundry rooms. They are usually available in a single-
or a double-bowl arrangement. Laundry tubs are typically floor
or wall-mounted units available in low-cost plastic, enameled PHOTO 12.30 A wall-mounted drinking fountain unit. Chilled water
iron, or stainless steel. A laundry tray is shown in Photo 12.29. is provided to the unit. (Used with permission of ABC)
432 CHAPTER 12

mirror placement, because improperly positioned mirrors can

provide a reflected view to areas where privacy was intended.
Public restrooms can present accessibility challenges for
people with disabilities. As a result, building regulations in the
United States establish requirements to allow accessibility for
occupants and provide for use of public restroom facilities.
With the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
in 1991, public restroom facilities in the United States must be
designed to accommodate people with disabilities. New com-
mercial construction in the United States is required to comply
with Title III of the ADA Standards for Accessible Design as
enforced by the U.S. Department of Justice. New multifamily
dwellings must meet the requirements of the Fair Housing
Amendment Act (FHAA) as enforced by the U.S. Department
of Housing and Urban Development.
Designers of restroom spaces should always consult local
PHOTO 12.31 An emergency drench shower at a university
laboratory. (Used with permission of ABC)
building codes for requirements specific to the building site.
Typical accessibility requirements for restrooms are as follows:
a. An accessible entry on an accessible route.
”Approved” Fixtures
b. A 60 in (1500 mm) diameter clear space within the rest-
Federal law mandates that all plumbing fixtures meet or exceed room. Only one door, in any position, can infringe upon
the minimum Energy Policy Act (EPACT) requirements based this clear space by no more than 12 in (300 mm).
on maximum flow.
c. At least one men’s and one women’s accessible water
Toilets 1.6 gpf (6.1 Lpf) closet stall door with a 32 in (800 mm) minimum.
Urinals 1.0 gpf (3.8 Lpf) d. Grab bars behind (rear) and on one side of each accessible
Showerheads 2.5 gpm (9.5 L/min) water closet that are mounted 33 to 36 in (840 to
Faucets 2.2 gpm (8.4 L/min) 910 mm) from the centerline of the grab bar to the finished
Metering faucets 0.25 gal (1 L) per cycle floor. Side grab bars shall be 42 in (1050 mm) long and
Applicable state and local codes should be checked prior mounted 12 in (300 mm) from the rear wall, and rear grab
to design as some of them have “approved fixture” lists; some bars should be a minimum of 36 in long (900 mm) and
code officials have not approved the waterless urinal and low- mounted a maximum of 6 in (150 mm) from the side
flush toilet technologies. wall. The diameter of grab bars should be between 11⁄4 to
11⁄2 in (30 to 40 mm) with 11⁄2 inch (40 mm) clearance
Basic Design Considerations from the wall.
for Restrooms
A restroom is a personal hygiene facility provided to allow use
of a water closet by members of the public, or by patrons or
customers. In other parts of the world, the restroom is known as
a washroom (Canada), public toilet (Great Britain, Australia,
and Hong Kong) or comfort station (Africa, Middle East, and
Southeast Asia).
A properly designed restroom improves the experience of
both users and those who maintain the facilities. Restrooms with
multiple water closets should have partitioned stalls (required by
code). Wall partitions between urinals (mandated by code) pro-
vide privacy and prevent splash from spreading. Automated
“touch-free” fixtures and dispensers (e.g., door openers, toilet and
urinal sensing flush valve, faucets, hand dryers, and liquid soap,
paper towel, and toilet paper dispensers) reduce the spread of
disease and cut cost by controlling product usage. Because these
devices are occasionally prone to failure, they should have the PHOTO 12.32 An accessible water closet with rear and side grab
capability to operate manually. Consideration should be given to bars. (Used with permission of ABC)
PLUMBING FUNDAMENTALS 433

TABLE 12.23 AN EXAMPLE OF MINIMUM NUMBER OF PLUMBING FIXTURES. THE DESIGNATION 1:100 INDICATES 1 FIXTURE TYPE
PER 100 OCCUPANTS. NUMBER OF OCCUPANTS IS TYPICALLY DETERMINED BY FLOOR AREA. VARIES WITH VARIOUS
MODEL CODES AND LOCAL REGULATIONS.

Water Closets Urinals Lavatories

Bathtubs or Drinking
Male Female Male Male Female Showers Fountains

1: 1 to 100 3: 1 to 50 1: 1 to 100 1: 1 to 200 1: 1 to 200 — 1 per 150

2: 101 to 200 4: 51 to 100 2: 101 to 200 2: 201 to 400 2: 201 to 400
3: 201 to 400 8: 201 to 200 3: 201 to 400 3: 401 to 750 3: 401 to 750
11: 201 to 400 4: 401 to 600
Over 400, add one fixture for each Over 600, add Over 750, add one fixture for One per
additional 500 male occupants one fixture for each additional 500 occupants occupied
and one fixture for each each additional floor
additional female occupant 300 male
occupants

e. A 48 in (1200 mm) clear space in front, and 32 in (800 mm) this minimum plumbing facility chart must be followed. Re-
clear space on one side, of each accessible water closet. quirements vary by occupancy number and type as dictated by
f. Top of each accessible water closet seat measured be- local code. For example, single- and multiple-dwelling units
tween 17 to 19 in (425 to 475 mm) from floor. and apartments must have one water closet, one lavatory, and
one bathtub or shower per dwelling or apartment unit. Com-
g. At least one accessible lavatory with 29 in (725 mm)
mercial, industrial, or institutional projects have requirements
clearance underneath, bladed valve handles, and insu-
tied to occupant load (number of occupants) in a space.
lated hot water drain pipes.
Table 12.23 shows a characteristic set of requirements for
h. At least one accessible mirror bottom mounted 40 in number of fixtures per number of occupants served in offices
(1000 mm) maximum above floor. and public buildings. Table 12.24 provides minimum toilet re-
i. Dispensers (at least one towel, sanitary napkin, seat quirements in kindergarten through 12th-grade schools based
cover, soap) mounted with highest operable part 40 in on population of each gender at the school site. Of course, these
(1000 mm) maximum above floor. requirements vary by local code.
For example, in applying the requirements in Table 12.23,
a three-story office building serving 250 occupants (125 male
Minimum Number of Fixtures and 125 female) must have two water closets, two urinals, and
Codes generally set the minimum number of fixtures that must one lavatory for males and eight water closets and one lavatory
be installed on a project according to the type of occupancy for females. Three drinking fountains are required (one per oc-
and, in some cases, the number of occupants. When designing cupied floor). More fixtures may be required to effectively
any residential, commercial, industrial, or institutional project, serve occupants in some facility layouts.

TABLE 12.24 AN EXAMPLE OF MINIMUM TOILET REQUIREMENTS IN KINDERGARTEN THROUGH 12TH-GRADE SCHOOLS
BASED ON POPULATION OF EACH GENDER AT THE SCHOOL SITE. VARIES BY SCHOOL DISTRICT.

Male Female

Kindergarten
(toilets to be within kindergarten complex) 1 toilet serves 1 to 20 1 toilet serves 1 to 20
2 toilets serve 21 to 50 2 toilets serve 21 to 50
Over 50, add 1 toilet for every 50 people Over 50, add 1 toilet for every 50 people
Elementary 1 urinal for 75 1 toilet for 25
1 toilet for 30
Secondary 1 urinal for 35 1 toilet for 30
1 toilet for 40
Staff 1 toilet serves 1 to 15 1 toilet serves 1 to 15
2 toilets serve 16 to 35 2 toilets serve 16 to 35
3 toilets serve 36 to 55 3 toilets serve 36 to 55
Over 55, add 1 toilet for every 40 men Over 55, add
Provide 1 urinal for every 50 men
434 CHAPTER 12

internationally recognized certification for manufactur-

12.8 CODES AND STANDARDS ers that comply with high standards of quality control.
• Mechanical Standardization Society of the Valve and
Building codes in the United States began as fire regulations
Fittings Industry, Inc. (MSS), a nonprofit technical as-
written and enacted by several large cities during the 19th century.
sociation consisting of a group of manufacturers that
These regulations have evolved into a code that contains stan-
develops technical codes and standards for the valve
dards and specifications for materials, construction methods,
and fitting industry.
structural strength, fire resistance, accessibility, egress (exiting),
ventilation, lighting, energy conservation, and other considera- • National Sanitation Foundation, Inc. (NSF), a non-
tions. There are many codes and standards that govern building profit organization known for its role in developing
design and engineering. An architect and engineer must be standards for equipment, products, and services. Many
familiar with and maintain a working-level understanding of standards govern drinking water treatment chemicals
current codes and standards. and plumbing system components.
• Underwriter’s Laboratory, Inc. (UL), a nonprofit or-
ganization that tests and qualifies valve and fitting
Standards products under UL standards.
A standard is a set of specifications written by a professional
organization or group of professionals that seek to standardize
materials, components, equipment, or methods of construction/ Building Codes
operation. Many organizations develop technical standards, By definition, a building code is a local ordinance (a law) that
specifications, and design techniques that govern the design establishes the minimum requirements for design, construction,
and construction of buildings and building systems. Many organ- use, renovation, alteration, and demolition of a building and its
izations exist that write standards for the plumbing industry, systems. The intent of a building code is to ensure health,
including those that follow: safety, and welfare of the building occupants. A model building
• American Gas Association, Inc. (AGA), a national or- code is a collection of standards and specifications written and
ganization that develops standards, tests, and qualifies compiled by group of professionals and made available for
products used in gas lines and gas appliance installations. adoption by state and local jurisdictions.
A model building code does not become a law until it is
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI), a pri-
formally adopted as a public ordinance by a local governmental
vate, nonprofit organization that coordinates the work
entity such as a city or county or until it is enacted into public law
between standards writing groups in the United States
by the state government. A few states have adopted a uniform
(e.g., International Standard Organization, American
statewide building code, but most states legally assign code
Society of Mechanical Engineers, American Society
adoption to counties and municipalities within the state. A mu-
for Testing of Materials, and so on).
nicipality or county may write its own building code, but typi-
• American Society for Testing of Materials (ASTM), an cally it relies on adoption of model codes as the base of its
international standards-writing organization that devel- building code. Amendments to the model code are made to
ops voluntary standards for materials, products, systems, address local issues.
and services. Model building codes and technical standards are for-
• American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), a mally revised periodically, usually every three to six years, to
national organization that develops standards for plumb- remain current with advancements and new practices in indus-
ing materials and products. try. Each time a new model code or standard is revised, it needs
• American Society of Sanitary Engineering, Inc. (ASSE), to be adopted into law by the governmental entity. As a result,
a national organization that develops standards and qual- different code editions may be in effect in neighboring commu-
ifies products for plumbing and sanitary installations. nities. Design professionals must work hard to keep abreast of
revisions in the code and standards.
• American Water Works Association (AWWA), a natio-
The model code organizations in the United States created
nal organization that promotes public health through
the International Code Council (ICC) to oversee the develop-
improvement of the quality of water. Develops
ment of a single set of model codes to replace the corresponding
standards for drinking water, valves, fittings, and
model code of each organization. Initial efforts have focused on
other equipment.
a common code format, with the ultimate goal of a single na-
• Canadian Gas Association, Inc. (CGA), a Canadian as- tional model code referred to as the International Codes.
sociation that develops standards, tests, and qualifies A typical set of plumbing standards extracted from a local
products used in gas lines and gas appliance installations. code is provided in Figure 12.18 (See pp. 437–439). These stan-
• International Standard Organization (ISO), a world- dards are in addition to regulations in a model building code (e.g.,
wide standard coordinating organization that offers International Plumbing Code) adopted by that municipality.
PLUMBING FUNDAMENTALS 435

Construction Drawings alteration, repair, occupancy, use, and maintenance of all build-
ings, structures, or utilities within its jurisdiction.
A complete set of construction drawings and specifications of A building inspector is a representative of a governmental
the building plumbing system is needed to convey design infor- entity who performs the local administration and enforcement of
mation to the contractor. Plumbing construction drawings show the codes. The inspector first reviews the proposed construction
the layout and design of a plumbing installation. Common documents (drawings and specifications) for compliance with
plumbing symbols used on construction drawings are shown in the applicable codes, regulations, and ordinances. After approval
Figure 12.19 (See pp. 439–440). The following construction of drawings and specifications, the inspector then checks for
drawings and details are generally required: compliance during construction. A single building inspector may
1. Water supply and distribution plan showing piping sizes, inspect all phases of construction or there may be a separate
valves, water heater details, and temperature-pressure inspector for the building structure, plumbing, HVAC, electrical
relief valves with discharge pipe. installations, and fire protection, health, and safety systems.
Plumbing inspections are mandatory on the local level in
2. Potable water system riser diagram showing piping sizes
those municipalities that have implemented inspection require-
and provisions for protection of potable water supply.
ments in their plumbing code. Although it varies by local juris-
3. Plumbing piping plan showing layout, pitch of drainage diction, the typical residential or commercial code-compliance
lines, cleanouts, size of traps, and riser diagram. inspections occur in three phases.
4. Sanitary drainage and vent system riser diagram showing
1. Underground Inspection The inspector reviews the
drainage fixture units (DFU), sizes, and vent termination
sewer and water services coming from the city mains to
details through the roof.
the property. The inspector verifies that acceptable mate-
5. Piping support and installation schedule. rials were used in the construction of the water and sewer
6. Storm drainage details, including rain gutter or roof drain services. The burial depth of the pipes is also measured to
sizes and downspout/leader sizes. ensure that pipes have adequate protection from freezing.
7. Other special details (e.g., health care fixtures). Therefore, the inspection must be made while all piping
is exposed; that is, it must be completed before any
Specifications should contain piping and material fixture plumbing trenches are backfilled.
specifications, including:
2. Rough-In Inspection This is an inspection of the inte-
1. The occupant load used to determine the number of rior drainage, waste vent, and water supply piping. Verifi-
required plumbing fixtures cation of the adequacy of the plumbing materials used in
2. Number and distribution based on the use group the project is made, including an examination of the sizing
of water, waste, and vent piping, the grade of drainage
3. Separate facilities for each gender
piping, and the quality of connections between pipe and
4. Accessible plumbing facilities and details fittings. This inspection must be made while all piping is
exposed before walls and ceilings are built. Frequently, a
pressure test of the piping system is required.
Administration of the Code 3. Final Inspection This is the inspection of the final set-
Where codes are in force, there will be a building department or ting of fixtures (bathtub, water closet, lavatory, kitchen
department of building within the local governmental entity sink, and so on.). The inspector looks for proper fixture
(e.g., city, county, and so forth). The governmental building setting and alignment, proper caulking around fixtures,
department issues permits for the construction, addition, acceptable shower valves, and so forth.

STUDY QUESTIONS

12-1. What is the difference between potable and nonpotable 12-5. When a project (building) being designed is going to
water? For what purposes may each be used? connect to a community water supply system, what in-
12-2. What sources of water supply may be available to a formation about the system must be obtained?
city? 12-6. How are wells classified, and what methods of con-
12-3. Why should any source of water be tested before the struction may be used for each type?
water is used? 12-7. Show with a sketch how a well may be protected from
12-4. What is the basic difference between a community and surface water contaminants.
a private water supply system, and what are the advan- 12-8. How are wells protected from possible contamination
tages and disadvantages of each? from sewage disposal fields?