MODULE 1

Electrical Equipment operation and Maintenance

ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT is any machine powered by electricity. It usually consists of an enclosure, a variety of
electrical components, and often a power switch.
Examples are:
ELECTRIC SWITCHBOARD is a device that directs electricity from one or more sources of supply to several
smaller regions of usage. It is an assembly of one or more panels, each of which contains switches that allow
electricity to be redirected. The role of switchboard is to allow the division of the current supplied to the
switchboard into smaller currents for further distribution and to provide switching, current protection and
metering for those various currents. In general, switchboards may distribute power to transformers, panel
boards, control equipment, and ultimately, to individual system loads. Inside a switchboard there will be one
or more bus bars. These are flat strips of copper or aluminum, to which the switchgear is connected. Bus bars
carry large currents through the switchboard, and are supported by insulators. Bare bus bars are common, but
many types are now manufactured with an insulating cover on the bars, leaving only connection points
exposed.
DISTRIBUTION BOARD is a component of an electricity supply system that divides an electrical power feed into
subsidiary circuits, while providing a protective fuse or circuit breaker for each circuit in a common enclosure.
Normally, a main switch, and in recent boards, one or more residual-current devices (RCD) or residual current
breakers with overcurrent protection (RCBO), are also incorporated. Distribution board is also known panel
board, breaker panel, or electric panel.
BREAKER ARRANGEMENT – Usually breakers are arranged in two columns. In a U.S.-style board, breaker
positions are numbered left-to-right, along each row from top to bottom. This numbering system is universal
with numerous competitive manufacturers of breaker panels. Each row is fed from a different phase, to allow
2-pole or 3-pole common-trip breakers to have one pole on each phase. In North America, it is common to
wire large permanently installed equipment line-to-line. This takes two slots in the panel (two-pole) and gives
a voltage of 240 V for split-phase electric power, or 208 V for three-phase power.
MANUFACTURER DIFFERENCES
Most of the time, the panels and the breakers inserted inside them must be by the same
manufacturer. Each manufacturer has one or more "systems", or kinds of breaker panels, that will only accept
breakers of that type. In Europe, this is still the case, despite the adoption of a standard DIN rail for mounting
and a standard cut-out shape, as the positions of the bus bar connections are not standardized.
Certain panels use seemingly interchangeable 1-inch-wide (25 mm) breakers. However, a given
manufacturer will specifically mention exactly which devices may be installed in their equipment. These
assemblies have been tested and approved for use by a recognized authority. Replacing or adding equipment
which "just happens to fit" can result in unexpected or even dangerous conditions. Such installations should
not be done without first consulting knowledgeable sources, including manufacturers.
LOCATION AND DESIGNATION
For reasons of aesthetics and security, domestic circuit breaker panels and consumer units are
normally located in out-of-the-way closets, attics, garages, or basements, but sometimes they are also
featured as part of the aesthetic elements of a building (as an art installation, for example) or where they can
be easily accessible. However, current U.S. building codes prohibit installation of a panel in a bathroom (or
similar room), in closets intended for clothing, or where there is insufficient space for an electrician to gain
access to the panel. Specific situations, such as an installation outdoors, in a hazardous environment, or in
other out-of-the-ordinary locations might require specialized equipment and more stringent installation
practices.
Distribution boards may be designated for three phase or single phase and normal power or
emergency power, or designated by use such as distribution panels for supplying other panels, lighting panels
for lights, power panels for equipment and receptacles and special uses. Panels are located throughout the
building in electric closets serving a section of the building.
CIRCUIT BREAKER is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from
damage caused by excess current from an overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to interrupt current
flow after a fault is detected. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker
can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in
varying sizes, from small devices that protect low-current circuits or individual household appliance, up to
large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city. The generic function of a
circuit breaker, RCD or a fuse, as an automatic means of removing power from a faulty system is often
abbreviated as OCPD (Over Current Protection Device).
OPERATION
All circuit breaker systems have common features in their operation, but details vary substantially
depending on the voltage class, current rating and type of the circuit breaker.
The circuit breaker must first detect a fault condition. In small mains and low voltage circuit breakers,
this is usually done within the device itself. Typically, the heating or magnetic effects of electric current are
employed. Circuit breakers for large currents or high voltages are usually arranged with protective relay pilot
devices to sense a fault condition and to operate the opening mechanism. These typically require a separate
power source, such as a battery, although some high-voltage circuit breakers are self-contained with current
transformers, protective relays, and an internal control power source.
Once a fault is detected, the circuit breaker contacts must open to interrupt the circuit; this is
commonly done using mechanically stored energy contained within the breaker, such as a spring or
compressed air to separate the contacts. Circuit breakers may also use the higher current caused by the fault
to separate the contacts, such as thermal expansion or a magnetic field. Small circuit breakers typically have a
manual control lever to switch off the load or reset a tripped breaker, while larger units use solenoids to trip
the mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy to the springs.
Parts of a Circuit Breaker

 Actuator lever - used to manually trip and reset the circuit breaker. Also indicates the status of the
circuit breaker if it is ON, OFF or TRIPPED. Most breakers are designed so they can still trip even if the
lever is held or locked in the "on" position. This is sometimes referred to as "free trip" or "positive trip"
operation.
 Actuator mechanism - forces the contacts together or apart.
 Contacts - allow current when touching and break the current when moved apart.
 Terminals - used to electrically connect the circuit breaker to the circuit it's protecting.
 Bimetallic strip - separates contacts in response to smaller, longer-term overcurrent.
 Calibration screw - allows the manufacturer to precisely adjust the trip current of the device after
assembly.
 Solenoid - separates contacts rapidly in response to high overcurrent.
 Arc divider/extinguisher
ELECTRICITY METER, electrical meter, or energy meter is a device that measures the amount of electric energy
consumed by a residence, a business, or an electrically powered device in kilowatt hour (kwh).
TRANSFORMER is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits. A
varying current in one coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic flux, which, in turn, induces a
varying electromotive force across a second coil wound around the same core. Electrical energy can be
transferred between the two coils, without a metallic connection between the two circuits. Transformer is also
used for increasing or decreasing the alternating voltages in electric power applications, and for coupling the
stages of signal processing circuits.
TRANSFER SWITCH is an electrical switch that switches a load between two sources. Some transfer switches
are manual, in that an operator effects the transfer by throwing a switch, while others are automatic and
trigger when they sense one of the sources has lost or gained power. An Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) is
often installed where a backup generator is located, so that the generator may provide temporary electrical
power if the utility source fails.
OPERATION OF A TRANSFER SWITCH
 As well as transferring the load to the backup generator, an ATS may also command the backup
generator to start, based on the voltage monitored on the primary supply. The transfer switch isolates the
backup generator from the electric utility when the generator is on and providing temporary power. The
control capability of a transfer switch may be manual only, or a combination of automatic and manual. The
switch transition mode of a transfer switch may be Open Transition, or Closed Transition.
A transfer switch can be set up to provide power only to critical circuits or to entire electrical panels.
Some transfer switches allow for load shedding or prioritization of optional circuits, such as heating and
cooling equipment. More complex emergency switchgear used in large backup generator installations permits
soft loading, allowing load to be smoothly transferred from the utility to the synchronized generators, and
back; such installations are useful for reducing peak load demand from a utility.

WHAT YOU LEARNED?

In this module, I learned about the electrical equipment, the theories, concept and operation of an
electrical equipment. I learned about the electric switchboard and its components, the distribution board,
breaker arrangement, manufacturer differences, circuit breaker and its operation, electricity meter,
transformer, transfer switch and its operation.

MODULE 2
BASIC MOTOR CONTROL AND THE PRIMARY CONTROL DEVICES

FUNCTIONS OF MOTOR CONTROL

The main functions of a motor controller are to start and stop the motor and to protect the motor,
machine, and operator. The controller may also be called upon to provide other functions that could include
reversing, jogging or inching, plugging, operation at various speeds or at reduced current levels, and
controlling motor torque.
BASIC MOTOR CONTROL
Manual Control for a Motor
A manual starter is used frequently where the only control function needed is to start and stop the
motor. The manual starter generally provides overload protection for the apparatus being powered. Manual
control, which provides the same functions as those achieved by the manual full-voltage motor starter, can be
had by the use of a switch with fusing of the delayed-action type, which provides overload protection for the
motor. Manual control use in small metalworking and woodworking shops that use small drill presses, lathes,
and pipe-threading machines. Another good example is the exhaust fan generally found in machine shops and
other industrial operations.
A manual controller is easily identified because it has no automatic functions of control. This type of
controller is characterized by the fact that the operator must move a switch or push a button to initiate any
change in the condition of operation of the apparatus being operated. A manual controller must, therefore,
have two components, a manually operated switch and a circuit protective device.
SEMIAUTOMATIC CONTROLLER
A semiautomatic controller uses a magnetic starter and one or more manual devices such as
pushbuttons. Semiautomatic control provides flexibility of control by allowing remote and multiple control
locations in installations where manual control would otherwise be impractical.

AUTOMATIC CONTROLLER
 An automatic controller is a magnetic starter in which functions are controlled by one or more
automatic control or pilot devices. An automatic pilot device is some type of control device, such as a limit
switch or float switch, that functions independent of operator action to initiate a change in the operating
condition of a motor or machine.
APPLICATION FOR AUTOMATIC CONTROLLER
Automatic control systems are found in many applications, such as large power plants, where they are
used to control many mechanical systems in machine shops, where precision machines, such as drill presses
and lathes, are automatically controlled for better accuracy and efficiency, and in the home, where automatic
control systems are used to control such common household machines as dishwashers and washing machines.
PRIMARY CONTROL AND PILOT CONTROL DEVICES
All components used in motor control circuits may be classed as either primary control devices or pilot
control devices. A primary control device is one that connects the load to the line, such as a motor starter,
whether it is manual or automatic. Pilot control devices are those that control or modulate the primary control
devices. Pilot devices are things such as pushbuttons, float switches, pressure switches, and thermostats.
These are the disconnecting means, or circuit breaker, and the magnetic contactor. There may be
many pilot devices used in parallel and series combinations to control the function of starting and stopping
performed by the primary control device. The overload relays, for instance, which are included in the motor
starter, are actually pilot devices used to control the primary device whenever the motor is overloaded.
Pilot devices vary greatly with their function and intended use. From manual switches to automatic
control devices, pilot devices are what make a motor controller adaptable to fit a multitude of applications. An
example would be a magnetic contactor controlled by a toggle switch used to energize and de-energize the
contactor, or M coil. To start the motor, the toggle switch is switched ON, which energizes the contactor coil
and closes the main line contacts, which energizes the motor. Switching the toggle switch OFF de-energizes
the contactor coil, opens the main line contacts, and de-energizes the motor.

CONTACTS
Symbols represent electrical contact devices. They may represent line contacts on a starter,
contacts on a limit switch or relay, or any other type of control device that has electrical contacts.
PUSHBUTTON SWITCHES
Symbols represent manually operated pushbutton switches with normally open and
normally closed contacts, respectively. This spring-returned type switch will return to its normal position when
released by the operator. Because the switch returns to its original position, and its contacts are only closed or
open for the moment the switch is pushed, these contacts are referred to as momentary. The best example is
the switch of the refrigerators light, when the door of the refrigerator is open the light will on and the switch is
at the normally closed state, when the door of the refrigerator is closed the switch is at the normally open
state.
TOGGLE SWITCHES
Symbols represent manual contacts of a toggle type of switch. Symbol contacts are
normally open, and Symbol contacts are normally closed. This type of switch has maintaining contacts;
that is, once switched to a different position, the switch will stay in that position. When found in a circuit
diagram, the switch positions should be labeled as OFF or ON, FAST or SLOW, or other appropriate labeling.
Symbol is a toggle switch of the single-pole, double-throw (SPDT) type, where one contact is normally
open and the other normally closed.
COILS, RELAYS, AND CONTACTORS
Symbols represent a coil. It may be a relay coil or a main line contactor. Relays and
contactors are electromagnetic devices in the sense that magnetic forces are produced when electric currents
are passed through coils of wire; in response to such forces, contacts are closed or opened by the motion of
plungers or pivoted armatures.

INDICATING LIGHTS
 Symbol is a pilot or indicating light that is indicated chiefly by the short lines radiating out from the
center circle. Normally, the color of the light is designated by the appropriate letter in the circle, such as RL for
red or GL for green.

WHAT YOU LEARNED?

In this topic I learned about basic motor control, types of motor control, where it will apply and
the symbols of switches and how will they operate. Motor controls is important nowadays because it can
easily regulate the operation of an electric motor. They have several essential functions which include
automatically or manually starting as well as stopping the operation of an electric motor, setting forward or
reversing the course of rotation, selecting and regulating the speed of rotation, controlling or regulating the
torque, as well as protecting the motor against several degrees of electrical overloads and faults.

MODULE 3
BASIC MOTOR CONTROL

Motor control circuits are an effective way to reduce cost by using smaller wire and reduced amperage
devices to control a motor. Motor control circuits are often connected to lower voltages than the motor they
control to make it safer for operators and maintenance personnel. A motor control circuit, for the most part, is
simply a switch and a motor. If you keep the word switch in mind. It helps keep the intimidating subject of
motor control in its proper context.
Motor control circuits and equipment permit the use of smaller conductors, cables, and raceways.
Control equipment can also have a much lower ampere rating. There may be times when it's desirable to have
more than one start-stop push-button station to control a motor. In this section, the basic start-stop push-
button control circuit will be modified to include a second stop and start push-button.
When a component is used to perform the function of stop in a control circuit, it will generally be a
normally closed component and be connected in series with the motor starter coil. A second Stop push-button
is to be added to the existing start stop control circuit. The second push-button will be added to the control
circuit by connecting it in series with the existing Stop push-button.
When a component is used to perform the function of start, it's generally normally open and
connected in parallel with the existing start button. If either Start button is pressed, a circuit will be completed
to M coil. When M coil energizes, all M contacts change position. The three load contacts connected between
the three-phase power line and the motor close to connect the motor to the line. The normally open auxiliary
contact connected in parallel with the two Start buttons closes to maintain the circuit to M coil when the Start
button is released.

WHAT YOU LEARNED?

I learned about this topic the uses of motor control and to reduce the cost by using smaller wires, and
also the safety of the operators by using motor control. This maybe the basic but I learned a lot.

MODULE 4
 REVERSING OF AC MOTORS

AC MOTOR is an electric motor driven by an alternating current. The AC Motor commonly consists of two basic
parts, an outside stator having coils supplied with alternating current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and
an inside rotor attached to the output shaft producing a second rotating magnetic field. The rotor magnetic
field may be produced by permanent magnets, reluctance salience, or DC or AC electrical windings.
Reversing 3 phase AC motor can be reversed by changing any two motor T leads. Since the motor is connected
to the power line regardless of which direction it operates, a separate contactor is needed for each direction.
If the reversing starters adhere to NEMA standards, T leads 1 and 3 will be changed.
Since only one motor is in operation, however, only one overload relay is needed to protect the motor. True
reversing controllers contain two separate contactors and one overload relay. Some reversing starters will use
one separate contactor and a starter with a built-in overload relay.
Interlocking prevents some action from taking place until some other action has been performed. In the case
of reversing starters, interlocking is used to prevent both contactors from being energized at the same time.
This would result in two of the three-phase lines being shorted together. Interlocking forces one contactor to
be de-energized before the other one can be energized. There are three methods that can be employed to
assure interlocking. Many reversing controls use all three.
Mechanical Interlocking is accomplished by using the contactors to operate a mechanical lever that prevents
the other contactor from closing while one is energized. Mechanical interlocks are supplied by the
manufacturer and are built into reversing starters. In a schematic diagram, mechanical interlocks are shown as
dashed lines from each coil joining at a solid line.
Electrical Interlocking
Two methods of electrical interlocking are available. One method is accomplished with the use of
double acting push-buttons. The dashed lines drawn between the push-buttons indicate that they are
mechanically connected. Both push-buttons will be pushed at the same time. The normally closed part of the
FORWARD push button is connected in series with R coil, and the normally closed part of the REVERSE push-
button is connected in series with F coil. If the motor should be running in the forward direction and the
REVERSE push button is pressed, the normally closed part of the push button will open and disconnect F coil
from the line before the normally open part closes to energize R coil. The normally closed section of either
push-button has the same effect on the circuit as pressing the STOP button.
The second method of electrical interlocking is accomplished by connecting the normally closed
auxiliary contacts on one contactor in series with the coil of the other contactor. Assume that the FORWARD
push button is pressed and F coil energizes. This causes all F contacts to change position. The three F load
contacts close and connect the motor to the line. The normally open F auxiliary contact closes to maintain the
circuit when the FORWARD push-button is released, and the normally closed F auxiliary contact connected in
series with R coil opens.
If the opposite direction of rotation is desired, the STOP button must be pressed first. If the REVERSE
push-button were to be pressed first, the now open F auxiliary contact connected in series with R coil would
prevent a complete circuit from being established.
Once the STOP button has been pressed, however, F coil de-energizes and all F contacts return to their
normal position. The REVERSE push-button can now be pressed to energize R coil. When R coil energizes, all R
contacts change position. The three R load contacts close and connect the motor to the line. Notice, however,
that two of the motor T leads are connected to different lines. The normally closed R auxiliary contact opens
to prevent the possibility of F coil being energized until R coil is de-energized.

Reversing Single-Phase Split-Phase Motors

To reverse the direction of rotation of a single-phase split-phase motor, either the starting winding
leads or running winding leads, but not both, are interchanged.
When the forward contactor is energized, start winding lead T5 will be connected to L1, and T8 will be
connected to L2. When the reverse contactor is energized, start winding lead T5 will be connected to L2, and
T8 will be connected to L1.

WHAT YOU LEARNED?

In this topic, I learned about AC motor, how to reverse a 3-phase and Single-Phase Split-Phase Motors
and the interlocking’s like the Mechanical and Electrical interlocking.

MODULE 5
JOGGING AND INCHING

The definition of jogging or inching as described by NEMA is the quickly repeated closure of a circuit to
start a motor from rest for the purpose of accomplishing small movements of the driven machine. The term
Jogging actually means to start a motor with short jabs of power at full voltage. The term inching means to
start a motor with short jabs of power at reduced voltage. Although the two terms mean different things, they
are often used interchangeably because both are accomplished by preventing the holding contacts from
sealing the circuit.
As with many other types of control circuits, there are different ways in which jogging can be
accomplished, but basically, jogging is accomplished by preventing the holding contact from sealing the circuit
around the start push-button when the motor starter energizes. It should also be noted that jogging circuits
require special motor starters rated for jogging duty.
Double Acting Push Buttons
Jogging can also be accomplished using a double acting push-button. The normally closed section of
the JOG push-button is connected in such a manner that when the button is pushed it will defeat the holding
contact and prevent it from sealing the circuit. The normally open section of the JOG button completes a
circuit to energize the coil of the motor starter. When the button is released, the normally open section breaks
the circuit to M coil before the normally closed section reconnects to the circuit. This permits the starter to re-
open the holding contacts before the normally closed section of the JOG button reconnects.
Although this circuits sometimes used for jogging, it does have a severe problem. The action of either
of these two circuits depends on the normally open M auxiliary contact, which is used to seal the circuit, being
open before the normally closed section of the JOG button makes connection. Since push-buttons employ a
spring to return the contacts to their normal position, if a person's finger should slip off the JOG button, it's
possible for the spring to reestablish connection with the normally closed contacts before the holding contact
has time to reopen. This would cause the motor to continue running instead of stopping. In some cases, this
could become a significant safety hazard.
Using a Control Relay
The addition of a control relay to the jog circuit eliminates the problem of the holding contacts making
connection before the normally closed section of the jog push-button reconnects. In both of these circuits, the
control relay, not M starter, provides the auxiliary holding contacts.
The JOG push-button energizes the coil of M motor starter but does not energize the coil of control
relay CR. The START push-button is used to energize the coil of CR relay. When energized, CR relay contacts
provide connection to M coil. The use of control relays in a jogging circuit's very popular because of the
simplicity and safety offered.
A jogging circuit for a forward-reverse control. Note that a control relay is used to provide jogging in
either direction. When the forward jog push-button is pressed, the normally open section makes connection
and provides power to F coil. This causes F load contacts to close and connect the motor to the power line.
The normally open F auxiliary contact closes, also, but the normally closed section of the forward jog button is
now open, preventing coil CR from being energized. Since CR contact remains open, the circuit to F coil cannot
be sealed by the normally open F auxiliary contact. If the forward start button is pressed, a circuit completed
to F coil, causing all F contacts to change position. The normally open F auxiliary contact closes and provides a
path through the normally closed section of both jog buttons to CR coil. This causes CR auxiliary contact to
close and provide a current path through the now closed F auxiliary contact to F coil, sealing the circuit when
the forward push-button is released. The reverse jog button and reverse start button operate the same way.
Note also that normally closed F and R auxiliary contacts are used to provide interlocking for the forward-
reverse control.
Jogging Controlled by a Selector Switch
A selector switch can also be employed to provide jogging. The switch is used to break the connection
to the holding contacts. A single-pole single-throw toggle switch is used. When the switch is in the ON
position, connection is made to the holding contacts. If the switch is in the OFF position, the holding contacts
cannot seal the circuit when the START button is released. Note that the START button acts as both the start
and jog button for this circuit. A selector switch can be used to provide the same basic type of control.
As stated previously, jogging and inching are very similar in that both are accomplished by providing
short jabs of power to a motor to help position certain pieces of machinery. Inching, however, is accomplished
by providing a reduced amount of power to the motor. Transformers can be used to reduce the amount of
voltage applied to the motor during inching, or reactors or resistors can be connected in series with the motor
to reduce the current supplied by the power line. Resistors are connected in series with the motor during
inching. Notice that inching control requires the use of a separate contactor because the power supplied to
the motor must be separate from full line voltage.

WHAT YOU LEARNED?

In this module I learned about the jogging and inching where jogging is to start a motor with short jabs
of power at full voltage and inching is to start a motor with short jabs of power at reduced voltage. I learned
also that using a control relay will also help to solve the problem in holding contacts making connection before
the normally closed section of the jog push-button reconnects.

MODULE 6
DC MOTORS AS INDUSTRIAL MOTOR

DC motors are used in applications where variable speed and strong torque are required. They are used for
cranes and hoists when loads must be started slowly and accelerated quickly. DC motors are also used in
printing presses, steel mills, pipe forming mills, and many other industrial applications where speed control is
important.
Speed Control
The speed of a DC motor can be controlled by applying variable voltage to the armature or field. When full
voltage is applied to both the armature and the field, the motor operates at its base or normal speed. When
full voltage is applied to the field and reduced voltage is applied to the armature, the motor operates below
normal speed. When full voltage is applied to the armature and reduced voltage is applied to the field, the
motor operates above normal speed.
Motor Construction
The essential parts of a DC motor are the armature, field windings, brushes, and frame.
Armature is the rotating part of the motor. It is constructed from an iron cylinder that has slots cut into it.
Wire is wound through the slots to form the windings. The ends of the windings are connected to the
commutator, which consists of insulated copper bars and is mounted on the same shaft as the windings. The
windings and commutator together form the armature.
Carbon brushes which press against the commutator segment, supply power to the armature from the DC
power line. The commutator is a mechanical switch that forces current to flow through the armature windings
in the same direction and it enables the polarity of the magnetic field produced in the armature to remain
constant as it turns.
Armature resistance is kept low, generally less than 1 ohm. This is because the speed regulation of the motor
is proportional to the armature resistance. The lower the armature resistance, the better the speed regulation
will be.
Field Windings
There are two types of field windings used in DC motors, the series and shunt field windings. The series field
winding is made with a few turns of large wire. It has a low resistance and designed to be connected in series
with the armature.
The shunt field winding is made with many turns of small wire. It has a high resistance and designed to be
connected in parallel with the armature. Since the shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature, line voltage is connected across it. The current through the shunt field winding is, therefore, limited
by its resistance.

Identifying Windings
The windings of a DC motor can be identified with an ohmmeter. The shunt field winding can be identified by
the fact that it has a high resistance as compared to the other two windings. The series field winding and
armature windings have a very low resistance. They can be identified, however, by turning the motor shaft.
When the ohm-meter is connected to the series field winding and the motor shaft is turned the ohm-meter
reading won't be affected. When the ohm-meter is connected to the armature winding and the motor shaft is
turned, the reading will become erratic as the brushes make and break contact with different commutator
segments.
Types of DC Motors
Three basic types of DC motors, the series, the shunt, and the compound. The type of motor used is
determined by the requirements of the load. The series motor, for example, can produce very high starting
torque, but its speed regulation is poor. The only thing that limits the speed of a series motor is the amount of
load connected to it. A very common application of a series motor is the starter motor used on automobiles.
Shunt and compound motors are used in applications where speed control is essential. The series motor
contains only the series field connected in series with the armature. The shunt motor contains only the shunt
field connected parallel to the armature. A rheostat is connected in series with the shunt field to provide
above normal speed control.
The compound motor has both series and shunt field windings. Each pole piece in the motor will have both
windings wound on it. There are different ways of connecting compound motors. For instance, a motor can be
connected as a long shunt compound or as a shorts hunt compound. When a long shunt connection is made,
the shunt field is connected parallel to both the armature and the series field. When a short shunt connection
is made, the shunt field is connected parallel to the armature, but in series with the series field.
The compound motors can also be connected as cumulative or differential. When a motor is connected as a
cumulative compound, the shunt and series fields are connected in such a manner that as current flows
through the windings they aid each other in the production of magnetism. When the motor is connected as a
differential compound, the shunt and series field windings are connected in such a manner that as current
flows through them they oppose each other in the production of magnetism.
Direction of Rotation of the armature is determined by the relationship of the polarity of the magnetic field of
the armature to the polarity of the magnetic field of the pole pieces. A motor connected in such a manner that
the armature will rotate in a clockwise direction due to the attraction and repulsion of magnetic fields. If the
input lines to the motor are reversed, the magnetic polarity of both the pole pieces and the armature will be
reversed and the motor will continue to operate in the same direction.
On reversing the rotation of the armature, the magnetic polarity of the armature and the field must be
changed in relation to each other. When the direction of rotation of a series or shunt motor is to be changed,
either the field or the armature leads can be reversed. Many small DC shunt motors are reversed by reversing
the connection of the shunt field leads. This is done because the current flow through the shunt field is much
lower than the current flow through the armature. This permits a small switch, instead of a large solenoid
switch, to be used as a reversing switch.
When a compound motor is to be reversed, only the armature leads are changed. If the motor is reversed by
changing the shunt field leads, the motor will be changed from accumulative compound motor to a differential
compound motor. If this happens, the motor speed will drop sharply when load is added to the motor.
Standard Connections
When DC motors are wound, the terminal leads are marked in a standard manner. This permits the direction
of rotation to be determined when the motor windings are connected. The direction of rotation is determined
by facing the commutator end of the motor, which is generally located on the rear of the motor, but not
always.

WHAT YOU LEARNED?

In this module, I learned about the DC motor as industrial motor, and the speed control of DC motor by
applying full or reduced voltage to the motor. The construction of the DC motor is also here in this module,
although I know it for the long time but it broadens my knowledge about the DC Motor construction, I learned
also the identifying windings of a DC motor, the basic types of DC motor, changing the direction rotation of the
DC motor and the standard connections of DC motor.

MODULE 7
POWER ELECTRONIC DEVICES

Power electronics is an inter disciplinary subject within electrical engineering.

A Power electronic system consists of power electronic switching devices, linear circuit elements, digital
circuits, microprocessors, electromagnetic devices, DSPs, filters, controllers, sensors, etc….
An Ideal switch is controlling energy flow with no loss, when on, it has zero voltage drop and will carry any
current, and when off, it blocks the flow of current regardless of the voltage. The Desired Features are 100%
efficiency and 100% reliability.
Power converter is an electrical circuit that changes the electric energy from one form into the desired form
optimized for the specific load, AC/DC converter. The Rectifier Mode is converting power from AC to DC and
the Inverter Mode is converting power from DC to AC. Power converters can also convert DC to DC and AC to
AC.
Practical switching devices are selected based on their power handling rating, the product of their voltage and
current ratings, rather than their power dissipation ratings.
Power Electronic Applications
Example: Fluorescent Lighting -The line-frequency AC is converted to DC, then to high-frequency AC.
Example: Switch-Mode Power Supply -Transistor is operated in switch mode at high switching frequency.
Electrical isolation achieved by high-frequency transformer.
Example: Adjustable Speed Drives - Conventional drive wastes energy across the throttling valve to adjust flow
rate. Using power electronics, motor-pump speed is adjusted efficiently to deliver the required flowrate.
AC Motor Drive – Converter 1 rectifies line-frequency AC into DC. The capacitor acts as a filter, stores energy
and decouples the two converters. Converter 2 inverts dc to variable frequency AC – as needed by the motor.
Power electronic circuits are non-linear
Periodic wave forms but often not sinusoidal - it is the analytical expressions in terms of Fourier components.
RMS Value and Total Harmonic Distortion
The rms value of a distorted waveform is equal to the square-root of the sum of the square of the rms value of
each harmonic component.
Current-voltage in an inductor and capacitor
In an inductor, the voltage is proportional to the rate of change of current. It is an inductor cannot sustain a
constant voltage for a longtime.
In a capacitor, the current is proportional to the rate of change of voltage. A capacitor cannot sustain a
constant current for a longtime.
High-frequency vs. Low-frequency Transformers
Nickel-steel is used to reduce core losses at high frequency. Fewer copper winding turns are needed to
produce the same flux density. An increase in frequency permits a large increase in power capacity. For the
same power capacity, a high frequency transformer is much smaller, cheaper, more efficient and lighter than a
60 Hz transformer.

WHAT YOU LEARNED?

In this module I learned about the power electronic devices, about the power converter on how it
converts the electrical energy from AC to DC by the use of rectifier or DC to AC by the use of inverter, and RMS
value of a distorted waveform that equal to the square-root of rms value of each harmonic components.

MODULE 8
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION INVERTER

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION or PWM technology is used in Inverters to give a steady output voltage of 230 or
110 VAC irrespective of the load. The Inverters based on the PWM technology are more superior to the
conventional inverters. The use of MOSFET’s in the output stage and the PWM technology makes these
inverters ideal for all types of loads. In addition to the pulse width modulation, the PWM Inverters have
additional circuits for protection and voltage control.
The quality of the output waveform from the inverter determines its efficiency. The quality of the inverter
output waveform is expressed using Fourier analysis data to calculate the Total Harmonic Distortion(THD).
THD is the square-root of the sum of the squares of the harmonic voltage divided by the fundamental voltage.
Based on the output waveforms, there are three types of Inverters. These are Sinewave, Modified Sinewave or
Quasi sinewave and Square wave inverters.
Sinewave is an alternating current that has continuously varying voltage, which swings from positive to
negative. This has an advantage in power transmission over long-distance. Power from the Grid is carefully
regulated to get a pure sinewave and also the sinewave radiate the least amount of radio power during long-
distance transmission. But it is expensive to generate sinewave in an inverter. Its quality is excellent and
almost all electrical and electronic appliances work well in sinewave inverter.
Modified Sine Wave
The sinewave is the AC waveform we get from the domestic lines and from the generator. The major
advantage of sinewave inverter is that all of the household appliances are designed to operate in sinewave AC.
Another advantage is that the sinewave is a form of soft temporal rise voltage and it lacks harmonic
oscillations which can cause unwanted counter forces on engines, interference on radio equipment and surge
current on condensers.
Inverters providing modified sinewave can adequately power most household appliances. It is more
economical but may present certain problems with appliances like microwave ovens, laser printers, digital
clocks and some music systems. 99% of appliances run happily in modified sinewave. Instruments using SCR in
the power supply section behave badly with modified sinewave. The SCR will consider the sharp corners of the
sinewave as trashes and shutoff the instrument. Many of the Laser printers behave like this and fail to work in
inverters and UPS providing modified sinewave power. Most variable speed fans buzz when used in modified
sinewave inverters.
Square wave
This is the simplest form of output wave available in the cheapest form of inverters. They can run simple
appliances without problems but not much else. Square wave voltage can be easily generated using a simple
oscillator. With the help of a transformer, the generated square wave voltage can be transformed into a value
of 230-volt AC or higher.
Advantage of Pulse Width Modulation is in a standard Inverter without the PWM technology, the output
voltage changes according to the power consumption of the load. The PWM technology corrects the output
voltage according to the value of the load by changing the Width of the switching frequency in the oscillator
section. As a result of this, the AC voltage from the Inverter changes depending on the width of the switching
pulse. To achieve this effect, the PWM Inverter has a PWM controller IC which takes a part of output through
a feedback loop.
The PWM controller in the Inverter will makes corrections in the pulse width of the switching pulse based on
the feedback voltage. This will cancel the changes in the output voltage and the Inverter will give a steady
output voltage irrespective of the load characteristics.
The most important aspect of the Inverter technology is the output waveform. To filter the waveform,
capacitors and inductors are used. Low pass filters, are used to reduce the harmonic components. Resonant
filter can be used if the Inverter has a fixed output frequency. If the inverter has adjustable output frequency,
the filter must be tuned to a level above the maximum fundamental frequency. Feedback rectifiers are used to
bleed the peak inductive load current when the switch turns off.
As per the Fourier analysis, a square wave contains odd harmonics like third, fifth, seventh etc. only if it is anti-
symmetrical about 180-degree point. If the waveform has steps of certain width and heights, the additional
harmonics will be cancelled. If a Zero voltage step is introduced between the positive and negative parts of the
square wave, the harmonics that are divisible by three can be eliminated.
The width of the pulse should be 1/3 of the period for each positive and negative step and 1/6 of the period
for each of the Zero voltage steps. This leaves on the fifth, seventh, eleventh, thirteenth harmonics etc. The
Pulse Width Modulation technology is meant for changing the characteristics of the square wave. The
switching pulses are Modulating, and regulating before supplied to the load. When the Inverter requires no
voltage control, fixed pulse width can be used.
Multiple Pulse Width Modulation(MPWM)Technology
In Multiple Pulse width technology, waveforms that contain a number of narrow pulses are used. The
frequency of these narrow pulses is called Switching or Carrier frequency. The MPWM technology is used in
Inverters driving variable frequency motor control systems. This allows wide range of output voltages and
frequency adjustments. More over the MPWM technology over all improves the quality of the waveform.
PWM Inverter Characteristics
In order to increase the efficiency of the PWM inverter, the electronic circuit is highly sophisticated with
battery charge sensor, AC mains sensor, Soft start facility, output control etc. The PWM controller circuit uses
PWMICKA3225 or LM494. These IC shave internal circuits for the entire operation of the pulse width
modulation. The Oscillator circuit to generate the switching frequency is also incorporated in the IC. Output
driver section uses Transistors or Driver IC to drive the output according to the switching frequency. Output
section uses an array of Switching MOSFETs to drive the primary of the stepping transformer. Output voltage
is available in the secondary of the stepping transformer.
VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE is a type of motor controller that drives an electric motor by varying the
frequency and voltage of its power supply. The VFD also has the capacity to control ramp-up and ramp-down
of the motor during start or stop, respectively. Even though the drive controls the frequency and voltage of
power supplied to the motor, we often refer to this as speed control, since the result is an adjustment of
motor speed. There are many reasons why we may want to adjust this motor speed, to save energy and
improve system efficiency, to convert power in hybridization applications, to match the speed of the drive to
the process requirements, to match the torque or power of a drive to the process requirements, and to
improve the working environment.
A Variable Frequency Drive work by the first stage of a Variable Frequency AC Drive, or VFD, is the Converter.
The converter is comprised of six diodes, which are similar to check valves used in plumbing systems. They
allow current to flow in only one direction; the direction shown by the arrow in the diode symbol. For
example, whenever A-phase voltage is more positive than B or C phase voltages, then that diode will open and
allow current to flow. When B-phase becomes more positive than A-phase, then the B-phase diode will open
and the A-phase diode will close. The same is true for the 3 diodes on the negative side of the bus. Thus, we
get six currents “pulses” as each diode opens and closes. This is called a “six-pulse VFD”, which is the standard
configuration for current Variable Frequency Drives.
We can get rid of the AC ripple on the DC bus by adding a capacitor. A capacitor operates in a similar fashion
to a reservoir or accumulator in a plumbing system. This capacitor absorbs the ac ripple and delivers a smooth
dc voltage. The AC ripple on the DC bus is typically less than 3 Volts. Thus, the voltage on the DC bus becomes
“approximately” 650 VDC. The actual voltage will depend on the voltage level of the AC line feeding the drive,
the level of voltage unbalance on the power system, the motor load, the impedance of the power system, and
any reactors or harmonic filters on the drive.
The diode bridge converter that converts AC to DC, is sometimes just referred to as a converter. The converter
that converts the dc back to ac is also a converter, but to distinguish it from the diode converter, it is usually
referred to as an “inverter”. It has become common in the industry to refer to any DC to AC converter as an
inverter.
When we close one of the top switches in the inverter, that phase of the motor is connected to the positive dc
bus and the voltage on that phase becomes positive. When we close one of the bottom switches in the
converter, that phase is connected to the negative dc bus and becomes negative. Thus, we can make any
phase on the motor become positive or negative at will and can thus generate any frequency that we want.
So, we can make any phase be positive, negative, or zero.
The VFD’s do not produce a sinusoidal output because the output from the VFD is a rectangular waveform.
This rectangular waveform would not be a good choice for a general-purpose distribution system, but is
perfectly adequate for a motor. If we want to reduce the motor frequency to 30 Hz, then we simply switch the
inverter output transistors more slowly. But, if we reduce the frequency to 30 Hz, then we must also reduce
the voltage to 240V in order to maintain the V/Hz ratio. How are we going to reduce the voltage if the only
voltage we have is 650V-DC? This is called Pulse Width Modulation or PWM. Imagine that we could control the
pressure in a water line by turning the valve on and off at a high rate of speed. While this would not be
practical for plumbing systems, it works very well for VFD’s.
 We should use a VFD to reduce energy consumption and energy costs. If you have an application that
does not need to be run at full speed, then you can cut down energy costs by controlling the motor with a
variable frequency drive, which is one of the benefits of Variable Frequency Drives. VFDs allow you to match
the speed of the motor-driven equipment to the load requirement. There is no other method of AC electric
motor control that allows you to accomplish this. Electric motor systems are responsible for more than 65% of
the power consumption in industry today. Optimizing motor control systems by installing or upgrading to VFDs
can reduce energy consumption in your facility by as much as 70%. Additionally, the utilization of VFDs
improves product quality, and reduces production costs. Combining energy efficiency tax incentives, and utility
rebates, returns on investment for VFD installations can be as little as 6months.
Increase production through tighter process control by operating your motor sat the most efficient
speed for your application, fewer mistakes will occur, and thus, production levels will increase, which earns
your company higher revenues. On conveyors and belts, you eliminate jerks on start-up allowing high
throughput.
Extend equipment life and reduce maintenance of your equipment will last longer and will have less
down time due to maintenance when it’s controlled by VFDs ensuring optimal motor application speed.
Because of the VFDs optimal control of the motor’s frequency and voltage, the VFD will offer better protection
for your motor from issues such as electro thermal overloads, phase protection, under voltage, over voltage,
etc. When you start a load with a VFD you will not subject the motor or driven load to the “instant shock” of
across the line starting, but can start smoothly, there by eliminating belt, gear and bearing wear. It also is an
excellent way to reduce and/or eliminate water hammer since we can have smooth acceleration and
deceleration cycles.

WHAT YOU LEARNED?

In this topic I learned about the pulse width modulation inverter, the advantages and the
characteristics. The types of waveforms, modified sinewave and square wave. I learned also about the variable
frequency drive that has the capacity to ramp-up and ramp-down during the start and stop of a motor and
how it works.

MODULE 9
PROTECTION AND CONTROL DEVICES

Protection and Control Device Numbers and Functions

The protection and control devices in electrical equipment can be referred to by numbers, with appropriate
suffix letters when necessary, according to the functions they perform.
These numbers are based on a system that is adopted by a standard for automatic switch gear by Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and incorporated in American Standard C37.2-1996. This system is
used with diagrams that are found in instruction books and in specifications.
1. Master Element - The initiating device, such as a control switch, that directly or indirectly places equipment
in or out of operation.
2. Time-Delay-starting or closing relay – A device that functions to give a desired amount of time delay before
or after any point of operation in a switching sequence or protective relay system, except as provided by
device functions 48, 62, and 79.
3. Checking or interlocking relay – A relay that operates in response to the position of a number of other
devices in equipment to allow an operating sequence to proceed, to stop, or to provide a check of the position
of these devices or conditions for any purpose.
4. Master contactor- A device, which is controlled by device function 1 or the equivalent, and the required
permissive and protective devices which serve to make and break the necessary control circuits to place
equipment into operation under the desired conditions and to take it out of operation under abnormal
conditions.
5. Stopping device – A control device shuts down equipment and hold it out of operation.
6. Starting circuit breaker – A device whose principal function is to connect a machine to its source of starting
voltage.
7. Rate-of-rise relay – A relay that functions on an excessive rate of rise of current.
8. Control power disconnecting device – A disconnecting device, such as a knife switch, circuit breaker, or pull
out fuse block that is used for connecting and disconnecting the source of control power to and from the
control bus or equipment. Control power is considered to include auxiliary power that supplies such apparatus
as small motors and heaters.
9. Reversing device – A device that is used for reversing a machine field or for performing any other reversing
functions.
10. Unit sequence switch – A switch that is used to change the sequence in which units may be placed in and
out of service in multiple-unit equipment.
11. Multi-function device – A single, microprocessor-based product which has the capabilities to support three
or more protections and control elements.
12. Over speed device – Usually, a direct-connected speed switch that functions on machine over speed.
13. Synchronous-speed device – A device such as a centrifugal-speed switch, as lip-frequency relay, a voltage
relay, an under current relay, or any other type of device that operates at approximately the synchronous
speed of a machine.
14. Under speed device - A device that functions when the speed of a machine falls below a predetermined
value.
15. Speed or frequency matching device - A device that functions to match and hold the speed or the
frequency of a machine or of a system equal to, or approximately equal to, that of another machine, source,
or system.
16. Data Communications device - Used to label Communication Networking Devices. This element also uses a
unique set of suffixes that are applicable only to Device 16. The first suffix letter is to be either S for serial
devices or E for Ethernet devices. The subsequent suffix letters are used to more completely describe the
device – with multiple suffix letters allowed:
• C – Security processing function (VPN, encryption, etc.)
• F – Firewall or message filter function
• M – Network managed function (e.g., configured via SNMP)
• R – Router
• S – Switch (Examples: port switch on a dial up connection is 16SS, an Ethernet switch is 16ES)
• T – Telephone component (Example: auto answer modem)
A combination example is ‘16ERFCM’ - an Ethernet router with firewall and VPN capability, which can be
remotely managed via the connected network.
17. Shunting or discharge switch - A switch that serves to open or close a shunting circuit around any piece of
apparatus (except a resistor), such as a machine field, a machine armature, a capacitor, or a reactor. This
excludes devices that perform such shunting operations as may be necessary in the process of starting a
machine by devices 6 or 42 (or their equivalent), and also excludes device function 73 that serves for the
switching of resistors.
18. Accelerating or decelerating device - A device that is used to close or cause the closing of circuits that are
used to increase or decrease the speed of a machine.
19. Starting-to-running transition contactor - A device that operates to initiate or cause the automatic transfer
of a machine from the starting to the running power connection.
20. Electrically operated valve - An electrically operated, controlled, or monitored valve in a fluid, air, gas, or
vacuum line. The function of the valve may be more completely indicated by the use of the suffixes as
discussed in 3.2.
21. Distance relay - A relay that functions when the circuit admittance, impedance, or reactance increases or
decreases beyond a predetermined value.
22. Equalizer circuit breaker - A breaker that serves to control or to make and break the equalizer or the
current-balancing connections for a machine field, or for regulating equipment, in a multiple-unit installation.
23. Temperature control device - A device that functions to raise or lower the temperature of a machine or
other apparatus, or of any medium, when its temperature falls below, or rises above, a predetermined value.
An example is a thermostat that switches on a space heater in a switchgear assembly when the temperature
falls to a desired value. This should be distinguished from a device that is used to provide automatic
temperature regulation between close limits, and would be designated as device function 90T.
24. Volts per hertz relay - A relay that functions when the ratio of voltage to frequency exceeds a preset value.
The relay may have an instantaneous or a time characteristic.
25. Synchronizing or synchronism-check device - A device that operates when two AC circuits are within the
desired limits of frequency, phase angle and voltage to permit or to cause the paralleling of these two circuits.
26. Apparatus thermal device - A device that functions when the temperature of the protected apparatus
(other than the load-carrying windings of machines and transformers as covered by device function number
49) or of a liquid or other medium exceeds a predetermined value; or when the temperature of the protected
apparatus or of any medium decreases below a predetermined value.
27. Under voltage relay - A relay that operates when its input voltage is less than a predetermined value.
28. Flame detector - A device that monitors the presence of the pilot or main flame as in such apparatus as a
gas turbine or a steam boiler.
29. Isolating switch or contactor - A device that is used expressly for disconnecting one circuit from another for
the purposes of emergency operation, maintenance, or test.
30. Annunciator relay - A non-automatically reset device that gives a number of separate visual indications
upon the
functioning of protective devices, and which may also be arranged to perform a lockout function.
31. Separate excitation device - A device that connects a circuit, such as the shunt field of a synchronous
converter, to a source of separate excitation during the starting sequence.
32. Directional power relay - A relay that operates on a predetermined value of power flow in a given direction
or upon reverse power flow, such as that resulting from the motoring of a generator upon loss of its prime
mover.
33. Position switch - A switch that makes or breaks contact when the main device or piece of apparatus, which
has no device function number, reaches a given position.
34. Master Sequence device - A device such as a motor-operated multi-contact switch, or the equivalent, or a
programming device, such as a computer, that establishes or determines the operating sequence of the major
devices in equipment during starting and stopping, or during other sequential switching operations.
35. Brush-operating or slip-ring short-circuiting device - A device for raising, lowering, or shifting the brushes
of a machine, short-circuiting its slip rings, or engaging or disengaging the contacts of a mechanical rectifier.
36. Polarity or polarizing voltage device - A device that operates, or permits the operation of, another device
on a predetermined polarity.
37. Undercurrent or under power relay - A relay that functions when the current or power flow decreases
below a predetermined value.
38. Bearing protective device - A device that functions on excessive bearing temperature or on other abnormal
mechanical conditions that are associated with the bearing, such as undue wear, which may eventually result
in excessive bearing temperature or failure.
39. Mechanical condition monitor - A device that functions upon the occurrence of an abnormal mechanical
condition (except that associated with bearings as covered under device function 38), such as excessive
vibration, eccentricity, expansion, shock, tilting, or seal failure.
40. Field relay - A relay that functions on a given or abnormally low value or failure of machine field current, or
on an excessive value of the reactive component of armature current in an AC machine indicating abnormally
low field excitation.
41. Field circuit breaker - A device that functions to apply or remove the field excitation of a machine.
42 Running circuit breaker - A device whose principal function is to connect a machine to its source of running
or operating voltage. This function may also be used for a device, such as a contactor, that is used in series
with a circuit breaker or other fault-protecting means, primarily for frequent opening and closing of the circuit.
43. Manual transfer or selector device - A manually operated device that transfers the control circuits to
modify the plan of operation of the switching equipment or of some of the devices.
44. Unit sequence starting relay - A relay that functions to start the next available unit in multiple-unit
equipment upon the failure or non-availability of the normally preceding unit.
45. Atmospheric condition monitor - A device that functions upon the occurrence of an abnormal atmospheric
condition, such as damaging fumes, explosive mixtures, smoke, or fire.
46. Reverse-phase or phase-balance current relay - A relay that functions when the poly-phase currents are of
reverse-phase sequence, or when the poly-phase currents are unbalanced or contain negative phase-
sequence components above a given amount.
47. Phase-sequence or phase-balance voltage relay - A relay that functions upon a predetermined value of
poly-phase voltage in the desired phase sequence, when the poly-phase voltages are unbalanced, or when the
negative phase-sequence voltage exceeds a given amount
48. Incomplete sequence relay - A relay that generally returns the equipment to the normal, or off, position
and locks it out if the normal starting, operating or stopping sequence is not properly completed within a
predetermined time.
49. Machine or transformer thermal relay - A relay that functions when the temperature of a machine
armature winding or other load - carrying winding or element of a machine or power transformer exceeds a
predetermined value.
50. Instantaneous overcurrent relay - A relay that functions instantaneously on an excessive value of current.
51. AC time overcurrent relay - A relay that functions when the AC input current exceeds a predetermined
value, and in which the input current and operating time are inversely related through a substantial portion of
the performance range.
52. AC circuit breaker - A device that is used to close and interrupt an AC power circuit under normal
conditions or to
interrupt this circuit under fault or emergency conditions. The use of a contact symbol with an adjacent ‘M’
should be used to identify medium voltage contactors, rather than the device number 52. Medium voltage
contactors should not be defined using this device number.
53. Exciter or DC generator relay - A relay that forces the DC machine field excitation to build up during
startup, or that functions when the machine voltage has built up to a given value.
54. Turning gear engaging device - An electrically operated, controlled, or monitored device that functions to
cause the turning gear to engage (or disengage) the machine shaft.
55. Power factor relay - A relay that operates when the power factor in an AC circuit rises above or falls below
a predetermined value.
56. Field application relay - A relay that automatically controls the application of the field excitation to an AC
motor at some predetermined point in the slip cycle.
57. Short-circuiting or grounding device - A primary circuit switching device that functions to short circuit or to
ground a circuit in response to automatic or manual means.
58. Rectification failure relay - A relay that functions if a power rectifier fails to conduct or block properly.
59. Overvoltage relay - A relay that operates when its input voltage is more than a predetermined value.
60. Voltage or current balance relay - A relay that operates on a given difference in voltage, or current input or
output, of two circuits.
61. Density switch or sensor - A device that operates on a given value, or a given rate of change, of gas density.
62. Time-delay stopping or opening relay - A time-delay relay that serves with the device that initiates the
shutdown, stopping or opening operation in an automatic sequence or protective relay system.
63. Pressure switch - A switch that operates on given values, or on a given rate of change of pressure.
64. Ground detector relay - A relay that operates upon failure of machine or other apparatus insulation to
ground. This function is not applied to a device connected in the secondary circuit of current transformers in a
normally grounded power system, where other device numbers with the suffix G or N must be used; that is,
51N for an AC time overcurrent relay connected in the secondary neutral of the current transformers.

65. Governor - The assembly of fluid, electrical or mechanical control equipment used for regulating the flow
of water, steam, or other media to the prime mover for such purposes as starting, holding speed or load, or
stopping.
66. Notching or jogging device - A device that functions to allow only a specified number of operations of a
given device or equipment, or a specified number of successive operations within a given time of each other. It
is also a device that functions to energize a circuit periodically or for fractions of specified time intervals, or
that is used to permit intermittent acceleration or jogging of a machine at low speeds for mechanical
positioning.
67. AC directional overcurrent relay - A relay that functions on a desired value of AC overcurrent flowing in a
predetermined direction.
68. Blocking relay - A relay that initiates a pilot signal for blocking of tripping on external faults in a
transmission line or in other apparatus under predetermined conditions, or that cooperates with other devices
to block tripping or to block reclosing on an out-of-step condition or on power swings.
69. Permissive control device - Generally, a two-position device that in one position permits the closing of a
circuit breaker, or the placing of equipment into operation, and in the other position prevents the circuit
breaker or the equipment from being operated.
70. Rheostat - A variable resistance device that is used in an electric circuit when the device is electrically
operated or has other electrical accessories such as auxiliary, position, or limit switches.
71. Level switch - A switch that operates on given values, or on a given rate of change, of level.
72. DC circuit breaker - A circuit breaker that is used to close and interrupt a DC power circuit under normal
conditions, or to interrupt this circuit under fault or emergency conditions.
73 Load-resistor contactor - A contactor that is used to shunt or insert a step of load limiting, shifting, or
indicating resistance in a power circuit; to switch a space heater in circuit; or to switch a light or regenerative
load resistor of a power rectifier or other machine in and out of circuit.
74. Alarm relay - A relay other than an annunciator, as covered under device function 30, that is used to
operate, or
that operates with a visual or audible alarm.
75 Positioning changing mechanism - A mechanism that is used for moving a main device from one position to
another in equipment; for example, shifting are movable circuit breaker unit to and from the connected,
disconnected and test positions.
76. DC overcurrent relay - A relay that functions when the current in a DC circuit exceeds a given value.
77. Telemetering device - A transmitter that is used to generate and transmit to a remote location an electrical
signal
representing a measured quantity, or a receiver that is used to receive the electrical signal from a remote
transmitter and convert the signal to represent the original measured quantity.
78. Phase-angle measuring or out-of-step protective relay - A relay that functions at a predetermined phase
angle between two voltages or between two currents, or between voltage and current.
79. AC reclosing relay - A relay that controls the automatic reclosing and locking out of an AC circuit
interrupter.
80. Flow switch - A switch that operates on given values, or on a given rate of change of flow.
81. Frequency relay - A relay that responds to the frequency of an electrical quantity, operating when the
frequency or
rate of change of frequency exceeds or is less than a predetermined value.
82. DC load-measuring reclosing relay - A relay that controls the automatic closing and reclosing of a DC circuit
interrupter, generally in response to load circuit conditions.
83. Automatic selective control or transfer relay - A relay that operates to select automatically between
certain sources or conditions in equipment or that performs a transfer operation automatically.
84. Operating mechanism - The complete electrical mechanism or servomechanism, including the operating
motor, solenoids, position switches, etc., for a tap changer, induction regulator, or any similar piece of
apparatus that otherwise has no device function number.
85. Carrier or pilot-wire receiver relay - A relay that is operated or restrained by a signal that is used with
carrier-current or DC pilot-wire fault relaying.
86. Lockout relay or device - A hand or electrically reset auxiliary or electronic device relay that is operated
upon the occurrence of abnormal conditions to maintain associated equipment or devices inoperative until it
is reset
87. Differential protective relay - A protective relay that functions on a percentage, phase angle, or other
quantitative difference between two currents or some other electrical quantities.
88. Auxiliary motor or motor generator - A device that is used for operating auxiliary equipment, such as
pumps, blowers, exciters, or rotating magnetic amplifiers.
89. Line switch - A switch that is used as a disconnecting, load-interrupter, or isolating switch in an AC or DC
power
circuit. (This device function number is normally not necessary unless the switch is electrically operated or has
electrical accessories, such as an auxiliary switch, or magnetic lock)
90. Regulating device - A device that functions to regulate a quantity or quantities, such as voltage, current,
power, speed, frequency, temperature and load, at a certain value or between certain (close) limits for
machines, tie lines, or other apparatus.
91. Voltage directional relay - A relay that operates when the voltage across an open circuit breaker or
contactor exceeds a given value in a given direction.
92. Voltage and power directional relay - A relay that permits or causes the connection of two circuits when
the voltage difference between them exceeds a given value in a predetermined direction, and causes these
two circuits to be
disconnected from each other when the power flowing between them exceeds a given value in the opposite
direction.
93. Field-changing contactor - A contactor that functions to increase or decrease, in one step, the value of field
excitation on a machine.
94. Tripping or trip-free relay - A relay that functions to trip a circuit breaker, contactor, or equipment, to
permit immediate tripping by other devices, or to prevent immediate reclosing of a circuit interrupter if it
should open
automatically, even though its closing circuit is maintained closed.
95...99 — Used only for specific applications on individual installations if none of the functions that are
assigned to the numbers from 1...94 is suitable.
Supervisory Control and Indication
Interposing relays must use a similar series of numbers that are prefixed by the letters RE (for ‘remote’) if they
perform functions that are controlled directly from the supervisory system. Typical examples of such device
functions are: RE1, RE5, and RE94.
Using the ‘RE’ prefix in place of the former 200 series of numbers makes it possible to obtain increased
flexibility of the device function numbering system.
For example, in pipeline pump stations, the numbers 1...99 is applied to device functions that are associated
with the overall station operation. A similar series of numbers, starting with 101 instead of 1, are used for
those device functions that are associated with unit 2, and so on, for each unit in these installations.
Devices Performing More Than One Function
If one device performs two relatively important functions so that it is desirable to identify both of these
functions, this may be done by using a double function number and name such as ‘50/51 Instantaneous and
Time Overcurrent Relay’.
Suffix Numbers
If two or more devices with the same function number and suffix letter (if used) are present in the same
equipment, they are distinguished by numbered suffixes as, for example, 52X-1, 52X-2 and 52X-3.

WHAT YOU LEARNED?

I learned that the main purpose of these topic is to reduce the danger of life and properties that can result
from failure or malfunction of industrial-type electrical systems and equipment. I learned also the uses of
relays and protective electronic devices, and their operations and also the importance. Each of these electrical
equipment has its own purpose to protect us by preventing accidents cause of electrical failure and this topic
helps me to understand better about the protective and control devices. I learned that electronic devices have
become an important part of our day-to-day basis in life. And Imagining without these electronic devices is so
difficult for us to do work.
So as an electrical engineering student I am confident now that I know some of the important things to keep in
mind about the importance of electronic safety devices and I know this will help me in the near future on
taking the REE Licensure Examination.
HOW WILL YOU APPLY IT IN LIFE AS A FUTURE ELECTRICAL ENGINEER?
As a future electrical engineer, I can apply what I learned about this subject by using it as a guide when I work
in a place that needs electrical safety device. Like the substations, because almost all of the topics that I
learned right now is needed on supervising a substation. I can also apply it on designs and more Importantly I
can apply it to be a successful Electrical Engineer.