RWANDA POLYTECHNIC _ INTEGRATED

POLYTECHNIC REGIONAL COLLEGE - KIGALI

“Skills for a better destiny”

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Subject: RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES “MEE303”
“The environment is our life-blood; indeed the real surprise is not that ministries of finance are now talking to
ministries of environment – but that it has actually taken this long. Even when we look beyond agriculture,
tourism, mineral wealth and fisheries, our economies depend critically on good environmental stewardship.” —
His Excellency Paul Kagame, President of Rwanda 2009.

Prepped and delivered by

Alexis MUHIRWA, Ph.D.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 1
0. INTRODUCTION TO ENERGY BASIC CONCEPTS
0.1 Renewable Energy Background
The progress of civilization has led to a worldwide increase in the energy demand. Over the last 200
years, people have become more and more dependent on energy that they dig out of the ground. In the
1700’s, almost all our energy came from wind, water, firewood, or muscle power. The wind powered
windmills and sailing ships. Water powered water wheels. Firewood did our cooking and heated our
homes. Muscle power (human or animal) did just about everything else. All these energy sources came
from the sun, since solar energy drove wind and rain, grew trees, and grew crops to nourish our animals
and ourselves. All these energy sources were also renewable, since wind kept blowing, rivers kept
flowing, and trees and crops kept growing.
About 1800, we began to get much of our energy from coal dug out of the ground. About 1900 we
began to drill for oil and natural gas. By 1950 these “fossil fuels” had mainly displaced the older energy
sources except for water power. Fossil fuels are nonrenewable carbon-based fuels from the decayed
remains of prehistoric plants and other organisms (animals) that were buried in the earth’s crust and
altered by heat and pressure over millions of years. So their energy also comes, originally, from the sun.
In some parts of the world new fossil fuels are being formed even today. But we are using fossil fuels at
a far greater rate than they are being created, using up energy stored over hundreds of millions of years
in a few hundred years.
Four main grades of coal: peat, lignite, bituminous and anthracite. During the formation of coal,
carbonaceous matter was first compressed into a spongy material called "peat," which is about 90%
water. As the peat became more deeply buried, the increased pressure and temperature turned it into
coal.
Different types of coal resulted from differences in the pressure and temperature that prevailed during
formation. The softest coal (about 50% carbon), which also has the lowest energy output, is called
lignite. Lignite has the highest water content (about 50%) and relatively low amounts of smog-causing
sulfur. With increasing temperature and pressure, lignite is transformed into bituminous coal (about 85%
carbon and 3% water). Anthracite (almost 100% carbon) is the hardest coal and also produces the
greatest energy when burned. Unfortunately, bituminous coal has the highest sulfur content of all the
coal types. When the coal is burned, the pollutant sulfur dioxide is released into the atmosphere.
Coal is most cheaply mined from near-surface deposits using strip mining techniques. Sub-surface
mining of coal is less damaging to the surface environment, but is much more hazardous for the miners
due to tunnel collapses and gas explosions.
Crude oil or liquid petroleum is a complex, naturally occurring liquid mixture containing mostly
hydrocarbons (83-87%C, 11-16%H), but containing also some compounds of oxygen (0-4%) plus nitrogen
and sulfur (0-4%S). It is a fossil fuel that is refined into many different energy products (e.g., gasoline,
diesel fuel, jet fuel, heating oil). Oil forms underground in rock such as shale, which is rich in organic
materials. After the oil forms, it migrates upward into porous reservoir rock such as sandstone or
limestone, where it can become trapped by an overlying impermeable cap rock.
Natural gas production is often a by-product of oil recovery, as the two commonly share underground
reservoirs. Natural gas is a mixture of gases, the most common being methane (CH4). It also contains
some ethane (C2H5), propane (C3H8), and butane (C4H10). Natural gas is usually not contaminated with

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 2
sulfur and is therefore the cleanest burning fossil fuel. After recovery, propane and butane are removed
from the natural gas and made into liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). LPG is shipped in special pressurized
tanks as a fuel source for areas not directly served by natural gas pipelines (e.g., rural communities). The
remaining natural gas is further refined to remove impurities and water vapor, and then transported in
pressurized pipelines.

Fig. Peat and coal

Fig. Oil refineries

Natural gas is highly flammable and is odorless. The characteristic smell associated with natural gas is
actually that of minute quantities of a smelly sulfur compound (ethyl mercaptan) which is added during
refining to warn consumers of gas leaks.
The use of natural gas is growing rapidly. Besides being a clean burning fuel source, natural gas is easy
and inexpensive to transport once pipelines are in place. In developed countries, natural gas is used
primarily for heating, cooking, and powering vehicles. It is also used in a process for making ammonia
fertilizer. The current estimate of natural gas reserves is about 100 million metric tons. At current usage
levels, this supply will last an estimated 100 years. Most of the world's natural gas reserves are found in
Eastern Europe and the Middle East.

After 1950, we began to use atomic energy from uranium dug from the ground. Uranium is not a fossil
fuel, and its energy does not originate from the sun. But uranium, like fossil fuels, is non-renewable:
once it’s used up, it’s gone forever.
Over the past 25 years, use of older renewable energy sources has increased and we have begun to use
new renewable energy sources as well. We have realized that our fossil and atomic fuels will not last
forever, and that their use contributes to environmental pollution. The world’s dependence on fossil

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 3
fuels began approximately 200 years ago. Are we running out of oil? No, but we are certainly running
out of the affordable oil that has powered the world economy since the 1950s. We know how to recover
fossil fuels and harvest their energy for operating power plants, planes, trains, and automobiles which
results in modifying the carbon cycle and additional greenhouse gas emissions.

Fig. Biogeochemical cycle (between living and non-living things) of carbon

The element carbon is a part of seawater, the atmosphere, rocks such as limestone and coal, soils, as
well as all living things. On our dynamic planet, carbon is able to move from one of these realms to
another as a part of the carbon cycle.
 Carbon moves from the atmosphere to plants. In the atmosphere, carbon is attached to oxygen
in a gas called carbon dioxide (CO2). Through the process of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is
pulled from the air to produce food made from carbon for plant growth.
 Carbon moves from plants to animals. Through food chains, the carbon that is in plants moves to
the animals that eat them. Animals that eat other animals get the carbon from their food too.
 Carbon moves from plants and animals to soils. When plants and animals die, their bodies, wood
and leaves decays bringing the carbon into the ground. Some is buried and will become fossil
fuels in millions and millions of years.
 Carbon moves from living things to the atmosphere. Each time you exhale, you are releasing
carbon dioxide gas (CO2) into the atmosphere. Animals and plants need to get rid of carbon
dioxide gas through a process called respiration.
 Carbon that is a part of rocks and fossil fuels like oil, coal, and natural gas may be held away from
the rest of the carbon cycle for a long time. These long-term storage places are called “sinks”.
When humans burn fossil fuels to power factories, power plants, cars and trucks, most of the
carbon quickly enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. Each year, five and a
half billion tons of carbon is released by burning fossil fuels. Of this massive amount, 3.3 billion
tons stays in the atmosphere. Most of the remainder becomes dissolved in seawater.
 Carbon moves from the atmosphere to the oceans. The oceans, and other bodies of water,
absorb some carbon from the atmosphere. The carbon is dissolved into the water.

Recently, people have been causing these biogeochemical cycles to change. When we cut down forests,

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 4
make more factories, and drive more cars that burn fossil fuels, the way that carbon and nitrogen move
around the Earth changes. These changes add more greenhouse gases in our atmosphere and this causes
climate change.

Fig. Origin of the Anthropogenic (Human-induced) Greenhouse Effect

Without the protection of Earth’s atmosphere, the global mean ambient temperature would be as low
as –18°C. Particular gases in the atmosphere such as carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapour and methane
capture parts of the incoming solar radiation, acting like a greenhouse. Below are listed the
anthropogenic pollutants responsible for the air pollution along with their sources, where the use of
fossil fuels contributes 50% to the anthropogenic greenhouse effect:
Carbon monoxide (CO): This is produced from the combustion of carbon-based fuels as well as some
natural and synthetic products. It has very bad effects on human health.
Carbon dioxide (CO2): This is emitted mainly due to the burning of fossil fuels.
Methane (CH4) sources are coal mining, production of natural gas, waste disposal and agriculture such
as cattle farming or cultivation of rice (15% contribution to the greenhouse effect).
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC): Prime sources of CFCs are refrigeration, air-conditioning systems or
propellants in spray cans (11% contribution to the greenhouse effect). These gases are mainly
responsible for deterioration of the ozone layer.
Ozone (O3): This is produced from the reaction between volatile organic compounds and oxides of
nitrogen emitted from vehicles and industries.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 5
Nitrogen oxide (NOx): This is produced due to the combustion of fossil fuels (such as diesel, coal, and
petroleum), fire clearance of tropical rain forests and the use of nitrogenous fertilizers.
Lead: The major sources of lead are lead batteries, gasoline, petroleum, paints, and dye products, etc.
Suspended particulate matter (SPM): These are very fine solid particles suspended in air in the form of
vapour, smoke, and dust.
Sulphur dioxide (SO2): This is a gas produced from burning coal in different process and industries. The
major sources of Sulphur dioxide production are metal industries, paper industries, and thermal power
plants.
This has resulted in the debate on availability of fossil energy resources, peak oil era, and timing for
anticipated end of fossil fuel era and price and environmental impact versus various renewable
resources and use, carbon footprint, emission and control including cap and trade, and emergence of
“green power.”

Fig. Continuous flow of natural energy as renewable energy on the Earth [terawatts (1012W)]
By 2050, the demand for energy could double or even triple as the global population rises (7.2 billion to
more than 9 billion, as to United Nations projections) and developing countries expand their economies.
Renewable energy – which basically comes from the sun in one way or another (as shown in Fig.) –
provides opportunities for an unlimited, sustainable energy supply with low environmental impact. And
renewable energy is not just something for the future, but something we can use in our homes today.

0.2 What Is Energy?

Energeia is the Greek word for energy, meaning “in or at work”. Work means a change in position,

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 6
speed, state, or form of matter. Therefore, energy is the capacity to change matter or the ability to do
work.
 Work is the application of a force through a distance (e.g., carrying yourself and a loaded back
pack up a mountain trail).
 Force is that which can put matter into motion，deform, accelerate, or stop it if it is already
moving (e.g., you are stopped at a stop sign and the car behind you doesn't see you stop, and
can't stop before colliding with your rear bumper, pushing you into the intersection), and
 Motion is a change in distance or direction with time (e.g., making a right hand turn).
We hear about energy everywhere; for instance: Here we sell energizers, come happily and shop with us.
The newspaper tells us that Burundi has an energy crisis, and that the President has an energy plan. The
Vice President, meanwhile, says that conserving energy is a personal virtue. We pay bills for energy every
month, but an inventor in Cyangugu claims to have a device that provides “free” energy. Athletes eat
high-energy foods, and put as much energy as they can into the swing or the kick or the sprint. A
magazine carries an advertisement for a “certified energy healing practitioner,” whose private, hands-on
practice specializes in the “study and exploration of the human energy field.” All of us can imagine what
life would be like without energy from oil. But can any of us define exactly what energy is?
“Energy is…well…er…um.” Exactly! Actually, “…well…er…um” is an excellent definition. Science’s
definition of energy is like Potter Stewart’s definition of pornography: “I know it when I see it.”
Like most words, “energy” has multiple meanings; in the scientific sense? I’m afraid I don’t really know. I
sometimes visualize it as a substance; perhaps a fluid, that permeates all objects, endowing baseballs
with their speed, corn flakes with their calories, and nuclear bombs with their megatons. But you can’t
actually see the energy itself, or smell it or sense it in any direct way; all you can perceive are its effects
or physical manifestation.
Table 0.1 Typical physical manifestations of energy
Type of energy Physical manifestation Example
Kinetic Motion
Gravitational Height above some reference level
Elastic Stretched, squashed or twisted (springs
and elastic bands)
Chemical Molecules that can react and give off heat
Nuclear Nuclei that can react and give off heat

Thermal High temperature

Electrical Voltage and current
Radiant Light and other electromagnetic waves
So perhaps energy is a fiction, a concept that we invent, because it turns out to be so useful.
Most of us have an intuitive concept of energy that goes something like this: Energy is the stuff we need
to accomplish physical actions such as Getting up, walking, doing chores, lifting a glass, lightening,
heating some water, or powering a television set or a car.
In fact, everything that happens in the universe, from the eruption of volcanoes, to the sprouting of
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 7
seed, to the moving of people, takes energy.

Fig.: Everything that happens in the universe, from the sprouting of a seed to the eruption of volcanoes, involves energy.
When we turn on a motor, drive a car, cook on a stove or switch on a light, we are using energy.
Although this definition is correct, it is a bit indirect because it really only conveys to us what energy is
used for, not what energy is, or even how it behaves (for example, what happens to it after you use it?).
A curious person might still ask questions like: Is energy a thing? Or is it a property or a condition of a
thing? How do we really define it? How was it discovered? What are its properties?
With perhaps the exception of energy in the form of light, energy is not a thing per se. Rather; energy
refers to a condition or state of a thing.
A book sitting on a table, for example, possesses energy ("potential energy") because of its condition of
being able to fall if nudged off the table. A ball flying through the air has energy ("kinetic energy")
because of its relative velocity with respect to the ground, and it also possesses potential energy
because of its height above the ground.
Energy surrounds us. It is everywhere and abundant, yet it has no mass and can’t be touched. However,
you can see and feel the effects energy has on many materials. Energy can produce motion, heat, or
light.
Our body is working even when it appears to be still. Breathing, blinking, and digesting food all require
energy. For us to do these activities, our body burns the energy in food. We know this is happening
because we feel warm (burning generates thermal energy, or heat). Therefore, heat is evidence that
energy is being used.

Origin of the term “energy”

The modern spelling of “energy” was first used in 1599. The term referred to qualities of person,
language, and expression, not to matters relevant to physical theory. Aristotle had used the term energia
to denote a species of metaphor that calls up a mental picture of something acting or moving.
Partially following Aristotle’s lead, later Latin writers used the term energia in a looser sense to refer to
the force or vigor of verbal expression. In the eighteenth century, an energumen was not a scientist, but
rather an individual possessed by a devil or a fanatical enthusiasm one who might be burned at the stake
or hanged.
The term “energy” was adapted into physical theory in 1807 by English physicist Thomas Young.
Borrowing from ancient Greek, energy combined en, meaning “in”, with ergon, meaning “work”.
Translated literally from ancient Greek, energy means “in work”;
The simplest nineteenth century definition of energy defined energy as anything that can do work. Work
is defined as involving the movement of anybody possessing mass. This is hardly a profound definition. It
is merely a literal restatement of the term’s earliest etymology.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 8
Units of energy
Just as distances can be measured in inches or meters or miles or microns or light-years, so also energy
can be measured in many different units: joules, calories, British thermal units, kilowatt-hours, electron-
volts, and quads, to name a few.
The official, internationally accepted energy unit for scientific work is the joule, abbreviated J. A joule is a
rather small amount of energy, roughly equal to the kinetic energy of a very gently tossed baseball, or to
the gravitational energy that you give to a baseball when you lift it by two feet (70 centimeters).
A more familiar energy unit is the calorie (cal). The original definition of the calorie was the amount of
thermal energy required to raise the temperature of a gram of water by one degree Celsius. This amount
of energy turns out to be equal about 4.2 joules, and the calorie is now defined to equal precisely 4.186
joules. This is still a rather small amount of energy. The familiar “food calorie,” used to measure chemical
energy that our bodies can extract from food, is actually a kilocalorie (kcal), or 1000 calories, enough
energy to raise the temperature of a kilogram of water by one degree Celsius.
As an example that is both vivid and useful (if not particularly nutritious), consider a typical jelly donut,
which provides about 250 kilocalories. Since a kilocalorie is about 4000 joules, one jelly donut provides
approximately one million (250×4000) joules, or one megajoule, of chemical energy. Some physicists go
so far as to define a unit of energy called the jelly donut (JD), equal to exactly one megajoule (MJ).
Table 0.2 Common prefixes
Prefix Symbol Value Prefix Symbol Value
3 -3
Kilo K 10 (thousand) Milli m 10 (thousandth)
6
Mega M 10 (million) Micro Μ 10-6 (millionth)
Giga G 109 (billion) Nano n 10-9 (billionth)
Tera T 1012 (trillion) Pico p 10-12 (trillionth)
Peta P 1015 (quadrillion) Femto f 10-15 (quadrillionth)
Exa E 1018 (quintillion) Atto a 10-18 (quintillionth)
In the British system of units, the analogue of the kilocalorie is the British thermal unit (Btu), defined as
the amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of one pound of water by one degree
Fahrenheit. Since a pound is smaller than a kilogram and a degree Fahrenheit is smaller than a degree
Celsius, a Btu is smaller than a kilocalorie—about one fourth the size, it turns out. This means that a Btu
is approximately 1000 joules.
Electrical energy, meanwhile, is most often measured by the kilowatt-hour (kWh) that equals exactly 3.6
million joules, which is approximately 860 kilocalories or 3400 Btu.
Conversions among the most commonly used energy units:
1 kcal = 4186 J = 3.97 Btu = 0.00116 kWh
1 Btu = 1054 J = 0.252 kcal = 0.000293 kWh
1 kWh = 3, 600, 000 J = 860 kcal = 3413 Btu
For most purposes, you can round these numbers off; for instance, 1 kcal≈4000J≈4Btu≈0.001kWh.
Just remember that the kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy, not power, while the kilowatt (or megawatt,
etc.) is a unit of power, not energy.
0.3 Properties of Energy
Matter is made up of invisibly small particles, occupies space, has mass, and exhibits gravitational

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 9
attraction. Energy, on the other hand, possesses none of these characteristics. Evidence of energy is
everywhere. All you need to do is look for motion, heat, and light.
The nature of energy is very complex, but it has a number of very special properties; if you think about
them carefully, and don't take them for granted, you'll realize that they don't follow from simple
intuition. Rather, these properties had to be discovered or proven somehow. These properties are:
1. Energy can be transferred from one object or system to another through the interaction of forces
between the objects (unlike the condition of, say, being the color red, which is intrinsic to the object
in question).
2. Energy comes in multiple forms: kinetic, potential, thermal (heat), chemical, electromagnetic, and
nuclear energy. (as it’ll be discussed in the following section).
3. In principle, energy can be converted from any one of these forms into any other, and vice versa,
limited in practice only by the Second Law of Thermodynamics (we discuss the Second Law, that is
"entropy", in a later section).
4. Energy is always conserved, that is, it is never created a new or destroyed - this is called the First
Law of Thermodynamics. Thus, when an object does work on another object, the energy can only
be converted and/or transferred, but never lost or generated anew. In a sense, energy is like perfect
money - transferred but always preserved, assuming no inflation or deflation!
5. Energy can be stored under a certain form and transferred between objects or transported from
place to place
Energy transfer example can be made through electrical wire in the case of electrical energy;
Although most people are aware of these facts nowadays and take them for granted, these are really
amazing properties if you stop and think about them.
How was anyone ever able to prove such properties? These properties go far beyond the intuitive
concept of energy given at the beginning of this primer. You may find this hard to see now, because we
generally take these ideas for granted. But for thousands of years, people didn't have a clearly defined
concept of energy, and didn't know, for example, that there is a definition of "energy" which refers to a
quantity that is always conserved.
Moreover, even after kinetic energy and potential energy became understood, it still took people
centuries to figure out that heat is just another form of energy.
Before our present understanding of physics evolved, it was still a logical possibility that the Universe
might have been constructed quite differently, such that energy, in the sense of power to modify the
world, would not have been conserved and/or things in even everyday life might have been controlled
by some kind of supernatural beings. We can now see easily that such a world would likely look very
different from our own, because the basic properties of energy are actually responsible for
"constraining" many aspects of our world: Everything from the branching structures of trees to the way
that our bodies and the planets move are all strongly constrained by the properties of energy.
There are a number of ways in which a system or object can possess energy, i.e. the capability to do
work, and each way corresponds to having a different form of energy. The following sections will
describe these different forms in more detail. But keep in mind that no matter what the form, energy
always means the capability to do work, that is, exert a force through a distance on some object.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 10
0.4 Energy Forms
Energy is the ability to do work and work is the transfer of energy from one form to another. Energy can
be possessed by an object in two different ways, as
(a) Stored (potential) energy —energy ready to go due to the position, structure of matter, or
composition. For example: chemical energy stored in atomic bonds and molecules that holds these
particles together; nuclear energy stored in the nucleus of an atom; mechanical energy stored in objects
by the application of a force like compressed springs and stretched rubber bands; energy of position or
stored gravitational energy;
𝐸𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚. 𝑔. ℎ
A lawn mower filled with gasoline; a car on top of a hill; and students waiting to go home from school.
(b) Working (kinetic) energy due to the fact that matter is moving or is in use. A baseball flying through
the air is said to have "kinetic energy" by virtue of the fact that it’s in motion relative to the ground.
Anything that is moving or rotating possesses kinetic energy. The faster an object moves or rotates, the
greater its kinetic energy.
1
𝐸𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
Kinetic energy is not an intuitive, vague or mystical concept. Energy can be quantified.
You can see that an object has energy because it can do "work" on an object on the ground if it collides
with it (either by pushing on it and/or damaging it during the collision). Intuitively, you can think of
kinetic energy as a measure of the work (or damage!) that something can do if it collides with something
else; the larger the speed and/or the larger the mass, the larger the kinetic energy, and thus the greater
the impact.
Table 0.3 Potential to kinetic conversion
Potential Energy Kinetic Energy
Water behind a dam/car parked on a hill/ Falling water/Car rolls down a hill/book
book sitting on a table (due to their nudged off, gravity acceleration takes over
position) deformation work may be clashing an egg.
Wound clock spring (structure) Clock’s hands begin to move
Gasoline or sugar (pursuant to their Energy appears as movement of the car or
chemical composition) muscles and as engine or body heat

Fig.: potential to motion energy of water stored behind a dam at a hydroelectric plant
Mechanical energy is the kinetic and potential energy of ordinary objects.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 11
 Fig. Energy conversion within a launched projectile and a falling object
As a projectile is launched into the air KE is at its maximum. As the projectile gains altitude PE becomes
greater than KE. At the top of its arc, PE is at its maximum. The whole cycle reverses itself on the way
down. As you can see, the loss in KE is a gain in PE. Energy is not lost but conserved. For a particle of
mass m falling from the height h; the total mechanical energy of the particle is conserved at all levels
from the ground.
𝑀𝐸𝐴 = 𝐾𝐸𝐴 + 𝑃𝐸𝐴
Proof: 𝑀𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 ⇔ {𝑀𝐸𝐵 = 𝐾𝐸𝐵 + 𝑃𝐸𝐵 ⟹ 𝑀𝐸𝐴 = 𝑀𝐸𝐵 = 𝑀𝐸𝐶 ?
𝑀𝐸𝐶 = 𝐾𝐸𝐶 + 𝑃𝐸𝐶
1
𝐴𝑡 𝐴: 𝑣𝐴 = 0 ⟹ 𝐾𝐸𝐴 = 𝑚𝑣𝐴 2 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝐸𝐴 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ ∴ 𝑀𝐸𝐴 = 𝐾𝐸𝐴 + 𝑃𝐸𝐴 = 0 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝒎𝒈𝒉
2
𝐴𝑡 𝐵: 𝑉𝐵 = √2𝑔𝑥,
1
∀𝑥 = ℎ − ℎ1 ⟺ 𝑉𝐵 2 = 2𝑔(ℎ − ℎ1 ) ⟹ 𝐾𝐸𝐵 = 𝑚𝑉𝐵 2 = 𝑚𝑔(ℎ − ℎ1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝐸𝐵
2
= 𝑚𝑔ℎ1
∴ MEB = 𝐾𝐸𝐵 + 𝑃𝐸𝐵 = 𝑚𝑔(ℎ − ℎ1 ) + 𝑚𝑔ℎ1 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉
1
𝐴𝑡 𝐶: 𝑉𝐶 = √2𝑔𝑥, ∀𝑥 = ℎ ⟺ 𝑉𝐶 2 = 2𝑔ℎ ⇔ KEC = 2 𝑚𝑉𝐶 2 = mgh and 𝑃𝐸𝐶 = 𝑚𝑔 × 0 = 0 ∴ MEC =
1
2
𝑚 × 2𝑔ℎ = 𝒎𝒈𝒉

Fig. Energy change within a stretched and released spring-hung washer

When the washer is moved to the left or right from its resting position, the pendulum gains gravitational
potential energy. When you let go of it, the potential energy gradually transforms into kinetic energy.
And then it gets faster and faster until it reaches the lowest point of the swing. At that point the kinetic
energy starts transforming back into potential energy on the other end of the swing.
Then, the pendulum actually comes to a stop! It comes to a stop for a very short time at the end of each
swing. When it is “at rest” the energy is once again potential energy.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 12
 Fig. Child swing positions, a pendulum (metal washer tied on piece of string) and energy switch graph

Fig.: A pendulum with friction heat loss and the corresponding energy switch graph
With this great system going, you might think the pendulum would never stop. But as you observed, it
does indeed stop swinging after a while. But why? Where did all that energy go?
The washer (and the string) is actually banging into something “Air Molecules” as it swings. Swing your
hand back and forth and feel them for yourself. But an even more significant reason for the pendulum
slowing down is the friction between the string and your fingers and the friction of the different parts of
the string itself.
Energy can take on many different forms, all of which measure the ability of an object or system to do
work on another object or system. Energy comes in different forms - heat (thermal), light (radiant),
mechanical, electrical, chemical, and nuclear energy.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 13
Corn flakes and gasoline store chemical energy, while uranium and plutonium store nuclear energy. A
hot potato contains more thermal energy than it did when it was cold. Electrical energy is transmitted
along wires from power plants to appliances, and radiant energy is given off by lightbulbs, lasers,
stovetops, and stars.
There are seven forms of energy. Thanks to Rick Hanophy model; Just remember the name “MRS CHEN”:
M-Mechanical energy (kinetic-energy); its counterpart is stored energy (potential energy); R-Radiant
energy or sunlight or solar; S-Sound energy; C-Chemical energy; H-Heat energy; E-Electrical energy; N-
Nuclear energy.
Table 0.4 Energy sub-classification into Potential and Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy (stored energy and the energy of position)
Energy forms Energy due to Examples
Chemical Bonds of atoms and molecules: Kind and Flashlight battery, Biomass,
arrangement of small particles petroleum, natural gas, propane
and coal
Nuclear Structure that holds atom’s nucleus together Atomic energy in uranium atom
Stored Application of a force on objects/ Place or Compressed springs and stretched
Mechanical/ position rubber bands/ Water in a reservoir
Gravitational behind a hydropower dam
Energy
Kinetic Energy (energy in motion- the motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules and sub- stances)
Energy forms Energy due to Examples
Thermal energy internal energy in substances (Vibration and Warmth surrounding a car’s engine,
(or heat) random motion of small particles) Geothermal energy
Sound Ordered periodic motion of small particles. Sound from a headphone
Movement of energy through substances in
longitudinal (compression/rarefaction)
waves
Radiant Bundles of photons (electromagnetic energy Sunlight (visible light, x-rays, gamma
that travels in transverse waves) rays and radio waves)
Electrical Movement of electrons Lightning and electricity
Mechanical (or Movement of large pieces of matter from Movement of car’s wheels, Wind
Motion) one place to another and hydropower
Chemical energy
Energy stored in the bonds between atoms in molecules that hold these particles together: Biomass,
petroleum, natural gas, and propane are examples of stored chemical energy. Most commonly used
energy sources; they are usually labeled “fuels.” The way to use the chemical energy in most fuels is by
burning them, giving off thermal energy in the form heat due to exothermic combustion reaction, as we
do with wood, natural gas, gasoline, coal, and others.
In photosynthesis plants take in radiant energy from sunlight. This solar energy is stored in complex
chemical compounds such as starches and sugars.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 14
 (a)

(b)
Fig. (a) Photosynthesis products, (b) Typical food web channeling the Photosynthesis chemical energy from herbivorous to
carnivorous or omnivorous animals where digestion remnant energy turns into biomass
The stored energy is released when these compounds breakdown into simpler compounds by help of
chemical additive enzyme; digestion converts it into forms of energy that our body can use, such as
mechanical energy to walk across the room. The same energy becomes subject to the food web

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 15
between living things, from herbivorous to carnivorous or omnivorous, where the digestion energy
reminder can be further used as biomass energy.
Some chemicals contain a great deal of energy that can be released all at once. These chemicals are
called explosives (dynamite explosion, its chemical energy changes very quickly into thermal and radiant
energy and transfers from a potential to a kinetic state).

Nuclear energy
The mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus: Protons and neutrons are about 2000 times as
heavy as electrons. The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in an atom of the
element. Unlike protons, electrons can move from atom to atom. If an atom has an equal number of
protons and electrons, its net charge is 0. If it gains an extra electron, it becomes negatively charged and
is known as an anion. If it loses an electron, it becomes positively charged and is known as a cation.
Atoms of a given atomic number that have different numbers of neutrons are isotopes.

Fig. The nucleus is made of protons (+) and neutrons kept together by a cohesive potential energy
The Sun, nuclear reactors, and the interior of the Earth, all have "nuclear reactions" as the source of
their energy, that is, reactions that involve changes in the structure of the nuclei of atoms (uranium
nuclei are split during atomic fission or hydrogen nuclei combine to form a helium nucleus during
fusion).
Hydrogen and uranium are two kinds of matter used to produce nuclear energy. In a nuclear reaction,
the tremendous binding energy inside a hydrogen or uranium nucleus is released.
In the Sun, hydrogen nuclei fuse (combine) together to make helium nuclei, in a process called fusion,
which releases energy. In a nuclear reactor, or in the interior of the Earth, Uranium nuclei (and certain
other heavy elements in the Earth's interior) split apart, in a process called fission. If this didn't happen,
the Earth's interior would have long gone cold!
The energy released by fission and fusion is not just a product of the potential energy released by
rearranging the nuclei. In fact, in both cases, fusion or fission, some of the matter making up the nuclei
is actually converted into energy. How can this be?
The answer is that matter itself is a form of energy! This concept involves one of the most famous
formula's in physics, the formula relating mass conversion into energy, according to Einstein’s Theory,
nuclear energy produces thermal energy, which is given off as heat.
𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 16
 (a)

(b)
Fig. (a) Nuclear fission and its chain reaction (b) Nuclear fusion
This formula was discovered by Einstein as part of his "Theory of Special Relativity". In simple words, this
formula means: “The energy intrinsically stored in a piece of matter at rest equals its mass times the
speed of light squared”.
When we plug numbers in this equation, we find that there is actually an incredibly huge amount of
energy stored in even little pieces of matter (the speed of light squared is a very very large number!).
For example, it would cost more than a million dollars to buy the energy stored intrinsically stored in a
single penny at our current (relatively cheap!) electricity rates. To get some feeling for how much energy
is really there, consider that nuclear weapons only release a small fraction of the "intrinsic" energy of
their components.
Fission’s heat is used to generate electric power in hundreds of locations worldwide. Nuclear energy
also has other uses. In medicine, it is used in radiation therapy to treat cancer. Also nuclear energy is
used to power some submarines and large ships so as to stay at sea for long periods without stopping to
refuel because their nuclear fuel takes up little space. The sun and other stars use fusion to generate
radiant and thermal energy. As stars give off energy, they lose mass. Someday, humans may be able to
harness nuclear fusion as well.
Advantages of nuclear energy: (i) It produces a very large amount of energy per unit mass than any
other source of energy. (i) If safety measures are taken, it is more environment friendly than fossil fuels.
Disadvantages of nuclear energy: (i) The cost of a nuclear reactor is very high. (ii) The availability of
nuclear fuel is limited. (iii) Nuclear reactors produce harmful nuclear wastes which is difficult to dispose.

Electrical energy

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 17
It is the energy carried by moving electrons in an electric conductor. All matter consists of atoms, and
every atom contains one or more electrons, which are always moving/orbiting around the center, or
nucleus, of atoms, just like the moon orbits the earth.

Fig. Ernest Rutherford's - Niels Bohr’s Planetary Model of an Atom: At different energy levels, small electrons orbit the large and
relatively-fixed massively-energetic nucleus made up of protons and neutrons
Modern theory explains the emission of light by matter in terms of electronic energy levels. An electron
of relatively high energy may jump to a condition of lower energy, giving off the energy difference as
electromagnetic radiation. Negative electrons are attracted to positive nucleus. Consequently, it takes
energy to move an electron away from the nucleus to an outer circle (energy levels/principle quantum
numbers, n or shells). As opposite to solar lays/photons excitation; the external radiation result into the
electron flow/current out of their definite energy level. Electrons in outermost circles have higher
energy since it requires more effort to pull the electron a greater distance from the nucleus.
Some materials, particularly metals, have certain electrons that are only loosely attached to their atoms.
They can easily be made to move from one atom to another if an electric field is applied to them. When
those electrons move among the atoms of matter, a current of electricity is created.
This is what happens in a piece of wire when an electric field, or voltage, is applied (electrons are forced
along a path in that conducting substance). The electrons pass from atom to atom, pushed by the
electric field and by each other (they repel each other because like charges repel), thus creating the
electrical current. The measure of how well something conducts electricity is called its conductivity, and
the reciprocal of conductivity is called the resistance. Copper replaced aluminum wiring because it has a
lower resistance than many other metals and is easy to use and obtain.
Electrical energy cannot be seen, but it is one of our most useful forms of energy because it is relatively

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 18
easy to transmit and use.
The energy is transferred by the chain of repulsive interactions between the electrons down the wire -
not by the transfer of electrons per se.
This is just like the way that water molecules can push on each other and transmit pressure (or force)
through the pipe carrying water. At points where a strong resistance is encountered, it’s harder for the
electrons to flow - this creates a "back pressure" in a sense back to the source. This back pressure is
what really transmits the energy from whatever is pushing the electrons through the wire. Of course,
this applied "pressure" is the "voltage".

As the electrons move through a "resistor" in the circuit, they interact with the atoms in the resistor very
strongly, causing the resistor to heat up - hence delivering energy in the form of heat. Or, if the
electrons are moving instead through the wound coils of a motor, they instead create a magnetic field,
which interacts with other magnets in the motor, and hence turns the motor. In this case the "back
pressure" on the electrons, which is necessary for there to be a transfer of energy from the applied
voltage to the motor's shaft, is created by the magnetic fields of the other magnets (back) acting on the
electrons - a perfect push-pull arrangement!
Electrical generating plants change other forms of energy into electricity. For example, power plants can
convert chemical energy stored in fuels into thermal energy, which evaporates water into steam, which
produces mechanical energy as it moves through turbines. The turbines spin generators, which produce
electricity.

Basic notions and terminology in electricity

Typically, solar PV cells are made by sandwiching together two thin layers of semiconductor material.
The two layers have slightly different chemical compositions that facilitate electron transfer between
them. When sunlight energy is absorbed by a solar cell, it causes electrons to “escape” from molecules
in one layer of material and move to those in the other. This creates an electrical field that can be
converted into electricity
A load is a device that does work or performs a job. If a load such as a light bulb is placed along the wire,
the electricity can do work as it flows through the wire. Sometimes electricity runs motors in items such
as washers or mixers. Electricity does a lot of work for us.
Electrons flow from the end of the battery, through the wire to the light bulb. The electricity flows
through the wire in the light bulb and back to the battery. Electricity travels in closed loops, or circuits. It
must have a complete path before the electrons can move. If a circuit is open, the electrons cannot flow.
When we flip on a light switch, we close a circuit. The electricity flows from the electric wire through the
light and back into the wire. When we flip the switch off, we open the circuit. No electricity flows to the
light. When we turn a light switch on, electricity flows through a tiny tungsten wire called a filament in
an incandescent bulb. The filament gets very hot and glows. When the bulb burns out, the filament has
broken. The path through the bulb is gone.
When we turn on the TV, electricity flows through wires inside the set, producing pictures and sound.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 19
 Fig. A closed circuit and open circuit
A closed circuit is a complete path allowing electricity to flow from the energy source to the load, and
open circuit has a break in the path. There is no flow of electricity because electrons cannot complete
the circuit
Measuring electricity: Electricity makes our lives easier, but it can seem like a mysterious force.
Measuring electricity is confusing because we cannot see it. We are familiar with terms such as watt,
volt, and amp, but we do not have a clear understanding of these terms. We buy a 60-watt light bulb, a
tool that needs 120 volts, or a vacuum cleaner that uses 8.8 amps, and we do not think about what
those units mean.
Using the flow of water as an analogy can make electricity easier to understand, for mechanical
technicians. The flow of electrons in a circuit is similar to water flowing through a hose. If you could look
into a hose at a given point, you would see a certain amount of water passing that point each second.
The amount of water depends on how much pressure is being applied—how hard the water is being
pushed. It also depends on the diameter of the hose. The harder the pressure and the larger the
diameter of the hose, the more water passes each second. The flow of electrons through a wire depends
on the electrical pressure pushing the electrons and on the cross-sectional area of the wire.
Voltage: The pressure that pushes electrons in a circuit. Using the water analogy, if a tank of water were
suspended one meter above the ground with a one-centimeter pipe coming out of the bottom, the
water pressure would be similar to the force of a shower.
If the same water tank were suspended 10 meters above the ground, the force of
the water would be much greater, possibly enough to hurt you. Voltage (V) is a
measure of the pressure applied to electrons to make them move. It is a measure of
the strength of the current in a circuit and is measured in volts (V). Just as the 10-
meter tank applies greater pressure than the one-meter tank, a 10-volt power
supply (such as a battery) would apply greater pressure than a one volt power
supply.
Fig. Voltage-to-pressure analogy
AA batteries are 1.5 volts; they apply a small amount of voltage or pressure for lighting small flashlight
bulbs. A car usually has a 12-volt battery; it applies more voltage to push current through circuits to
operate the radio or defroster. The standard voltage of wall outlets is 120 volts - a dangerous amount of
voltage.
Electrical Current: The flow of electrons can be compared to the flow of water. The water current is the
number of molecules flowing past a fixed point. Electrical current is the number of electrons flowing past
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 20
a fixed point. Electrical current (I) is defined as electrons flowing between two points having a difference
in voltage. Current is measured in amperes or amps (A). One ampere is 6.25 x 1018 electrons per second
passing through a circuit.
With water, as the diameter of the pipe increases, so does the amount of water that can flow through it.
With electricity, conducting wires take the place of the pipe.

As the cross-sectional area of the wire increases, so does the amount of

electrical current (number of electrons) that can flow through it. Power
lines are much thicker than a cord you might have in your house because
power lines must carry electricity to multiple homes and devices.

Fig. Analogy of pipe diameter with wire cross-section

Resistance (R) is a property that slows the flow of electrons (the current).
Using the water analogy, resistance is something that slows water flow: a
smaller pipe or fins on the inside of the pipe.
In electrical terms, the resistance of a conducting wire depends on which
metal the wire is made of and its diameter. Copper, aluminum, and silver -
metals used in conducting wires - all have different resistance. Resistance is
measured in units called ohms (Ω).
Fig. Analogy of electrical resistance with small pipe diameter or a pipe fitted with fins
There are devices called resistors, with set resistances, that can be placed in circuits to reduce or control
the current flow.
George Ohm, a German physicist, discovered that in many materials, especially metals, the current that
flows through a material is proportional to the voltage. In the substances he tested, he found that if he
doubled the voltage, the current also doubled. If he reduced the voltage by half, the current dropped by
half. The resistance of the material remained the same. This relationship is called Ohm’s Law, and can
be written in three simple formulas. Voltage = Current X resistance ∴ 𝑽 = 𝑰 × 𝑹 [𝑽 = 𝑨 × 𝛀] ⟺ 𝐼 =
𝑉⁄𝑅 [𝐴 = 𝑉⁄Ω] ⟺ 𝑅 = 𝑉⁄𝐼 [Ω = V⁄A]
Power (P) is a measure of the rate of doing work or the rate at which energy is converted. Electrical
power is the rate at which electricity is produced or consumed. Using the water analogy, electrical
power is the combination of the water pressure (voltage) and the rate of flow (current) that results in the
ability to do work.

A large pipe carries more water (current) than a small pipe. Water at
a height of 10m has much greater force (voltage) than at a height of
one meter.

Fig. Analogy between electrical power with the combination of the water pressure and the rate of flow (pipe size)
The power of water flowing through a one-centimeter pipe from a height of one meter is much less than
water through a 10-centimeter pipe from 10m.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 21
Electrical power is defined as the amount of electric current flowing due to an applied voltage. It is the
amount of electricity required to start or operate a load for one second. Electrical power is measured in
watts (W).
Power = Voltage X current ∴ 𝑷 = 𝑽 × 𝑰 [𝑾 = 𝑽 × 𝑨]
Electrical energy introduces time to electrical power. In the water analogy, it would be the amount of
water falling through the pipe over a period of time, such as an hour. When we talk about using power
over time, we are talking about using energy. Using our water example, we could look at how much
work could be done by the water in the time that it takes for the tank to empty.
The electrical energy that an appliance consumes can only be determined if you know how long (time) it
consumes electrical power at a specific rate (power). To find the amount of energy consumed, you
multiply the rate of energy consumption (watts) by the amount of time (hours) that it is being consumed.
Electrical energy is measured in watt-hours (Wh).
Energy = Power X time ∴ 𝑬 = 𝑷 × 𝒕 [𝑬 = 𝑾 × 𝒉 = 𝑾𝒉]
Another way to think about power and energy is with an analogy to traveling: If a person travels in a car
at a rate of 40 km per hour, to find the total distance traveled, you would multiply the rate of travel by
the amount of time you traveled at that rate. For a car travel of one and three hours, Distance = 40
km/h x 1 [3] h = 40 [120]Km
The distance traveled represents the work done by the car. When we look at power, we are talking
about the rate that electrical energy is being produced or consumed. Energy can be compared to the
distance traveled or the work done by the car. A person would not say he took a 40-km per hour trip
because that is the rate. He would say he took a 40-km trip or a 120-km trip. We would describe the trip
in terms of distance traveled, not rate traveled. The distance is the work done.
The same applies with electrical energy. You would not say you used 100 watts of light energy to read
your book, because watts represents the rate you used energy, not the total energy used. The amount
of energy used would be calculated by multiplying the rate by the amount of time you read. If you read
for five hours with a 100-W bulb, for example, you would use the formula as follows: Energy = 100 W x 5
h = 500 Wh
One watt-hour is a very small amount of electrical energy. Usually, we measure electrical power in larger
units called kilowatt-hours (kWh) or 1,000 watt-hours (kilo = thousand). A kilowatt-hour is the unit that
utilities use when billing most customers.
Electrochemical Energy: Consider the energy stored in a battery. Like blood sugar, the battery also
stores energy in a chemical way. But electricity is also involved, so we say that the battery stores energy
"electro-chemically". Another electron chemical device is a "fuel-cell".

1.1 Electromagnetic (Radiant) Energy

Atoms absorb energy from an outside source and release (or “emit”) this energy as electromagnetic
radiation. This radiation can be in the form of waves of many different wavelengths or frequencies.
Consider the energy transmitted to the Earth from the Sun by light (or by any source of light). Light,
which is also called "electro-magnetic radiation". Why the fancy term? Because light really can be
thought of as oscillating, coupled electric and magnetic fields that travel freely through space (without
there having to be charged particles of some kind around).

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 22
Solar energy is an example of radiant energy, Visible light is electromagnetic energy emitted at
wavelengths our eyes can see.
It turns out that light may also be thought of as little packets of energy called photons (that is, as
particles, instead of waves). The word "photon" derives from the word "photo", which means "light".
Photons are created when electrons jump to lower energy levels in atoms, and absorbed when electrons
jump to higher levels. Photons are also created when a charged particle, such as an electron or proton,
is accelerated, as for example happens in a radio transmitter antenna.
But because light can also be described as waves, in addition to being a packet of energy, each photon
also has a specific frequency and wavelength associated with it, which depends on how much energy the
photon has (because of this weird duality - waves and particles at the same time - people sometimes call
particles like photons "wavicles").

Electromagnetic energy emitted at wavelengths we cannot see may take the form of infrared radiation,
ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, gamma rays (much shorter wavelength than visible light which is opposite
radio waves. Their frequencies are far longer than the longest waves our eyes can see.
The lower the energy, the longer the wavelength and lower the frequency, and vice versa. The reason
that sunlight can hurt your skin or your eyes is because it contains "ultraviolet light", which consists of
high energy photons. These photons have short wavelength and high frequency, and pack
enough energy in each photon to cause physical damage to your skin if they get past the outer layer of
skin or the lens in your eye.
Radio waves, and the radiant heat you feel at a distance from a campfire, for example, are also forms of
electro-magnetic radiation, or light, except that they consist of low energy photons (long wavelength
and high frequencies - in the infrared band and lower) that your eyes can't perceive. This was a great
discovery of the nineteenth century - that radio waves, x-rays, and gamma-rays, are just forms of light,
and that light is electro-magnetic waves

Fig. Radiant energy vs wavelength

Many energy sources emit radiant energy. The sun and other stars are luminous or “light-giving” objects
that produce radiant energy from nuclear reactions. Luminescence may result from biological processes
(e.g., fireflies), chemical reactions like burning kerosene in a lamp, friction, or electricity, as in a light
bulb.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 23
1.2 Mechanical energy
The most familiar from of energy; It is the energy a substance or system has because of its motion. Every
moving object has mechanical energy—whether it is a hammer driving a nail, a leaf falling from a tree,
or a rocket flying in space. Mechanical energy pulls, pushes, twists, turns, and throws.
Machines use mechanical energy to do work. Our bodies also use mechanical energy to perform
motions such as throwing a ball or moving a pencil to write on paper.
Sound Energy: Sound waves are compression waves associated with the potential and kinetic energy of
air molecules. When an object moves quickly, for example the head of drum, it compresses the air
nearby, giving that air potential energy. That air then expands, transforming the potential energy into
kinetic energy (moving air). The moving air then pushes on and compresses other air, and so on down
the chain. A nice way to think of sound waves is as "shimmering air".

1.3 Thermal energy (misleader with heat energy)

Heat is something that raises the temperature of a material, as measured by a thermometer. (It will turn
out that heat is actually the microscopic energy of motion of vibrating molecules.)
The coffee is said to possess "thermal energy", or "heat energy" which is really the collective,
microscopic, kinetic and potential energy of the molecules in the coffee (the molecules have kinetic
energy because they are moving and vibrating, and they have potential energy due their mutual
attraction for one another - much the same way that the book and the Earth have potential energy
because they attract each other).
Temperature is really a measure of how much thermal energy something has. The higher the
temperature, the faster the molecules are moving around and/or vibrating, i.e. the more kinetic and
potential energy the molecules have.
Temperature and molecular motion:
In order to understand the nature of heat and temperature, it is necessary to appreciate the fact that
matter consists of smallest and always moving particles (atoms or molecules) which can interact more or
less strongly with one another.
When the substance is a solid, the atoms or molecules are fixed in one location and just vibrate back and
forth in place. This is why solids stay the same shape.
The atoms or molecules in a liquid move around much more, and often tumble around each other.
However, the molecules do not have enough energy to completely get away from each other. This is why
a liquid spreads itself out to the shape of the container, but does not necessarily fill the container. The
molecules in a gas have enough energy to move all over the place and get away from each other. Gases
spread out to completely fill whatever container they are in. Gas molecules are moving very fast and
bump into each other as well as other objects.

Fig. Usual motion freedom of molecules within solids and fluids

You cannot feel air molecules bumping into you because they are very small. This forms the basis of the

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 24
kinetic theory. The motion of the particles is increased by raising the temperature.
Conversely, the motion of the particles is reduced by lowering the temperature, until, at the absolute
zero (0K), the motion of the particles ceases altogether.
Because the particles are in motion, they will have kinetic energy. The particles will not all have the same
energy, and the energy of the particles is constantly changing as they undergo changes in speed.
Thus, for a given sample of matter, we can only talk about the average kinetic energy of the particles.
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles.
In solid substances, the particles’ movement is limited, resembling vibration. The particles are atoms,
arranged in an orderly array. The atoms are relatively close to one another, and the motion of each atom
is restricted by its interaction with other atoms.
Add heat to a solid, and the molecules move faster. When enough heat is added, the substance melts
and becomes a liquid, in which the particles slip and slide past one another.

Fig. Effects of a continued head addition on solid till the two phase changes
In a liquid, the atoms or molecules are further apart than in a solid, and are not arranged in any special
order. There is less interaction between the molecules, and they are free to move in any direction, but as
interactions between the molecules are still present, most molecules are confined to the volume
occupied by the liquid sample.
Adding more heat eventually causes the molecules to bounce around randomly the substance becomes
a gas. In a gas, the atoms or molecules are further apart and have little interaction with one another. The
motion of these particles is confined by the walls of the containing vessels. These phase changes occur
at different temperatures, depending on the substance.
9 5
℉ = 5 ℃ + 32; ℃ = 9 (℉ − 32). Therefore, Thermal energy is the energy a substance or system has
related to its temperature, i.e., the energy of moving or vibrating molecules. The motion of thermal
energy is usually not visible, but we can feel or see its effects. We use thermal energy to cook our food
and heat our homes, and we use it to generate electricity.

∴Thermal energy is not the same as heat. Heat is energy transferred between substances or systems
due to a temperature difference between them. So it is correct to say that a system contains thermal
energy, but not that it “contains” heat, since heat means energy that is transferred from one thing to
another.
The amount of heat transferred by a substance depends on the speed and number of atoms or
molecules in motion. The faster the atoms or molecules move, the higher the temperature, and the
more atoms or molecules that are in motion, the greater the quantity of heat transfer. Geothermal
energy is an example of thermal energy.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 25
0.2.3 ENERGY CONVERSIONS
The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created nor destroyed; it only changes
form.
Energy Doesn’t Disappear: There is the same amount of energy today as there was when the world
began. When we use energy, we don’t use it up; we change it into other forms of energy. When we burn
wood, we change its energy into heat and light. When we drive a car, we change the energy in gasoline
into heat and motion.
There will always be the same amount of energy in the world, but more and more of it will be changed
into heat. Most of that heat will go into the air. It will still be there, but it will be hard to use.
The mentioned multiple forms of energy can be converted into each other since often the form of
energy most readily available is not the most useful form.
As the baseball flies upward, its kinetic energy is converted into gravitational energy; as it falls, the
gravitational energy is converted back into kinetic energy. Before the energy entered the ball, it was
stored as chemical energy in the batter’s breakfast. When the ball hits the ground and rolls to a stop, its
kinetic energy is converted into thermal energy, warming the ball and the ground very slightly.
A slingshot converts elastic energy into kinetic energy; a burning matchstick converts chemical energy
into thermal and radiant energy. Our sun converts nuclear energy into thermal and radiant energy. A
hydroelectric dam converts gravitational energy into electrical energy, while an electric motor converts
electrical energy into kinetic energy.

(a)

(b)
Fig. (a) Energy conversion chain, (b) Energy transfer in a pendulum (potential to kinetic and vice versa like in roller coaster along
a hill)
Coal can be burned to provide heat, but converting its chemical energy into electrical energy requires a
series of intermediate steps. In each step of the conversion process, some energy is wasted.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 26
 Fig. Energy transformation in a toaster
When you pull the mass down; the mass and spring gain potential energy. As the spring pulls the mass
up to its original position, the potential energy becomes kinetic energy. When the spring rises above its
original position, kinetic energy again becomes potential energy. However, the total amount of
mechanical energy does not change, except for energy that is lost to friction. This type of vibration is
called simple harmonic motion.
The most common and obvious way to observe this change/conversion is as heat, for instance:
 Flashlight battery: chemical energy → electrical energy → light + some heat energy (put your hands
over the light source to feel the heat).
 Natural gas burnt for warm up in a home or office furnace: chemical energy → heat energy.
 Sun's radiant energy → chemical energy (by plants’ process of photosynthesis).
The following are binary conversions that are mostly found in every day’s life:

Fig. Usual energy conversion examples

Electrical Energy Mechanical Energy of Motion
- The model electric train through engine’s electric motor: The train slows down as it climbs inclined
railways because energy, nearly supplied at constant rate, is required to lift the train up as well as to
move it forward. As it climbs, some of its mechanical energy of motion is converted into gravitational
potential energy.
- Power plant, hand-cranked and spark generators. When the spark generator’s spring is compressed,
mechanical energy is stored as potential strain energy. When the stored strain energy is released, the
spring exerts force on the surfaces of a certain type of crystal, which then becomes electrically charged.
If enough charge accumulates on the surfaces, a spark will jump between oppositely charged parts of
the crystal.
Electrical Energy  Thermal Energy
- Electrical to useful thermal energy is the most common conversion in our household appliances such as
toasters, iron, hair dryers, cook stoves, and electric heaters. Appliances designed for purposes other than
providing heat waste energy by converting some of their electrical energy into undesirable thermal
energy, giving the warmth you feel when you touch an operating television or computer.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 27
- Some thermostats with bimetallic strips, as accommodated in appliances such as toasters and hair
dryers, illustrate the reverse conversion. They consist of two layers of different metals, which react
differently in expansion at critical temperature when they are heated, causing the strip to bend until it
opens a switch that interrupts the flow of electric current, hence turning off the appliance.
Electrical Energy  Radiant Energy
- An electroluminescent nightlight converts electrical energy to visible light, a form of radiant energy. The
nightlight is dim as it operates with a very small amount of energy only 0.02 watts of electrical energy
compared to 100 watts for an average light bulb.
- Solar cells convert radiant energy from the sun into electrical energy.

Mechanical Energy of Motion  Thermal Energy

When surfaces rub together, they produce friction between the objects. Electric drill to rotate a metal
tube filled with water. Two blocks of wood squeezed against the tube produce the friction. When we
pour a small amount of water into the metal tube and cork it with a rubber stopper, the mechanical
energy of motion converted into heat by friction turns the water into steam. The steam blows the cork
out of the tube, thus converting thermal energy back into mechanical energy of motion of the stopper.
Chemical Potential Energy  Electrical Energy
- Perhaps the most common energy storage device is the battery. The stored energy is converted when
the battery operates.
- Burning substances such as natural gas, coal, petroleum products, etc.; converts their stored chemical
energy into thermal energy and into visible and invisible radiant energy.
Chemical Potential Energy  Radiant Energy
- Unlike light bulbs, which give off invisible infrared radiation as well as visible light, some chemical
reactions produce visible light without giving off discernible amounts of infrared radiation. Such
chemiluminescent reactions occur when a firefly gives off light.
- Reverse conversion is through the process of photosynthesis by plants. Nuclear energy produced in the
Sun’s core radiates away from the Sun in all directions. Some of this radiant energy strikes the Earth and
is absorbed by plants. Plant cells use radiant energy to produce chemical energy in the form of
carbohydrates. When we consume plants, our bodies convert their stored chemical energy into energy
stored in our bodies.

Explosions and energy

An explosion occurs when a great deal of stored energy is suddenly converted into heat in a confined
space. This is true for a grenade, an atomic bomb, or an asteroid hitting the Earth. The heat is enough to
vaporize the matter, turning it into an extremely hot gas. Such a gas has enormous pressure, that is, it
puts a great force on everything that surrounds it. Nothing is strong enough to resist this pressure, so
the gas expands rapidly and pushes anything near it out of the way. The flying debris is what does the
damage in an explosion.
It doesn’t matter what the original form of the energy is; it could be kinetic energy (the result of motion)
like the energy of the asteroid, or chemical energy like the energy in the explosive TNT (trinitrotoluene).
It is the rapid conversion of this energy into heat that is at the heart of most explosions.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 28
0.2.4 POWER: THE RATE OF ENERGY CONVERSION
Often we’re interested not just in the total amount of energy converted in some process, but also in the
rate at which that energy is converted. For instance, A person consumes 2500 kilocalories per day; a
furnace puts out 100,000 Btu per hour; a power plant generates one billion joules per second. To
calculate the rate of energy conversion, all you have to do is divide the amount of energy converted by
the amount of time it took. Scientists use the term power for this ratio:
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = (𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟)
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
For instance, if in climbing a flight of stairs you gain 2000 joules of gravitational energy over a period of 5
seconds, we would say that the power output of your legs is
2000𝐽 400𝐽
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = = 𝑜𝑟 400𝑊
5𝑠 𝑠
(Since you are not 100% efficient at converting chemical energy into gravitational energy, the rate at
which your muscles consume chemical energy is actually greater; the rest of the chemical energy gets
converted to thermal energy, as you’ve probably noticed while exercising).
Since a watt is a rather small amount of power (very roughly the rate at which a flashlight bulb converts
electrical energy into thermal and radiant energy), we often attach to it the prefixes kilo, mega, or giga.
Another unit of power that you’ve probably heard of is the horsepower, approximately the power output
of a draft horse working steadily. Since all horses are not created equal, today the horsepower is defined
as exactly 746 watts; whether your horse can actually produce one horsepower is your own problem.
Other units of power can be created by combining any unit of energy with any unit of time.

EFFICIENCY OF ENERGY CONVERSIONS

In all energy conversions, some energy is wasted. However, some energy conversion processes require a
large amount of energy in to obtain a small amount of energy out. Such conversion processes are
inefficient. Reducing energy costs requires efficient energy conversions, which waste the least energy.
For example, an incandescent light bulb converts electrical energy into radiant energy in the forms of
visible light and infrared radiation. While the visible light is useful, the infrared radiation is wasted. The
wasted infrared radiation can be felt as heat when you hold your hand near the bulb. Part of this infrared
radiation goes into increasing the thermal energy of the light bulb glass, which is very hot if touched.
Fluorescent lights are more efficient than incandescent bulbs because they produce the same amount of
visible light but much less infrared radiation.

Fig. Total Energy In = Useful Energy Out + Wasted Energy Out

The efficiency of an energy conversion process equals the ratio of the amount of energy of the desired

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 29
type produced per total amount of energy put into the conversion process.
𝑼𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑶𝒖𝒕
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 =
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒊𝒏
Since every energy conversion process wastes some energy, the efficiency ratio for any energy
conversion process is less than one – the useful energy out is always less than the total energy put in.
Examples:
1. What is the efficiency of an energy conversion that requires 600 joules of energy to produce 150
joules of useful energy?
𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑂𝑢𝑡 150𝐽
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = = = 0.25 = 25%
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 600𝐽
Overall Efficiency = Efficiency hand x Efficiency generator x Efficiency bulb = 0.40 X 0.50 X 0.20= 0.04 =
4% = 1000J X 0.04 = 40J of useful energy.
2. a) What is the efficiency of an energy conversion process that requires 1,500 joules of energy in to
produce 500 joules of useful energy?
b) How many joules of energy are wasted in this process?
c) A series of energy conversions have efficiencies of 25%, 60%, and 50%. What is the overall efficiency of
this series of conversions?

ENERGY STORAGE, TRANSPORTATION FROM PLACE TO PLACE AND TRANSFER

Energy can be stored in many forms. Chemical potential energy is stored in fuels such as coal, wood, and
food or in the chemicals, in batteries and fuel cells. Phosphorescent materials store some of the energy
they absorb from visible light. After a time delay, they convert this energy back into visible light. Often
energy storage involves energy conversions. Winding a music box stores the mechanical energy of
motion of our arm’s motion as strain potential energy in the music box spring. Gravitational potential
energy is stored by raising an object to a higher level.
Electric Storage Technologies
A number of energy storage technologies have been developed or are under development for electric
power applications, including:
• Pumped hydropower
• Compressed air energy storage (CAES)
• Batteries
• Flywheels
• Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)
• Supercapacitors
A flywheel is a heavy rotating body which acts as reservoir for absorbing the kinetic energy (during the
period when the supply of energy is more than the requirement) and redistributing kinetic energy
(during the period when the requirement of energy is more than the supply). Its function is to keep the
speed of machine between given limits while the machine is doing work or receiving energy at a variable
rate. The use of flywheel will allow the following to occur:
- Reduced amplitude of speed fluctuation
- Reduced maximum torque required

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 30
- Energy stored and released when needed
Types of machines which require the use of flywheel
(i) Where the operation is intermittent: the flywheel absorbs energy from a power source during the
greater portion of the operating cycle and delivers a large amount of stored energy as useful work in a
very short portion of the cycle. Thus the energy from the power source to the machines is supplied
practically at a constant rate throughout the operation. E.g.: punching machines, riveting machines,
shearing machines, presses, crushers, etc.
By inserting a flywheel between the driving device and the driven machine, a much smaller motor or
belt may be used to supply energy at practically constant rate throughout the cycle.
(ii) The flywheel smoothes out the speed fluctuations caused by non-uniform flow of power from the
piston during each energy cycle E.g.: Steam engine, I.C engines, reciprocating compressors and pump.
The energy is developed during one stroke (expansion or power stroke) and the engine is to run the
whole cycle on the energy produced during this stroke. The excess energy developed during power
stroke is absorbed by the flywheel and releases it to the crankshaft during other strokes in which no
energy is developed.
By absorption and release of energy; the flywheel speed gets increased and decreased alternately hence
a flywheel does not maintain a constant speed; it simply reduces the fluctuation of speed. In other
words, it controls the speed variations caused by the fluctuation of the engine turning moment during
each cycle of operation.
Rim
m = Mass of the flywheel [kg]; k = Radius of gyration of the
flywheel [m]; I = Mass moment of inertia of the flywheel about
its axis of rotation in kg-m2 = m.k2 Hub
Mean kinetic energy of the flywheel [N-m or joules)
As the speed of the flywheel changes from ω1 to ω2, the
R
maximum fluctuation of energy; ∆E = Max K.E – Min K.E
Arm

The most obvious and trivial way in which energy is transported is when an object that possesses energy
simply moves from one place to another. For example, a baseball flying through the air is a simple form
of energy transport.
Kinetic energy can also be transferred from one object to another when objects collide. This is also
pretty trivial, except that we also know that the total energy, including any heat or other forms of
energy generated during the collision, is conserved in this process, regardless of the relative sizes,
shapes, and materials of the objects.

WAVE’S ENERGY TRANSFER

What’s a wave?
Imagine a leaf floating on water when a wave passes by. First, the leaf bobs up. Then, it drops back to its
original position, as shown in the figure below. In the same way, the water molecules in the pond rise up
and fall back as the wave passes. Both the leaf and the molecules end in nearly their original positions. In
other words, their displacement is almost zero. If the wave does not move any matter, what does move
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 31
with the wave? The answer is energy.
A wave is a disturbance that carries energy though matter or space.

Fig. Energy content in a wave disturbance

Waves in a pond and sounds are disturbances that carry energy through water and air respectively; the
energy released by an earthquake is carried by waves within Earth.
Many waves, such as water waves, sound waves, and earthquake waves, can travel only through matter
“Medium” and are called mechanical waves.
Electromagnetic waves are the most common kind of nonmechanical waves. They consist of changing
electric and magnetic fields in space. Electromagnetic waves can travel through a medium, but they do
not have to travel through a medium. For example, light from the sun travels to Earth through empty
space, and can also travel through the air.
There are many different kinds of electromagnetic waves. Visible light is one kind. Ultraviolet rays, X rays,
and radio waves are also electromagnetic waves.
What happens to energy as a wave travels?
If you stand next to the speakers at a rock concert, the sound waves may damage your ears. However, if
you stand 100m away, the sound will cause no harm. This is because the energy of a wave spreads out as
the wave travels. Imagine throwing a stone into a pond.

Fig. Wave form

When the stone hits the water, energy is transferred from the stone to the water. The energy produces
water waves in the pond. The waves start at the place where the stone hits the water. The waves spread
out in circles, or wave fronts, that get wider as the waves move farther from the center.
Remember that energy cannot be created or destroyed. Therefore, no matter how big each wave front
gets, it has the same amount of energy. In the larger circles, the energy is spread out over a larger area.
Therefore, the energy at each point in the wave gets smaller as the wave fronts get larger.
When sound waves travel in air, they spread out in spheres. As the waves move outward, the spherical
wave fronts get bigger. The energy spreads out over a larger volume. This is why noises sound fainter
when you move farther from their source.
What produces waves?
When a singer sings a note, the vocal chords in the singer’s throat move back and forth. That motion
makes the air in his throat vibrate. These vibrations travel through the air as sound waves and eventually

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 32
reach your ears. Vibration of the air in your ears causes your eardrums to vibrate. The motion of your
eardrums produces signals that travel through your nerves to your brain. Waves are related to
vibrations. Most mechanical waves (i.e. as they travel through a medium, the particles in the medium
vibrate), such as sound waves, are produced by vibrating objects. Vibrations can also produce
electromagnetic waves: vibrating charged particles.
If you pull down on the mass at the end of the row and then let go, that mass will start to vibrate. As it
vibrates, it pulls on the mass next to it. It causes that mass to vibrate. Each mass in the row vibrates in
turn as the mass next to it pulls on it.

Fig. A series of masses and springs tied together in a row

Because these masses are linked together, pulling on one of them causes the others to move.
The connected masses in the figure show how energy can move through a medium. Each mass is
connected to the next mass. Therefore, energy can move from one mass to the next.
Over time, the energy from the first mass moves to other masses in the line. In a similar way, energy
moves from one particle to another in a medium.
Eventually, the energy of the wave moves from one side of the medium to the other. If the first mass
were not connected to the other masses, it would keep vibrating on its own. Because it transfers some
energy to the second mass, it starts to slow down. It returns to its resting position faster than it would
have if it were alone.
Scientists have a name for a vibration that gets smaller as energy is lost to friction or is transferred to
other objects. They call it damped harmonic motion.

Type of motion Description

Simple harmonic motion - Masses move independently
- Masses do not lose energy
Damped harmonic motion - Masses are linked together
- Masses lose energy to other masses or to friction
Likewise, when a mechanical wave travels through a medium, the particles in the medium vibrate.
Mechanical waves are classified based on how the waves cause the particles to move.

Fig. Rope’s transverse wave

The energy (and the wave) moves from left to right. However, the particles in the rope move up and
down. Thus, the direction of motion of the rope is perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 33
 Fig. longitudinal wave by stretching out a long, flexible spring
The coils in the spring move forward and backward, just like the wave. In other words, the particles in
the medium vibrate parallel to the direction in which the wave moves. As the wave moves through the
medium, the particles in some areas move closer together (compression) in other areas they move
farther apart (rarefaction) such as air molecules under sound wave.
Waves on the ocean or a swimming pool are not simple transverse or longitudinal waves. Instead, they
cause particles to move both parallel and perpendicular to the direction the wave is moving. These
waves are surface waves. Surface waves form at the boundary between two different mediums, such as
air and water.
The ball starts in a trough, or low point. As the crest, or high point, approaches, the ball moves to the
left, parallel to the wave.

It also moves up, perpendicular to the wave. When the ball is near
the crest, it starts to move to the right. When the crest has passed,
the ball starts to fall back downward and then to the left. The up-
and-down motions combine with the side-to-side motions to give
the ball a circular motion overall.
Ocean waves are surface waves that form at the boundary between
air and water. Surface waves move particles along circular paths.
Particles in surface waves move just like the beach ball, in an ellipse.
(A circle is a special type of ellipse). The motion of the beach ball
shows the motion of the water molecules that are particles in
surface waves.
Fig.: Movements of the beach ball as a surface wave passes it
In general, the important modes of transfer for renewable energy technology are:
 Light propagation in space
 Light propagation in materials:
o Transmission: Transparent or translucent
o Reflection: Coherent or diffuse
o Absorption
 Heat propagation in materials and in space:
o Conduction
o Convection
o Radiation
 Electrical

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 34
ENERGY TYPES: PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ENERGY
Primary and secondary types of energy are the two main types. Primary energy is extracted or captured
directly from the environment, while the secondary energy is converted from the primary energy in the
form of electricity or fuel, such as gasoline, fuel oil, methanol, ethanol, and hydrogen. Distinguishing the
primary and secondary energy sources is important in the energy balances to count and record energy
supply, transformations, and losses.
Primary energy
There are three distinctive groups of primary energy are:
•Waste
• Non-renewable energy (fossil fuels): coal, crude oil, natural gas, nuclear fuel.
• Energy sources that will be exhausted by exploiting them Renewable energy: hydropower, biomass,
solar energy, wind, geothermal, and ocean energy.
These energy sources are called the depleting energy sources and they are the fossil fuels and nuclear
energy.

Secondary Energy
The primary energy of renewable energy sources, such as sun, wind, biomass, geo- thermal energy, and
flowing water is usually equated with either electrical or thermal energy produced from them. Final
energy is often electrical energy and fuel, which is referred to as useful energy. The selected four types
of final energy are electrical, thermal, mechanical, and chemical energy. These types of final energy set a
boundary between the energy production and the consumption sectors.
About one third of the primary energy is used to generate electric power. This form of energy has
become very popular and is widely used for industrial and household applications.
The electrical energy represents about 12% of all energy consumed worldwide.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 35
 Fig.: Approximate distribution of primary energy sources, their contribution to the production of electricity, and the use of
electricity.
0.2.5 ENERGY SOURCES
0.3.1 Natural Gas
Sometimes natural gas is confused with gasoline, the fuel in cars. Gasoline is a mixture of liquids, and
natural gas is mainly methane and is piped for home heating, cooking, and drying or electricity
generation. It is a raw material for other chemicals, and is the cleanest burning fossil fuel, i.e. it
contributes little environmental pollutants.
0.3.2 Petroleum or Oil
This is the black, thick liquid pumped from below the earth's surface wherever you see an oil rig. To
make it useful, it is refined. Refining separates the gasoline portion which is used in transportation.
Products from the remaining portions include synthetic rubber, detergents, fertilizers, textiles, paints,
and pharmaceuticals.
0.3.3 Coal
Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel. It is not a widely used energy source due to the cost of mining and
its impurities, which cause pollution (acid rain). There are two ways to mine coal; underground mining
and strip mining. Disadvantage to these methods is the environmental change caused in the process.
New ways of using coal are being explored, such as liquefaction, in which a product similar to oil is
produced.
0.3.4 Solar
The sun is 93 million miles away (average distance of 1.5x1011m from the Earth) and yet, this ball of hot
gases is the primary source of all energy on earth. The Sun, having a diameter of 1.39×109m is a sphere
of intensely hot gaseous matter. The Sun rotates on its axis approximately once every 4 weeks. It is
known that 90 % of the Sun’s energy is generated in a spherical region having a radius 0.23 times the
Sun’s radius. The average density (ρ) and the temperature (T) in this region are 105kg/m3 and
approximately (8-40)×106K, respectively.
In the high temperature of the sun, small atoms of hydrogen are fused, that is, the centers of the two
atoms are combined. Fusion releases far greater energy than splitting the atom.
The Earth, another member of the solar system, came into existence some 4.6 × 109 years ago. The Earth
revolves inclined around the Sun in an elliptical shape once per year

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 36
 (a)

(b)
Fig. (a) Structure of the Sun and the view of the atmosphere between the Sun and the Earth, (b) The Earth orbits around the Sun
with different positions, the Earth is always inclined at 23.5° and rotating around its axis
Without sunlight, fossil fuels could never have existed. The sun is the supplier of energy which runs the
water cycle. The uneven heating of the earth produces wind energy. Solar energy can be used to cook
food, heat water and generate electricity. It remains the cleanest energy source and it is renewable. It is

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 37
the hope for the energy source of the future and scientists are actively working on ways for solar energy
to supply more of our energy needs!
0.3.5 Wind: The unequal heating of the earth's surface by the sun produces wind energy, which can be
converted into mechanical and electrical energy. For a long time, the energy of wind has been to drive
pumps. Today windmills can be connected to electric generators to turn the wind's motion energy into
electrical energy, and wind over 8 miles per hour can be used to generate electricity. It is a renewable,
but unpredictable, energy source.
0.3.6 Wood: Burning is the major global source of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Worldwide, wood is
poor man's oil, providing 50-60% of the people with the barest energy necessities. Roughly half of the
earth's forests have disappeared since 1950. Wood is considered a renewable energy source.
0.3.7 Ocean Tides: Ocean tides are very powerful forces. To harness the rising and falling of the tides
would be an expensive process, but it would be a very important future source. Perhaps underwater
windmills or floating generating stations could utilize this potential energy source to produce electricity.
0.3.8 Hydroelectric (Falling Water): When water is collected behind dams on large rivers, it provides a
source of energy for the production of electricity. The enormous power of falling water is capable of
turning giant turbines. These turbines drive the generators, which produce electricity. The degree of
power is determined by the amount of water and the distance it falls. Hydroelectric power plants do not
cause pollution, but there are fewer and fewer places to build dams. The environmental problem arises
because a dam is typically built on a river creating a lake where land once stood. Water is a renewable
energy source.

Fig. The sun-powered water cycle

0.3.9 Geothermal: Geothermal energy refers to the energy deep within the earth. It shows itself in the
fountains of boiling water and steam known as geysers. Geothermal energy was generated by the decay
of natural radioactive materials within the earth. In addition it is the heat energy remaining within the
earth from gravitational formation of the earth. Geothermal energy is used to heat some homes,
greenhouses, and factories. The actual usable geothermal sites are few, but are considered a renewable

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 38
energy source.
0.3.10 Biomass: This is garbage! As bacteria decompose organic waste such as manure, septic tank
sludge, food scraps, pond-bottom muck, etc., methane is produced. This methane is the same as natural
gas from the ground. There are power plants which use methane derived from these organic wastes
(mainly manure) by burning garbage in especially designed power plants.
0.3.11 Nuclear Fission: This is splitting of the uranium atom. In the 1930's scientists found that splitting
the nucleus of a uranium atom releases a tremendous amount of heat energy. This knowledge was used
to make atom bombs. Today, power companies use the heat produced by nuclear fission to produce
electricity. Some people think nuclear energy should be our main source of future energy. Other people
feel that the dangers are too great from radioactive waste products, meltdowns, and radiation exposure
of workers.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 39
 “Skills for a Better Destiny”
Integrated Polytechnic Regional College – Kigali Campus
I. SOLAR ENERGY

Prepared and contributed by

Alexis M. and a 12-students group, respectively
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 40
Solar energy is the most widely available resource on the Earth. In an hour the surface of the Earth
receives nearly the same amount of energy that the whole humanity consumes in a year. More intensive
use of solar energy is limited by the costly technologies and their insufficient ability to absorb solar
radiation, especially in the regions where the flow of solar radiation is less intensive. Solar energy is used
to produce electricity, to produce heat, and for light.
The sun a thermonuclear furnace
The sun is a star, made of mainly hydrogen and helium. It sends out huge amounts of energy every day in
every direction. Most of this energy goes off into space. Even though a tiny fraction of the sun’s energy
reaches the Earth, it is still more energy than we can use.
The sun is an incredibly large generator of energy [Radius: 700,000 km; Mass: 2.0×1030kg = 300Jupiters =
90,000Earths; Surface temperature: 5800K (a yellow star); Apparent surface of Sun is “photosphere”]
through the permanent fusion reactions of hydrogen atoms in its core.
The core is where nuclear fusion takes place. The
energy emitted by the surface represents energy
transported from the core through the radioactive
zone, the convection zone, and finally the photosphere,
which by definition is the thin atmospheric layer that is
thin enough for the radiation to escape. The sun gets
denser and hotter as you move inwards. This energy is
released into the atmosphere in the form of
electromagnetic radiation (light). The energy level of
that radiation, which eventually reaches the earth’s
surface, is so enormous that 1.5 hours of the energy
flow is equivalent to the global energy demand of
human-kind for a whole year.
Fig.: Interior structure of the Sun
Energy from the sun is hence available in abundance, and it is free; But how to harvest it?
Nuclear fusion: Energy source for the sun
Nuclear fusion reaction at the sun's core converts hydrogen to helium. In general, nuclear fusion works
like this: nucleus 1 + nucleus 2 → nucleus 3 + energy
Energy comes from the mass; if you add up the masses of the initial nuclei, you will find that it is more
than the mass of the final nucleus. Thus, nuclear fusion converts mass into energy. From Einstein’s
famous equation: 𝐄 = 𝐦𝒄𝟐 In this equation, c is the speed of light, which is a very large number. What
this equation is telling us is that a small amount of mass is the equivalent of a large amount of energy—
tapping into that energy is how the Sun keeps shining so long.

Nuclear fusion requires that like-charged nuclei get close enough to each other to fuse. This can happen
only if the temperature is extremely high—over 10 million K. But even then, only the lightest elements
(the ones with the smallest electric charge barriers to be overcome) can undergo fusion. The lightest
elements are also the most abundant: hydrogen and helium.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 41
 Fig.: Proton-proton reaction proton + proton → deuteron + positron + neutrino. The positron is just like the electron
except positively charged; the neutrino is also related to the electron but has no charge and very little, if
any, mass. In more conventional notation:
1 1 2
H + H → H + positron + neutrino
Proton-proton cycle:
The proton-proton reaction is the first step in a three-step fusion process that powers most stars. The
second step is the formation of an isotope of helium: 2H + 1H → 3He + energy
The final step takes two of the helium-3 isotopes and forms helium-4 plus two protons:
3
He + 3He → 4He + 1H + 1H + energy
The ultimate result of the process: 4(1H) → 4He + energy + 2 neutrinos

Fig. A line of inherent nuclear reactions of the sun to oust the energy
The helium stays in the core. The energy is in the form of gamma rays, which gradually lose their energy
as they travel out from the core, emerging as visible light. The neutrinos escape without interacting. The
energy created in the whole reaction can be calculated by the difference in mass between the initial
particles and the final ones—for each interaction it turns out to be 4.3×10–12 J.
This translates to 6.4×1014 J per kg of hydrogen, so the Sun must convert 4.3 million tons of matter into
energy every second. The Sun has enough hydrogen left to continue fusion for about another 5 billion
years.
Physical Properties of the Sun
Luminosity— total energy radiated by the Sun, can be calculated from the fraction of that energy that
reaches Earth, called the solar constant (amount of Sun's energy incident on a square meter of the Earth

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 42
per second is 1400 W/m2. That is not much more than a the glare from a very strong light bulb a foot or
so away, but the Sun delivers that energy flux to every square meter of the Earth, and does it from 93
million miles (1AU) away).
Total luminosity of the sun is about 4×1026 W—the equivalent of 10 billion 1-megaton nuclear bombs
per second.
The energy at the surface of the sun is estimated according to Plank’s black body formula:
𝟐𝝅𝒉𝝀−𝟓
𝒘𝝀 = 𝒉𝒄
𝒆𝝀𝒌𝑻 − 𝟏
W: Energy density (W/m2/unit wavelength in m); h: Plank’s constant=6.63 x 10-34Ws2; c: speed of light =
3x108m/s; T: temperature of black body (K); K: Boltzmann’s constant=1.38 x 10-23(J/K); at the surface of
the sun, T≈5,800 K, resulting in w= 5.961 x 107W/m2.

THE SUN FUELS HUMANITY WITH NATURE AND FATHERS ALL ENERGY SOURCES
Solar (The root sol refers to the sun) energy travels from the sun to the Earth in rays. Some are light rays
that we can see. Some are rays we can’t see, like x-rays. Energy in rays is called radiant energy.
When the rays reach the Earth, some bounce off
clouds back into space—the rays are reflected. The
Earth absorbs most of the radiant energy. This solar
energy becomes thermal energy, which warms the
Earth and the air around it, the atmosphere. Without
the sun, we couldn’t live on the Earth—it would be
too cold. During the day, we use sunlight to see. The
amount of light we receive depends on the season,
the location, and the weather. Plants use the light
from the sun to grow.
Fig.: The greenhouse effect
Plants absorb (take in) the solar energy through their leaves and use it to grow. The plants keep some of
the solar energy in their roots, fruits, and leaves. They store it as chemical energy. This process is called
photosynthesis.
The energy stored in plants is the beginning of
most food webs: when herbivores and
omnivores eat plants and food made from plants,
this solar energy is stored in their bodies.
We use that energy for everything we do: to
move, to grow, pump our blood, think, see, hear,
taste, smell, and feel.

Fig.: Photosynthesis in leaves to store chemical energy in the form of glucose (or sugar).
When carnivores and omnivores eat meat it also can be traced to the sun: Animals eat plants to grow,

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 43
the animals store the plants’ energy in their bodies. The energy moves from producers to consumers
through the food chain.
Fossil Fuels Contain Energy from the Sun: Most of the energy we use today comes from Coal, oil, and
natural gas

They are named fossil fuels because they were made from prehistoric plants and animals. The energy in
the plants and animals came from the sun.

Before the dinosaurs, many giant plants died in swamps, over millions of years, the
Fig. Formation of coal:
plants were buried under water and dirt. Heat and pressure turned them into coal.

Tiny sea plants and animals died and were buried on the ocean floor, over
Fig. oil and natural gas production:
time; they were covered by layers of sedimentary rock. Over millions of years, the remains were buried
deeper and deeper. The enormous heat and pressure turned them into oil and gas. Today, we drill down
through layers of sedimentary rock to reach the rock formations that contain oil and gas deposits.
The energy stored in plants is used for warmth: burning wood (biomass) in campfires and fireplaces.
Early humans burned wood to provide light, cook food, make tools, scare away wild animals, and stay
warm.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 44
Solar energy powers the water cycle. The water cycle is how water moves through the atmosphere and
the Earth’s surface.
The sun heats water on the Earth. The water evaporates; it turns into water vapor and rises into the air.
The air in the atmosphere is cool. The water vapor condenses into liquid water to form clouds. The water
falls from the clouds as precipitation rain, sleet, hail, or snow. The amount of water on Earth does not
change.
All of the water is found in one of four places: in the
atmosphere as a gas or moving through the water cycle; in
bodies of water as a liquid; in the ground as a liquid; or
frozen solid in ice and snow.
When precipitation falls, it either adds to ice and snow, is
pulled by gravity into streams and rivers, or filters into the
ground, collecting in aquifers. When water falls on high
ground, gravity pulls it to lower ground. There is energy in
the moving water. We can capture that energy with dams
and use it to make electricity. The electricity made from
Fig. water cycle moving water is called hydropower.
The Sun Makes the Wind: Solar energy is responsible for the winds that blow over the Earth. When the
sun shines down on the earth; some parts of the surface heat up faster than others for instance: (i) Land
usually heats more quickly than water (ii) Areas near the equator receive more direct sunlight and
therefore get warmer than regions near the poles.

When air is warmed, it becomes less dense and rises. Cooler air
moves in to replace the warm air that has risen. This moving air is
called “wind”. Wind turbines can capture the wind’s energy. The
wind turbines turn the energy in moving air into electricity. The
wind pushes against the blades of the turbine and they begin to
spin. A generator inside the turbine changes the motion into
electricity.

Fig.: Wind formation

Latitude and Intensity of Solar Energy: The Earth is not standing

still in space. It moves around the sun in an orbit, taking one year
to make a full revolution around the sun.
The Earth is slightly tilted on an axis. This tilt, combined with the
revolution, are what cause the seasons of spring, summer,
autumn, and winter. People living in the southern hemisphere,
south of the equator, experience their hottest days when the
northern hemisphere is experiencing winter.
Fig. Earth’s tilt
Areas closer to the equator are usually warmer than areas closer to the North or South Pole due to the
latitude, or distance from the equator, of the location. The sun strikes different latitudes at different

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 45
angles. Even during spring or fall, areas near the poles receive less direct sunlight than the equator. This
is because the equator is always receiving its sunlight directly from overhead. Sunlight is most intense
when it is directly overhead and least intense when it is coming in from a low angle in the sky. This is why
the hottest part of the day is when the sun is at its highest point compared to where you are, and why
the days are cooler at sunrise and sunset.
The Earth also rotates on the axis. This rotation is what gives us sunlight during the day and darkness at
night.
Solar energy comes directly from the power of the sun i.e. sunlight. Sunlight will never run out and helps
all living things grow and makes it possible for plants, animals and people to live on Earth.
SOLAR ENERGY AS A SOURCE OF POWER GENERATION
Photovoltaic Solar Power
Solar-electric power can be produced either by power plants using
the sun’s heat or by photovoltaic (PV) technology, which converts
sunlight directly to electricity using solar cells.
How is electricity generated?
When light shines on a PV cell, the energy of the absorbed light is
transferred to electrons in the atoms of the PV cell.
These electrons escape from their normal positions in the atoms of
the semiconductor PV material and become part of the electrical
flow, or current, in an electrical circuit. This is called the
photoelectric effect.

Fig.: Solar Power system

Fig.: working of PV Cell

The explanation behind this simple phenomenon “photo” for light and “electric” for the current opened
the door to revolutionary modern physics concepts regarding the composition of light, quantum
mechanics, and what is now referred to as the “wave-particle duality” of nature that is perhaps one of
the greatest mysteries of our universe.

Introductory warm-up about quantum mechanics

In 1905, Einstein claimed that light was made of particles called quanta, that each had some small fixed
energy which depended on the wavelength of the light. The shorter the wavelength, the more energy

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 46
each of these quanta had, the longer the wavelength the smaller the energy of the quanta. So quanta of
red light would have less energy than quanta of blue light. That marked the birth of “quantum model.”
He also reasoned that light should behave and interact like any other particle!
It was pretty well understood that when the negative metal plate discharged, it was losing negative
electrons from its surface. It was originally believed that when the EM wave hit the plate, the incident
radiation caused the electrons in the metal to jiggle. It was also believed that if the wave had enough
energy (i.e. a large-enough amplitude) it could jiggle the electrons right off the metal. Einstein suggested
another scenario: that the light quanta would each strike an electron, like one billiard ball hitting
another. If a quantum of light had enough energy then it would knock the electron off, but if the light
quantum did not have sufficient energy, then the electron would jiggle a little in the metal but remain
attached.
This description was enough to both explain the weird wavelength-dependent behavior observed and to
make some observable predictions. Incidentally these are two very important requirements for a
scientific hypothesis: it should both explain observations and predict new ones that can be tested.
Einstein’s hypothesis was the following: when a light illuminates a metal plate, light quanta collide with
electrons in the plate and, depending on the energy needed to eject the electron from the metal; the
electrons are either freed or remain stuck in the metal.
The energy needed to rip off an electron in a particular material is called the “work function”, its physics
jargon: “energy threshold.” The higher the value of the work function, the more energy (or work)
needed to eject an electron. If the light quanta don’t have enough energy to overcome this energy
threshold, then nothing happens. Since the energy of the quanta depends on the wavelength of the light,
there must be some special wavelength that has just enough energy so that any longer wavelength light
cannot kick off an electron, and any shorter wavelength light has even more energy than needed. This
special wavelength is called the “threshold wavelength” We can now see why some lights work ad some
do not: some lights do not produce energetic enough light. Einstein’s theory also explains that if we
crank up the intensity of a light with wavelength longer than the threshold nothing happens. No matter
how bright the light, its individual quanta are still the same energy each. Only a sufficiently short
wavelength light will knock off electrons.

Fig.: The solar spectrum, showing the portion where photons have sufficient energy to release
conduction electrons in a silicon crystal.
It is still true that the brighter the light, the more total energy was coming out. In the case of the quanta
model, the total energy was equal to the sum of all the quanta energies. So the brighter the light, the
more quanta were coming out. If the number of quanta grows with the brightness of the light, and each

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 47
quantum knocks off one electron, then a brighter light, with more quanta, will be able to knock off more
electrons than a dimmer light (Of course it must be a light with a wavelength shorter than the threshold)
So what happens when the light quanta have more energy than the energy threshold? Einstein
predicted that such high-energy light would give its extra energy to the ejected electrons. So, if you were
to use light with a wavelength shorter than the threshold, electrons would pop off with some extra
energy equal to the energy of the quanta minus the energy of the energy threshold.
This fantastic and outstanding achievement of Einstein in understanding the nature of light won him a
Nobel Prize.
Wave-Particle Duality
The photoelectric effect shows that light behaves like a bunch of little particles, but what about all the
other important results like diffraction and interference that indicate light is a wave? Good question. In
fact, light behaves both ways, depending the situation. It turns out that things considered to be particles,
like electrons and protons, could behave like waves! This completely crazy idea is now called the wave-
particle duality of nature. Everything from a photon to an electron to a baseball behaves like both
waves and particles, depending on how you look at it.
A Mechanical Analogy
It is possible to visualize some of the concepts in the photoelectric effect by using colliding balls to
represent scattering particles and obstacles to represent energy thresholds. In order to illustrate the
concept in a clearer way, a life-size model of a photon ejecting an electron has been constructed.
The photoelectric effect is then reproduced in this model as follows.
A. The ping-pong ball is inserted into the tubes so that it rests on the rubber bottom
B. The tube is then mounted at the bottom of the track
C. The golf ball is placed at some height along the track and is released to roll down the track
D. When the golf ball reaches the end of the track it collides with the rubber bottom of the tube
E. The ping-pong ball resting on the inside of the rubber bottom feels the collision of the golf ball and
bounces

Fig. A mechanical analogy of photoelectric effect

1. What particle does the golf ball represent? The ping-pong ball?
2. What changes occur to the golf ball when it is placed higher or lower on the track? What effect does
this represent in the photoelectric effect?
3. What does the length of the tube represent? What would it take to get the ping-pong ball to be
“ejected” from the tube?
This model captures most of the important aspects of the photoelectric effect, but it does fall a little
short.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 48
 First of all, the concept of light intensity is not covered here at all. This model
only demonstrates one photon and one electron. When light is absorbed by
matter, photons are given up to excite electrons to higher energy states
within the material (the energy difference between the initial and final states
is given by hν). Particularly, this occurs when the energy of the photons
making up the light is larger than the forbidden band gap of the
semiconductor.
If a photon has energy greater than or equal to the threshold energy, it can create an electron hole. The
energy contained in a photon is
𝒉𝑪
𝑬𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏 = 𝒉𝒗 =
𝝀
Where h: Planck’s constant, v: the frequency of the photon, c: speed of light=3x108m/s and 𝜆:
wavelength of light
For silicon, the energy of a photon has to be at least 1.1eV in order for it to create an electron hole. This
means that the wavelength of the photon has to be less then 1.13𝜇m in length.
Therefore, the photons in visible light can increase the electrical conductivity of silicon by the creation of
electron-hole pairs, but the photons in the infra-red part of the spectrum with 𝜆 > 1.13μm cannot.

COMPONENTS OF A PV SYSTEM
In order to use solar electricity for practical devices, which require a particular voltage or current for
their operation, a number of solar cells have to be connected together to form a solar panel, also called
a PV module. For large-scale generation of solar electricity the solar panels are connected together into
a solar array. One must have also mounting structures to which PV modules are fixed and directed
towards the sun. For PV a system that have to operate at night or during the period of bad weather the
storage of energy is required, the batteries for electricity storage are needed.
The output of a PV module depends on sunlight intensity and cell temperature; therefore components
that condition the DC (direct current) output and deliver it to batteries, grid, and/or load are required
for a smooth operation of the PV system. These components are referred to as charge regulators. For
applications requiring AC (alternating current) the DC/AC inverters are implemented in PV systems.
These additional components form that part of a PV system that is called balance of system (BOS).
Finally, the household appliances, such as radio or TV set, lights and equipment being powered by the
PV solar system are called electrical load.

Fig.: The components of a PV system.

In summary, a PV solar system consists of three parts: (i) PV modules or solar arrays,
(ii) Balance of system, (iii) electrical load.

(i) Solar Cell & Photovoltaic Modules

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 49
Operating principle
The working principle of all today solar cells is essentially the same. It is based on the photovoltaic effect.
In general, the photovoltaic effect means the generation of a potential difference at the junction of two
different materials in response to visible or other radiation.

Fig. PV operating principle

The basic processes behind the photovoltaic effect are:
1. Generation of the charge carriers due to the absorption of photons in the materials that form a
junction,
2. Subsequent separation of the photo-generated charge carriers in the junction,
3. Collection of the photo-generated charge carriers at the terminals of the junction.
In general, a solar cell structure consists of an absorber layer, in which the photons of incident radiation
are efficiently absorbed resulting in the creation of electron-hole pairs. In order to separate the photo-
generated electrons and holes from each other, the so-called “semipermeable membranes” are
attached to the both sides of the absorber that selectively allow only one type of charge carrier to pass
through
A PV cell is a semiconductor p-n device that produces current when irradiated. This is due to electron -
hole pair forming in the semiconductor material that absorbs photons with energy exceeding the band-
gap energy of the semiconductor material.
The PV cell consists of front and back contacts attached to the semiconductor material, the contacts can
collect the charge carriers (negatively charged electrons and positively charged holes) from the
semiconductor p and n layers and supply the load with the generated current (DC) as described

Fig.: The Process of generation electricity in PV cell: electron and current flow in solar cells
Solar Photovoltaic (PV) panels collect solar energy and convert it into electricity. The PV cells can be
linked to a rechargeable battery which collects energy in the day to be used at any time, even at night
when there is no sun.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 50
 Fig. The photovoltaic effect produces free electrons that must travel through conductors in order to recombine with electron
voids, or “holes.”
The photovoltaic effect is the capability of certain combinations of materials to use the energy of
photons from the sun to move electrons in an electrical circuit. It is the basic principal process by which
a PV cell converts sunlight into electricity. When light shines on a PV cell, it may be reflected, absorbed,
or pass right through. The absorbed light generates electricity.
In the early 1950s, photovoltaic (PV) cells were developed as a spin-off of transistor technology. Very thin
layers of pure silicon are impregnated with tiny amounts of other elements. When exposed to sunlight,
small amounts of electricity are produced. Originally this technology was a costly source of power for
satellites but it has steadily come down in price, making it affordable to power homes and businesses.

Fig. The basic building blocks for PV systems include cells, modules/ panels and arrays.
“cell” is from Latin cella, chamber; “module” is from Latin modulus, measure; “string” is from
Latin stringere, to bind; “array” is from Old French areer, to put in order.
- Photovoltaic cell (also called a “solar cell”) is the basic building block. It is a semiconductor device that
converts sunlight into direct current (DC) electricity. The most common type of cell is made from silicon
doped with minute quantities of boron, phosphorous, gallium, arsenic, or other materials. Each cell
develops about 0.5 to 1 volt of DC electrical potential and 0.7W electricity when exposed to light. The
maximum amperage of the cell is proportional to its surface area, and depends on the intensity of the
light. PV cells can produce electricity for 30 to 50 years, and generate the energy it took to manufacture
them in a few years. So several solar cells are arranged in a solar panel to produce more electricity
Advantages :( i) It uses renewable source of energy. (ii) It produces electricity which does not cause
pollution. (iii) It can be used in remote areas where there is no power supply.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 51
Disadvantages: (i) It uses a special grade of silicon which is expensive. (ii) Since silver is used for
connecting the cells together it is more expensive. (iii) The current produced is DC and to convert it to
AC increases the cost.
Cell efficiency is the amount of solar energy converted into electricity per area of semiconductor
- Modules: Solar modules are the heart of solar PV system and are usually called the power generators
PV modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in an environmentally protective laminate and are the
fundamental building block of PV systems. In the outdoor environment the magnitude of the current
output from a PV module directly depends on the solar irradiance and can be increased by connecting
solar cells in parallel. The voltage of a solar cell does not depend strongly on the solar irradiance but
depends primarily on the cell temperature. PV modules can be designed to operate at different voltages
by connecting solar cells in series. To increase total voltage of the module, cells have to be connected in
series (Vout=V1+V2+V3+…). Connecting PV cells in parallel increases the total current generated by the
module (Iout=I1+I2+I3+...). The total current is equal to sum of current produced by each cell.

Fig. PV cells’ connection in series and parallel

Table below contains typical parameters that are used in module specification sheets to characterize PV
modules.
The examples of commercial PV modules are Shell module with mono-crystalline silicon solar cells, a
Shell module based on copper indium diselenide (CIS) solar cells, a Kaneka’s amorphous silicon (a-Si:H)
module, and a module of First Solar based on cadmium telluride (CdTe) solar cells.
Table: Specification parameters of different PV modules.
Module type Shell SM50-H Shell ST40 Kaneka PLE First Solar FS-50
Solar cell type Mono c-Si CIS a-Si:H CdTe
Rated power Pmax [Wp] 50 40 50 52
Rated current IMPP [A] 3.15 3.03 0.80
Rated voltage VMPP [V] 15.9 16.6 16.5 63
Short circuit current ISC [A] 3.40 2.68 3.65 0.95
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 52
 Open circuit voltage VOC [V] 19.8 23.3 23 88
Configuration [V] 12
Cells per module 33
Dimensions [mm] 1219X329 1293X328 952X920 1200X600
Performance warranty [years] 25 10 10 20
Electrical parameters are determined at standard test conditions, i.e. 1000W/m2 solar irradiance, 25°C
cell temperature and AM1.5 solar radiation. Rated specifications are determined from the maximum
power point (MPP) of the illuminated I-V characteristic. In order to guarantee performance specifications
of modules, modules are sealed for protection against corrosion, moisture, pollution and weathering.
The PV modules market is at present dominated by modules based on the use of mono- and multi-
crystalline silicon, which take about 90% of the market share. Amorphous silicon modules represent
around 9% of the market share and the rest (less than 1%) are modules made from CIS and CdTe solar
cells.
The modules are manufactured in various sizes and are able to deliver power ranging from 5 to 240Wp.
The most advanced crystalline silicon modules have achieved efficiencies above 18%. Commercial
modules employing mono-crystalline silicon solar cells have efficiencies from 12 to 16%, modules based
on poly-crystalline silicon solar cells exhibit slightly lower efficiencies of about 11% to 13%. The
performance warranty of most commercial modules based on crystalline silicon is at least 20 years. The
energy bay-pack time is in the range of 2 - 6 years depending on region and climate. Most of the
amorphous silicon modules currently on the market have stabilized efficiencies between 4% and 8%.
Here, the energy bay-pack time is estimated to be 1-3 years. The best CIS modules have achieved
efficiencies around 11%; the commercial CIS modules have efficiencies below 10%. The best modules
built for space applications have efficiency more than 20%, in which the gallium arsenide solar cells are
employed with efficiency approaching 30%.
- Panels: PV panels include one or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-installable unit

Fig. PV modules, panel and array

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 53
- Array: A PV array is the complete power-generating unit, consisting of any number of PV modules and
panels. Modules are added in series to form strings or panels, which are then combined in parallel to
form arrays.

(ii) Balance of system

Mounting structures
They hold the PV modules securely in place; thus, they have to resist local wind forces. In a public area
site, they should protect modules from thieves.

The further common requirements are not to

cause shading of the modules and to be arranged
so that there is an easy access to the modules for
the maintenance or repair. For integration in
buildings, special mounting structures are being
developed that together with the modules serve
as building elements such as PV modules in the
facades of buildings, on the roofs of houses, etc.
The additional cost of placing PV modules on a
sun-tracking system makes this configuration not
profitable in most PV applications.
Fig.: PV module mounting methods
Energy storage
The simplest means of electricity storage is to use the electric rechargeable batteries, especially when
PV modules produce the DC current required for charging the batteries. Most of batteries used in PV
systems are lead-acid batteries. In some applications, for example when used in locations with extreme
climate conditions or where high reliability is essential, nickel-cadmium batteries are used. The major
difficulty with this form of storage is the relative high cost of the batteries and a large amount required
for large-scale application.
The following factors should be considered when choosing a battery for a PV application:
• Operating temperature range (e.g.: -15°C to 50°C)
• Self discharge rate (% per month)
• Cycle life to 80% depth of discharge (DOD)
• Charge efficiency from 20% discharged
• Capacity (Ah) at 10 hr & 100 hr rates (C10 & C100)
• Required frequency for topping up the electrolyte
• Robustness for transport to site
• Resistance to overcharging
• Cost
Table: The performance and prices for lead-acid and NiCd batteries
Battery type Lead-acid NiCd
Cycle time 600-1500 cycles 1500-3500cycles

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 54
Efficiency [Ah extracted/Ah restored] 83 to 90% 71%
Self discharge rate 3 - 10% month 6 - 20% month
Range of operation -15 to +500C -40 to +450C
Investment cost [€/kwh capacity] 160-200 690 - 1590
Specific energy cost [[€/kwh] from battery 0.11 – 0.33 0.20 – 1.06

Lead-acid battery is the most commonly available and known as car battery, but these are designed
mainly to provide a high current for short periods to start engines, and they are not well suited for deep
discharge cycles experienced by batteries in PV systems. Car batteries are sometimes used for small PV
systems because they are cheap, but their operational life in PV applications is likely to be short.
The most attractive lead-acid battery for use in most PV systems is the flooded tubular plate design,
with low antimony plates. Good quality batteries of this type can normally be expected to have
operational life of 5 - 7 years if they are properly maintained and used in a PV system with a suitable
charge controller. Longer operational life may be achieved if the maximum depth of discharge is limited,
but shorter lifetimes must be expected if the batteries are mistreated. Flat plate lead-acid batteries with
low antinomy are frequently used as stationary batteries for stand-by applications. However, these
batteries are not designed for deep cycling and are therefore not the best choice for most PV
applications.
A relatively recent development is the sealed lead-acid battery, which is designed mainly to avoid
problems of spillage and the need to top up the electrolyte. Some batteries of this type are sold
specifically for use in PV systems, and may be attractive for applications in remote regions where
transport to site is a problem. However, they are typically less resistant to extreme temperatures than
conventional flooded batteries, and are considerably more expensive.

Nickel cadmium batteries:

"Sintered plate" NiCd batteries suffer from the well know memory effect; in which the useful capacity of
the battery appears to drop after it has been discharged over many cycles or if it is discharged at low
rates. Sintered plate NiCd batteries are not therefore attractive for use in PV systems.
"Pocket plate" NiCd batteries can be used in PV systems, because they have additives in their plates to
prolong their operational life and to minimize the memory effect. In addition, they are highly resistant to
extremes of temperature, and can safely be taken down to less than 10% state of charge. Their main
disadvantage is their high cost compared with lead-acid batteries.
Charge regulators
Charge regulators are the link between the PV modules, battery and load. They protect the battery from
overcharge or excessive discharge. Charge and discharge voltage limits should be carefully selected to
suit the battery type and the operating temperature. These settings can significantly affect maximum
operational life of a battery. High temperatures tend to reduce battery life because they accelerate
corrosion and self-discharge. High temperatures may also increase out gassing during charging and
therefore should be controlled. The resistance of lead-acid batteries to freezing is reduced when they
are discharged, so batteries should be kept charged when they are left in low temperature conditions
during the winter.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 55
PV modules that are used to charge batteries usually operate at an approximately constant voltage,
which is selected to suit the local temperature. However some PV systems regulators employ a
maximum power point tracker (MPPT), which automatically permits the PV modules to operate at the
voltage that produces maximum power output. Such regulators employ an electronic DC-DC converter
to maintain their output at the required system voltage. The benefit of using an MPPT depends on the
application and should be weighed against its additional cost and reliability risks. For many applications,
it may be equally or more cost effective to operate the system at a fixed voltage.
Inverters
The inverter's main functions are: transformation of DC electricity into AC, wave shaping of the output
AC electricity, and regulation of the effective value of the output voltage. The most important features
of an inverter for PV applications are its reliability and its efficiency characteristics. They are designed to
operate a PV system continuously near its maximum power point. The technology for high-switching-
frequency inverters (typically 20 kHz or higher) is made possible by switch-mode semiconductor power
devices. Power MOSFETs and bipolar transistors are used in low-power inverters, whereas thyristors are
used in high-power applications. Novel devices, such as insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) inverters
are capable of handling several hundred kW, running at frequencies up to 50 kHz. They deliver an AC
output wave, which has a form very close to the pure sinusoidal one, with very little filtering at the
output. This eliminates the bulky, expensive, and energy-consuming power filters.
The efficiency of an inverter is normally quoted at its design operating power, but inverters in PV
systems typically operate for much of their life at partial loads. High partial load efficiencies are
particularly important for grid connected inverters operating in central European climates, where the
annual mean power output of PV array can be as low as 10% of its peak power. In general, inverters
have efficiencies ranging from 90% to 96% for full load and from 85% to 95% for 10% load.
When sizing a grid-connected inverter to operate with a PV array, both the inverter's overload capability
and its efficiency characteristic should be taken into account. Optimal system performance is likely to be
obtained by using an inverter with a rating of between 70% and 90% of the nominal rating of the PV
array, depending on the climate involved and the shape of the inverter performance characteristics. For
grid-connected operation, inverters must meet the requirements of the utilities concerning acceptable
levels of harmonic distortion (quality of voltage and current output waveforms), and should not emit
electrical noise, which could interfere with the reception of television or radio. They must also switch off
when there is a grid failure for the safety of the engineers who have to repair the grid. In stand-alone PV
systems, the inverter will normally be supplied from the system battery, so partial load operation can be
minimized by sizing the inverter to match the loads.
(iii) Load
The appliances, lights and equipment being powered by a PV solar system constitute electric loads of
the PV system. Energy-efficient loads contribute to overall system efficiency and economy.
Table: Power consumption of typical appliances.
DC [W] AC [W]
Fluorescent light 5-15 Fluorescent light 7-25
Stereo/tape player 40 Stereo/tape player 100

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 56
 Television (25cm, color) 45 Computer 50
Refrigerator 50-70 Television (48cm, color) 60-85
Ceiling fan 20 Refrigerator (100liters) 90-150
Cooler 200-300
Microwave oven 450-750
Power drill 450-1000
Toaster 900-1100
Coffee maker 850-1500
Air conditioner 3000-4000

TECHNICALITY OF PV EFFECT IN SOLAR CELLS

The photovoltaic effect is the basic principal process by which a PV cell converts sunlight into electricity.

When light shines on a PV cell, it may be reflected, pass

right through or absorbed (i.e. that generates electricity).
When light illuminates a piece of metal, the light will kick
off electrons from the metal’s surface and these electrons
can be detected as a change in the electric charge of the
metal or as an electric current. Hence the name: photo for
light and electric for the current.

Fig.: Forbidden zone and photogeneration

Pauli Exclusion Principle: no more than two electrons in a system can

occupy exactly the same energy level. This means that, even at zero K,
electrons will have energy levels above zero, Energy levels are filled up
to a maximum called the Fermi level

Fig.: Fermi level

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 57
 Fig.: Fermi-Dirac distribution and forbidden zone
As temperature T increases, some electrons start to occupy states above the Fermi level. This is
represented by the Fermi-Dirac distribution function:
1
𝑓(𝐸) = ∴ 𝑘: 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
(𝐸−𝐸𝑓 )⁄𝑘𝑇
1+𝑒
By adding small amounts of impurities, such as phosphorus atoms, to silicon the amount of current
carrying electrons may be increased. This is called doping. Since phosphorus has 5 outer electrons, an
extra electron that will not take part in the covalent bond (there are only four neighboring atoms in the
crystal lattice structure) will be present. This extra electron, not bound to the neighboring atoms, has a
higher energy then the other electrons in the valence band. Its energy band is just below the conduction
band.

Fig.: Doping n-type and p-type

Fig.: Pure silicon, n-type and p-type semiconductor lattices

Semiconductor materials with special electrical properties can be made by adding small amounts of
other elements to silicon crystals.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 58
 Fig.: Electron energies in n-type and p-type semiconductors.
These electrons can be thermally excited easily and are carried into the conduction band where they
become negative charge carriers. The thermal generation rate g, measured in electron-hole pairs per
second per cubic meter, depends on the material and the temperature. The energy needed in the
“generation” of a conduction electron is expressed in electron volts as eVg where Vg is the potential
necessary to generate a conduction electron. The energy corresponding to temperature can be
expressed as kT, where k is Boltzmann’s constant. From statistical analysis, the probability of a valence
electron becoming free for conduction is proportional to
𝒆−𝒆𝒗𝒈 ⁄𝒌𝑻
If the energy gap eVg is low or the temperature T is high, the thermal generation rate will be high
In pure semiconductors, the average energy of the electrons (in the conduction and valence bands) is in
the middle of the forbidden band. However, in the case of silicon doped with phosphorus, since the
extra electrons have a higher energy then the other electrons in the valence band, the average energy of
all the electrons is raised. Also, the impurity atoms that give up their extra electron will become positive
ions since they now have more protons then electrons. In this situation, many more negative carriers are
donated by impurities then by electron-hole pairs. The electrons donated by impurities are called
majority carriers and the electron-hole pairs are minority carriers. Because the majority carriers are
negative the phosphorous-doped silicon crystal is called an n-type semiconductor.
Another way to dope silicon is with an element such as boron, which has only 3 outer electrons. In this
case, there will be an absence of an electron required to complete a covalent bond, or in other words, a
“hole” (see figures 4 and 5). A hole will capture a nearby electron. However, if the electron is a free
electron, it must lose energy to fall into a hole. The energy level of the electrons that fall into a “hole” is
just above the valence band and thus lowers the average energy of the electrons as a hole. Also, when
an electron leaves the conduction band and enters the valence band, the acceptor atom will become a
negative ion. The majority carriers here are the positive holes and the boron doped silicon is called a p-
type semiconductor.
In both the n and p type semi conductors, the fixed charge on the impurities balances the charge of the
majority charge. The crystal as a whole is electrically neutral.

N and P-type Semiconductors

Neither pure silicon (Si) nor germaniums (Ge) are great conductors. They form a crystal lattice by having
each atom share all of its 4 valence electrons with neighboring atoms. The total of eight electrons
cannot easily be jiggled out of place by an incoming current.
If, however, the crystalline array is “doped”(mixed with an impurity) with arsenic which has five valence
electrons, the behavior of the lattice will change. Four bonds will be still be made but there will be a
leftover electron that can wander through the crystal. This is called an n-type semiconductor.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 59
Boron can also be used to dope a pure crystal of silicon. But since boron only offers 3 of the four
electrons that a silicon atom needs, each silicon center is left with a hole.
Semiconductors made in this manner are called p-type.
In a p-type material if an atom from a neighboring atom fills the hole, it will leave a hole adjacent to it.
This process will continue in a domino effect and the hole will be moving in the direction opposite to
electron-flow. In reality the atoms are remaining fixed in the lattice, but there is an illusion that the
holes are physically moving.

Fig.: Conduction processes

𝒅𝒏
Current density: 𝑱𝒆 = 𝒒𝝁𝒆 𝒏𝝃 + 𝒒𝑫𝒆 𝒅𝒙
Where, 𝑞: unit charge; 𝜇𝑒 : mobility; 𝑛: concentration of electrons, 𝜉: Field strength and 𝐷𝑒 : diffusion
coefficient

When a n-type semiconductor and p-type semiconductor are put together, electrons in the n-type
diffuse across the junction to the “holes” in the p-type. The diffusion of electrons out of the n-type
semiconductor leaves a positive voltage in the n-material. A narrow region where there is no longer any
free charge carriers is called the depletion layer.

Fig. structure of n-p junction

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 60
The diffusion of holes from the p-type side of the depletion layer leaves behind some uncovered fixed
negative charges (the acceptor ions) and fixed positive charges (donor ions) are uncovered on the n-type
side of the depletion layer. This separation of charges causes an electric field, E, to extend across the
depletion layer, which is directed from the n-type side towards the p-type side.
A potential, 𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝑥 across the depletion region is also present. This built-in potential opposes
continued flow of holes and electrons across the junction and is called a potential barrier or potential hill.

Fig.: Photogeneration of a p-n junction

Fig.: Structure of a PV cell and PV module

Light Absorption by Semiconductors

Photons have to be absorbed by a material and create free electron-hole pairs in order to generate
photocurrent: hv≥Eg

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 61
However, if the photon energy hv>>Eg then an significant amount of excess energy (hv-Eg) is lost due to
the ultrafast relaxation of photon generated carriers (in <1 ps) (thermalization)

Band gaps have to be optimized to obtain the best power conversion efficiency

Conclusions: Photovoltaic (PV) cells convert sunlight directly into electricity - They are made of doped
semiconductor arranged to give a p-n junction - The junction creates an electric field - Light generates
electrons and holes in the semiconductor - These are separated by the field - A current is thereby
induced when the PV cell is connected in a circuit.

Fig. Overview of a typical solar PV system and its components

TYPES OF PV SYSTEMS
PV systems can be very simple, just a PV module and load, as in the direct powering of a water pump
motor that operate when the sun shines, or more complex, as in a system to power a house which may
have to run both AC and DC loads, have reserve power and may include a back-up generator. Depending
on the system configuration, we can distinguish three main types of PV systems: stand-alone, grid-
connected, and hybrid.

Stand-alone systems
They rely on PV power only. These systems can comprise only PV modules and a load or can include
batteries for energy storage. When using batteries for night and periods of poor weather; charge
regulators are included to switch off the PV modules when batteries are fully charged, and switch off the
load in case batteries become discharged below a limit.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 62
Fig.: a simple DC PV system to power a water pump with no energy storage, and a complex PV system including batteries, power
conditioners, and both DC and AC loads.
PV technology is more practical for residential use.

Fig: Off-grid residential photovoltaic system.

Grid-connected systems
Grid-connected PV systems have become increasingly
popular as building integrated application. They are
connected to the grid through inverters, and do not require
batteries because the grid can accept all of the electricity
that a PV generator can supply. Alternatively they are used
as power stations.

Hybrid systems
Hybrid systems consist of combination of PV modules and a complementary means of electricity
generation such as a diesel, gas or wind generator. In order to optimize the operations of the two
generators, hybrid systems typically require more sophisticated controls than stand-alone PV systems.
For example, in the case of PV/diesel systems, the diesel engine must be started when battery reaches a
given discharge level and stopped again when battery reaches an adequate state of charge. The back-up
generator can be used to recharge batteries only or to supply the load as well.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 63
 A common problem with hybrid PV/diesel generators is inadequate
control of the diesel generator. If the batteries are maintained at too
high state-of-charge by the diesel generator, then energy, which could
be produced by the PV generator, is wasted. Conversely, if the batteries
are inadequately charged, then their operational life will be reduced.
Such problems must be expected if a PV generator is added to an
existing diesel engine without installing an automatic system for
starting the engine and controlling its output.

PV SYSTEM DESIGN
Sizing of PV system
Sizing of a PV system means determining how much energy is required to cover the energy consumption
of the loads (lights, appliances, equipment) of the system and energy used by the system itself, thence
determine the number of needed PV modules to generate it.

The energy yield of a PV system for a particular location depends on the type of PV modules, the
characteristics of a PV inverter, the orientation of the modules, and meteorological conditions.
PV system design guide
Rough estimate of the sizing of a PV array and batteries can be calculated using the following design
rules.
1. Determine the total load current and operational time
2. Add system losses
3. Determine the solar irradiation in daily equivalent sun hours (EHS)
4. Determine total solar array current requirements
5. Determine optimum module arrangement for solar array
6. Determine battery size for recommended reserve time

1. Determine the total load current and operational time

Before starting determining the current requirements of loads of a PV system; one has to decide the
nominal operational voltage of the PV system. Usually, one can choose between 12V or 24V nominal
voltage. When knowing the voltage, the next step is to express the daily energy requirements of loads in
terms of current and average operational time expressed in Ampere-hours [Ah].

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 64
In case of DC loads the daily energy [Wh] requirement is calculated by multiplying the power rating [W]
of an individual appliance with the average daily operational time [h]. Dividing the Wh by the nominal PV
system operational voltage, the required Ah of the appliance is obtained.
Example 1: A 12V PV system has two DC appliances A and B requiring 15 and 20W respectively. The
average operational time per day is 6hours for device A and 3hours for device B. The daily energy
requirements of the devices expressed in Ah are calculated as follows:
Device A: 15𝑊 × 6ℎ = 90𝑊ℎ
Device B: 20𝑊 × 3ℎ = 60𝑊ℎ
Total: 90𝑊ℎ + 60𝑊ℎ = 150𝑊ℎ
Daily Energy requirements of loads = 150Wh/12V = 12.5 Ah

In case of AC loads the energy use has to be expressed in the DC energy requirement since PV modules
generate DC electricity. The DC equivalent of the energy use of an AC load is determined by dividing the
AC load energy use by the efficiency of an inverter, which is typically 85%. By dividing the DC energy
requirement by the nominal PV system voltage the Ah is determined.
Example 2: An AC computer (device C) and TV set (device D) are connected to the PV system. The
computer, which has rated power 40W, runs 2 hours per day and the TV set with rated power 60W is 3
hours per day in operation. The daily energy requirements of the devices expressed in DC Ah are
calculated as follows:
Device C: 40𝑊 × 2ℎ = 80𝑊ℎ
Device D: 60𝑊 × 3ℎ = 180𝑊ℎ
Total: 80𝑊ℎ + 180𝑊ℎ = 260𝑊ℎ
DC requirement: 260𝑊ℎ/0.85 = 306𝑊ℎ
The daily energy requirements = 306𝑊ℎ/12𝑉 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟓 𝑨𝒉
2. Add system losses
Some components of the PV system, such as charge regulators and batteries use energy to perform their
functions. We denote the use of energy by the system components as system energy losses. Therefore,
the total energy requirements of loads, which were determined in step 1, are increase by a factor of 20
to 30% in order to compensate for the system losses.
Example 3: The total DC requirements of loads plus the system losses (20%) are determined as follows:
(12.5𝐴ℎ + 25.5𝐴ℎ) × 1.2 = 𝟒𝟓. 𝟔𝑨𝒉

3. Determine the solar irradiation in daily equivalent sun hours (EHS)

How much energy a PV module delivers depends on several factors, such as local weather patterns,
seasonal changes, and installation of modules. PV modules should be installed at the correct ‘tilt-angle’
in order to achieve best year-round performance. It is also important to know whether a PV system is
expected to be used all-year round or only during a certain period of a year. The energy produced in
winter is much less than yearly average and in the summer months the generated energy can be more
that the average.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 65
In the PV language, 1 equivalent sun means the solar irradiance of 1000 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2. This value corresponds
to the standard, at which the performance of solar cells and modules is determined. When solar
irradiation data are available for a particular location, then the equivalent sun hours can be determined.
Example 4: In The Netherlands the average annual solar irradiation is 1000 𝑘𝑊⁄𝑚2 . 1 sun
delivers1000 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2 = 1𝑘 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2. It means that the Dutch average annual solar irradiation can be
1000𝑘𝑊⁄𝑚2
expressed in 1𝑘𝑊⁄𝑚2
= 1000 equivalent sun hours, which means 1000ℎ/356 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 2.8 ℎ/𝑑𝑎𝑦.

Fig. World insolation map

This map roughly divides the world in five regions based on a yearly average of daily hours of sunlight. It
shows a rough estimation of the daily equivalent sun hours for an average annual solar irradiation. For
instance, a PV system site is in The Netherlands. From the map, the daily ESH is 3 hours.

4. Determine total solar array current requirements

The current that has to be generated by the solar array is determined by dividing the total DC energy
requirement of the PV system including loads and system losses (calculated in step 2 and expressed in
Ah) by the daily equivalent sun hours (determined in step 3).
Example 5: The total DC requirements of loads plus the system losses are 45.6Ah. The daily EHS for The
Netherlands is 3 hours. The required total current generated by the solar array is 45.6Ah/3h = 15.2A.

5. Determine optimum module arrangement for solar array

Usually the PV module producers manufacture a whole series of modules that differ in the output power.
The optimum arrangement of modules is the one that will provide the total solar array current (as
determined in step 4) with the minimum number of modules.
Modules can be connected in series of in parallel to form an array. When modules are connected in
series, the nominal voltage of the PV system is increased, while the parallel connection of modules
results in a higher current in the PV system.
The number of modules in parallel is calculated by dividing the total current required from the solar
array (determined in step 4) by the current generated by module at peak power (rated current in the
specification sheet). The number of modules in series is determined by dividing the nominal PV system
voltage with the nominal module voltage (in the specification sheet under configuration). The total

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 66
number of modules is the product of the number of modules required in parallel and the number
required in series.
Example 6: The required total current generated by the solar array is 15.2A. We have Shell SM50-H
modules available. The rated current of a module is 3.15A. The number of modules in parallel is
15.2A/3.15A = 4.8 < 5 modules. The nominal voltage of the PV system is 12V and the nominal module
voltage is 12V. The number of modules in series is 12V/12V = 1 module. The total number of modules in
the array is 5 × 1 = 5 modules.
6. Determine battery size for recommended reserve time
Batteries provide load operation at night or in combination with the PV modules during periods of
limited sunlight. For a safe operation of the PV system, one has to anticipate periods with cloudy
weather and plan a reserve energy capacity stored in the batteries. This reserve capacity is referred to as
PV system autonomy, which means a period of time that the system is not dependent on energy
generated by PV modules, and is rated in days. The autonomy of system depends on the type of loads.
For critical loads such as telecommunications components the autonomy can be 10 days and more, for
residential use it is usually 5 days or less.
The capacity [Ah] of the batteries is calculated by multiplying the daily total DC energy requirement of
the PV system including loads and system losses (calculated in step 2 and expressed in Ah) by the
number of days of recommended reserve time. In order to prolong the life of the battery it is
recommended to operate the battery using only 80% of its capacity. Therefore, the minimal capacity of
the batteries is determined by dividing the required capacity by a factor of 0.8.

Fig. Worksheet for the PV system design guide

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 67
Example 7: The total DC requirements of loads plus the system losses are 45.6Ah. The recommended
reserve time capacity for the installation side in The Netherlands is 5 days. Battery capacity required by
the system is 45.6Ah × 5 = 228Ah. The minimal battery capacity for a safe operation is 228Ah/0.8=285Ah.
Sizing of a PV system can be carried out using a worksheet in which the PV system design rules are
summarized.

PV systems installation and operation

Installation
In most cases PV modules contain sheets of glass, which protect the solar cells, and therefore they
should be handled with care. Orientation of the panel has to be accurate to within 20° of the right
direction. The support structure determines a tilt-angle of a module. In roof-mounted systems,
adjustment of the orientation and tilt angle is usually quite difficult.
Lead-acid batteries that have vents should be supplied dry-charged so that they can be filled with acid at
the site of installation. After the battery is filled, acid should never be emptied out. When installing
batteries, special care should be taken to connect them with the right polarity and in the right
configuration (series-parallel).
For systems connected to the mains, there is only one voltage rating for the whole installation. However,
the low DC voltage in PV systems could have several different voltages at the same time. The correct
polarity should be maintained in all connections. Using a red wire for all positive connections and a black
one for negative (ground) is advisable.

Operation
PV systems can generate high voltages. Safety is therefore very important in order to avoid accidents
and damage of expensive components and equipment. For safety reasons, solar arrays are normally
earthed, either by placing a matrix of metal in the ground under the array, or by using conventional
earth rods.
It is normally not necessary to protect solar array from direct lightning strikes, provided that their
mounting structure is well earthed. However, inverters or other electronics controls connected to the
array should be protected. Blocking diodes are installed in solar arrays to prevent reverse current flows
into the modules, which may damage the modules and cause energy losses. By-pass diodes are
incorporated into modules to prevent damage of arrays when some cells or modules become shaded.
PV system requires regular maintenance to ensure proper operation and the full life of components.
Some of the most important maintenance tasks are:
• cleaning of modules front,
• Removal obstacles, tree branches, etc. which cause shadowing of the modules,
• Battery charge check, if it remains very low the system should be re-designed,
• topping of battery electrolyte.
The rest of components of PV systems require little or no maintenance.

SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEMS

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 68
The solar thermal power system collects the thermal energy in solar radiation and uses at high or low
temperature. The low temperature applications include water and space heating for commercial and
residential buildings. Producing electricity using the steam-turbine-driven electrical generator is a high
temperature application.
Systems to use the heat of the sun directly can be either active or passive. In active systems, air or liquid
circulate through solar collectors and bring heat to where it is used. In passive systems, buildings are
built with windows and heat-absorbing surfaces set up to maximize solar heating. Either technology is
suitable for residential use.
All objects are made of very tiny particles called atoms. Atoms are too small to see with a microscope!
When solar energy hits objects, it transforms, or changes, into thermal energy.

Just like when you move faster, you feel warmer; as the atoms
move faster, they get warmer. We feel warmer in the sun than
the shade because solar energy makes atoms move faster.
People heat their houses and their water using the solar
energy. A closed car on a sunny day is a solar collector on a
sunny day, a closed car becomes a solar collector, light energy
passes through the window glass, is absorbed by the car’s
interior and converted into heat energy.
Fig.: Solar collector
The heat energy becomes trapped inside. Lots of people put solar collectors on their roofs so as to
capture the energy from the sun and turn it into heat.

Fig.: Use of the solar energy for building heating

Systems to directly use the light of the sun are most common. The most usual device for using sunlight is
the window, but skylights and skylight tubes are also used.

Basic components of solar heating system comprise solar collectors, a storage tank and interconnecting
pipework. Small tubes run through solar collectors and carry fluid either water or heat transfer liquid
with low boiling point.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 69
Solar collectors
Two types of solar collectors are commonly used:

Fig. Flat-plate collector

It is an insulated, weatherproofed rectangular box with metal absorber plate inside the box that is
painted in dark color to maximize absorption of solar energy. The collector is glazed and insulated to
limit the amount of heat escape from the box. The plate heats up and transfers the heat to the fluid
flowing through tubes in or near the absorber plate.

Fig. Evacuated tube collector

They are made up of parallel rows of transparent glass tubes, similar to fluorescent tubes. Each tube
contains an inner glass tube and outer grass tube covered with special coating that absorbs solar energy
well. The round shape of the tube permit a right angle strike of sun rays, which maximizes the total
amount of solar radiation absorbed during the day. In sama way as a vacuum flask with air is withdrawn
from the space between the inner and outer tubes forming a vacuum that can minimize heat loss from
the collector and reduce temperature drop of heated water inside the tube.

Energy Collection: The solar thermal energy is collected by concentrators. The parabolic trough focuses
the sunlight on a glass-encapsulated tube running along the focal line of the collector. The tube carries
heat absorbing liquid, usually oil, which in turn, heats water to generate steam.
In the central receiver system, an array of field mirrors focus the sunlight on the central receiver
mounted on a tower. To focus the sun on the central receiver at all times, each heliostat is mounted on
the dual-axis suntracker to seek position in the sky that is midway between the receiver and the sun.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 70
Compared to the parabolic trough, this technology produces higher concentration, and hence, higher
temperature working medium, usually a salt.

Fig. Three alternative configurations of the concentrators: Trough, central receiver and a dish
Consequently, it yields higher Carnot efficiency, and is well suited for utility scale power plants in tens or
hundreds of megawatt capacity.
𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑
𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 =
𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡
The parabolic dish tracks the sun to focus heat, which drives a sterling heat engine-generator unit.
Storage tank
A solar water heating system generally requires a well-insulated storage tank to hold heated water. It is
sometimes housed with a backup electric or gas heater to boost the solar heated water, at night or on
cloudy days, to a desired temperature.
Types of solar water heating system
They are characterized as either direct (also called “open loop”) or indirect (also called “closed loop”)
depending on whether the incoming water is heated directly in the collectors or is indirectly heated via a
heat exchanger.

Fig. Direct vs. indirect solar water heater

Both types of system can be either active or passive. An active system uses electric pump, valves and
controllers to circulate the water or other heat-transfer fluids through collectors, whereas a passive
system relies on gravity and the tendency for water to naturally circulate as it is heated.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 71
 Fig. Active, closed-loop solar water heater
Solar water heaters can be found as packaged type with solar collectors and insulated storage tank in
one package

The solar energy is collected by thousands of sun-tracking mirrors, called heliostats that reflect the sun’s
energy to a single receiver atop a centrally located tower. The enormous amount of energy focused on
the receiver is used to generate high temperature to melt a salt. The hot molten salt is stored in a
storage tank, and is used, when needed, to generate steam and drive the turbine generator. After
generating the steam, the used molten salt at low temperature is returned to the cold salt storage tank.
From here it is pumped to the receiver tower to get heated again for the next thermal cycle.

Fig. Solar thermal power plant schematic for generating electricity

A major benefit of this scheme is that it incorporates the thermal energy storage for duration in hours
with no degradation in performance, or longer with some degradation. This feature makes the
technology capable of producing high-value electricity for meeting peak demands.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 72
Use of solar energy for domestic purposes

i) Solar cooker: The box type solar cooker has an insulated box painted black inside. It is covered by a
glass plate which allows heat to enter inside but does not allow heat to escape out. It has a mirror to
reflect more sunlight into the box. The food to be cooked is kept in containers inside the box It can
produce a temperature of 100° to 140°.

Fig.: box type solar cooker and solar water heater

ii) Solar water heater: A solar water heater has an insulated box painted black inside with a system of
copper tubes. It is covered with a glass plate which allows heat to enter inside but does not allow heat to
escape out. When water flows through the copper tube it absorbs heat and becomes hot.

Benefits
Solar electric systems offer many advantages, including the following:
 Solar energy will last forever whereas it is estimated that the world’s oil reserves will be used up.
Sunlight is the most abundant renewable resource (175 PW)
 Solar energy causes no pollution.
 They are safe, clean and quiet to operate due to static structure, there are no moving parts. On
the other hand, the giant machines utilized for pumping oil are extremely noisy and therefore
very impractical.
 They are highly reliable; highly mobile and portable because of light weight.
 They stay long life with virtually no maintenance but because they are exposed to the weather,
their lifespan is about 20 years.
 They operate cost-effectively in remote areas and for many residential and commercial
applications. Once a solar panel is installed, solar energy can be produced free of charge. Short
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 73
 lead time to design, install, and start up a new plant.
 They are flexible and can be expanded at any time to meet your electrical needs; and
 They give you increased autonomy – independence from the grid or backup during outages.
 Converts sunlight directly to electricity
 Electricity is a very versatile form of energy
 No moving parts, in a solar cell which makes it impossible to really damage them; long lifetime
(>20 years)
 In the long term, there can be a high return on investment due to the amount of free energy a
solar panel can produce, it is estimated that the average household will see 50% of their energy
coming in from solar panels.
Limitations/drawbacks
You should also be aware of the practical limitations of PV systems:
 PV systems are not well suited for highly energy-intensive uses such as heating. If you wish to
use solar energy for this purpose, consider other alternatives such as a solar water heater, which
produces heat much more efficiently. Battery needed as storage
 Grid-connected systems are rarely economical, primarily because the current cost of the PV
technology is much higher than the cost of conventional energy in many areas. Since these
systems can be expensive, choosing a solar electric power system often comes down to a
personal lifestyle decision – just like the type of house or car you might own. Solar panels can be
expensive to install resulting in a time-lag of many years for savings on energy bills to match
initial investments.
 Sunlight is very spread out (<1 kW/m2)
 It is irregular and somewhat unpredictable
 Electricity is difficult to store
 So far PV cells are expensive compared to other means of power generation
 Electricity generation depends entirely on a countries exposure to sunlight; this could be limited
by a countries climate.
 Solar power is used to charge batteries so that solar powered devices can be used at night. The
batteries can often be large and heavy, taking up space and needing to be replaced from time to
time.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 74
 STUDENTS PRESENTATION
REPORT
1.1 Introduction
Energy is defined as capacity to produce an effect to do work. Energy has been an important component
to meet the day to day needs of human beings. Human society require increasing amount of energy for
industrial, commercial, domestic, agriculture, and transport uses. Different forms of energy are defined
as primary and secondary energy, commercial and noncommercial energy, renewable and nonrenewable
energy.

1.1.1 Primary and Secondary energy

Primary energy refers to all types of energy extracted or captured directly from natural resources.
Primary energy can be further divided into two parts namely renewable and non-renewable energy.
Primary energy is transformed into more convenient form of energy such as electricity, steam etc. these
form of energy is called secondary energy

Figure 1.1: The different energy and their transformation

1.1.2 Commercial and Noncommercial energy
Energy that is available in the market for a definite price is known as commercial energy. The most
important forms of commercial energy are electricity, coal, refined petroleum products and natural gas.
Any kind of energy which is sourced within a community and its surrounding area, and which is not
normally treated in the commercial market is termed as noncommercial energy such as firewood, cattle
dung, agriculture waste etc.
1.1.3 Renewable and nonrenewable energy
Renewable energy is obtained from natural sources. These resources can be used to produce energy
again and again, for example, Solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy etc.
Non-renewable resources cannot be replaced once they are used, for example, Coal, oil, gas etc. these
energy resources are limited and would be exhausted within prescribed period of time.
1.2 Solar energy and solar radiation
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 75
The earth receives the solar energy in the form of solar radiation. These radiations comprising of ultra-
violet, visible and infrared radiation. The amount of solar radiation that reaches any given location is
dependent on several factors like geographic location, time of day, season, land scope and local weather.
Because the earth is round, the sun rays strike the earth surface at different angles (ranging from 0° to
90°). When sun rays are vertical, the earth’s surface gets maximum possible energy.
Most of the part of India receives 4 to 7 kWh of solar radiation per square meter per day. India receives
solar energy equivalent more than 5000 trillion kWh per year.
Solar radiation (Direct, diffuse and total solar radiation):

Fig. 1.2 Solar radiation

The solar radiation that reaches the surface of the earth without being diffused is called direct beam
solar radiation. It is measured by instrument named as pyrheliometer.
As sun light passes through the atmosphere, some part of it is absorbed, scattered and reflected by air
molecule, water vapors, clouds, dust and pollutants. This is called diffuse solar radiation. The diffuse
solar radiation does not have unique path.
The sum of the direct and diffuse solar radiations is called total radiation or global solar radiation.
Pyranometer is used for measuring the total radiation.

Fig.1.3 Direct, diffuse and total solar radiation

Irradiance??!!!!
If, Rb- Beam Radiation (direct solar radiation); Rd- Diffuse Radiation (Solar radiation after diffusion); Rr-
Reflected radiation (solar radiation after reflection from surface), Rt- Total solar radiation on tilted
surface. Then, Rt = Rb + Rd + Rr --------------- (1.1)
1.3 Sun – Earth angles
1.3.1 Latitude (ф)
The latitude of a location is the angle made by the radial line joining the location to the center of the
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 76
earth with the projection of the line on the equatorial plane.
-90° ≤ ф ≤ +90°

Fig. 1.4 Latitude angle

1.3.2 Declination (δ)
The declination angle is the angle made by the line joining the centre of the sun and the earth with its
projection on equatorial plane.
The declination angle varies from a maximum value of +23.45° on June 21 to a minimum value of -23.45
on December 21.
(284+n)
δ = 23.45 Sin 360 --------------- (1.2)
365
(Where, n: number of days)
δ< 0 – for winters in northern hemisphere
δ> 0 – for summer in northern hemisphere
Example1: Calculate declination angle for March 22 in a non-leap year.
Solution: On March 22, n= 31 (January) + 28 (February) + 22 (22nd march)
n= 81 days
(284+81)
So, δ = 23.45 Sin 360 365
=0
On march 22 and September 22, the declination is zero so these days are called equinoxial day.
Example2: Calculate declination angle for March 31 in a leap year.
Solution: On March 22, n= 31 (January) + 29 (February) + 31 (31st march)
n= 91 days
(284+91)
So, δ = 23.45 Sin 360 365
= 4.016°
1.3.3 Hour angle (ω)
It is the angle through which the earth must be rotated to bring the meridian of the plane directly under
the sun.

Fig. 1.5 Hour angle

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 77
Because it is 24 hours for 360° of rotation, so each one hour corresponds to 15°
ω = 15 (ST – 12) ---------------- (1.3)
Where, ST: solar time
Example3: Calculate the hour angle at 02:30 PM.
Solution: ω = 15 (ST – 12)
ω = 15 (14.5 – 12) = 37.5°
1.3.4 Altitude Angle (α) and Zenith angle (θZ)
Altitude angle is the angle between the incident sun ray and the projection of sun’s rays on the
horizontal plane.
Zenith angle is the complementary angle of sun’s altitude angle
θZ= 90° - α -------------------- (1.4)
zenith angle is the angle between the incident sun ray and the perpendicular line to the horizontal plane.
Cos θZ = Sin ф Sin δ + Cos ф Cos δ Cos ω ---------------- (1.5)

Fig.1.6 Altitude angle and Zenith angle

1.3.5 Surface azimuth angle (γ) and solar azimuth angle (γS)
Consider a surface with slope “β”. Draw an outer normal to this surface and take a projection of normal
on horizontal plane.
Surface azimuth angle is the angle between line due south and the projection of normal to the surface
on horizontal plane.
Solar azimuth angle is the angle between line due south and the projection of sun rays on horizontal
plane.
Cos θz .Sin ф−Sin δ
Cos γS = ------------------------------ (1.6)
Sinθz .Cosф

Fig.1.7 surface azimuth angle and solar azimuth angle

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 78
Example 4: Calculate the sun’s altitude and azimuth angle at 9 AM solar time on September 1st at
latitude of 23°N.
Solution: ф=23°, n= 244 days
ω= 15(9 – 12) = 45°
(284+244)
δ = 23.45 Sin 360 365
= 7.724°
Cos θz = Sin (23°) Sin (7.724°) + Cos (23°) Cos (7.724°) Cos (45°)
θz = 45.87°
Cos 45.78 .Sin 23−Sin 7.724
Cos γS = Sin45.78 .Cos23
γS = 78.01°
Chapter 2. Solar thermal and application
2.1 Introduction
The Sun is most prominent source of energy in our system. The source of solar energy is process of
thermonuclear fusion in the sun’s core. This energy is radiated from sun in all directions and a fraction of
this energy is reaches to the earth.
The sun’s outer visible layer is called the photosphere and has a temperature of about 6000°C. Above the
photosphere there is a transparent layer of gases known as chromospheres. The light emitted by the
chromospheres is of short wave length. Finally, there is the corona. The corona is the outer part of the
sun’s atmosphere. in this region, prominence appear. Prominence is immense clouds of glowing gas that
erupt from upper chromospheres. The corona can only be seen during total solar eclipse.
2.2 Solar thermal energy application
Solar thermal energy is used for water heating, space heating, electric power generation, solar cooker for
cooking of food etc.

2.2.1 Flat plate solar collector

Solar collector absorbs the incident solar radiation and converts it to the useful heat which is use for
heating a collector fluid such as water, oil or air.
Flat plate collector are used where temperature below 100°C are required. 10
The important parts of flat plate collectors are shown below

Fig. 2.1 Flat plate solar collector

Construction
Transparent Cover: This allows solar energy to pass through, but reduces the heat loss examples are
tempered glass, transparent plastic materials etc.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 79
Absorber plate: Plate is blackened in order to absorb the maximum amount of solar radiations.
The absorber consists of a thin sheet. This sheet is made of conductor material (aluminum, steel, copper
etc.) because the metal is a good conductor of heat. Black coating is applied to this conductor / metal
plate in order to absorb the maximum amount of solar radiations.
Copper is best material for absorber plate because it has high thermal conductivity, adequate tensile
strength and good corrosion resistance.
Series of tubes: The absorber plate with several parallel tubes is fabricated from copper tube and sheet
by soft soldering.
Heat transport fluid (Water): To remove heat from the absorber, fluid is usually circulated through tubes
to transfer heat from the absorber to an insulated water tank.
Thermal insulation: It is used to provide insulation on the sides and bottom so as to prevent losses and
thereby attain high temperatures. Examples of thermal insulations are crown white wool, glass wool,
calcium silicate etc.
Working:
When solar radiation passes through the transparent cover and incident on blackened absorber surface
of high absorptivity, a large portion of this energy is absorbed by the plate and then transferred to the
fluid (Air, Water etc.)
Thermal insulation is used to reduce conduction losses and transparent cover is used to reduce
convection losses.
Note: when air is used as heat transport fluid, it is flat plate air collector which is used for space heating
(solar space heater) and when liquid is used as heat transport fluid, it is flat plate liquid collector which is
used for water heating (solar water heater)
2.2.1 (a) Solar flat plate collector type water heating system

Fig. 2.2 Solar water heater and a solar space heater

Cold water is pumped to the flat plate collector, collector absorbs the heat by solar radiation and heated
water is stored in the tank.
2.2.1 (b) Solar flat plate collector type space heating system
Water is heated by incident solar radiation on flat plate collector. This heated water is collected in a tank.
The energy is transferred to the air circulating in the house by water to air heat exchanger.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 80
2.2.2 Concentrating collectors / focusing collectors (Cylindrical trough Solar collector)

Focusing collector has less heat loss so they operate at higher temperature. Flat plate collectors operate
on temperature about 100°C in summer and 40°C in winter. So, in order to increase the temperature,
range of collectors, focusing of collectors are used.
In focusing collectors, a parabolic mirror is used. The sun rays are focused on the focal point of the mirror
by reflection from its surface.
A tube is placed along the focal line of the mirror and fluid is circulated through the tube this fluid
absorbs the heat from reflected solar radiation.

Fig. 2.4 focusing of collector

With these collectors, temperature of 200°C - 300°C or above may be obtained. In some mechanism,
seasonal tracking of sun is also provided to get the maximum heat from sun light.
The focusing collectors can have two arrangements namely cylindrical parabolic concentrator (100°C < T
< 200°C) and parabolic mirror arrays (T > 200°C)
The concentrator increases the intensity of solar radiation by a concentration ratio “C”
C = (Aa / Ab) ---------------------------- (2.1)
Aa: Aperture area
Ab: Absorber area
The C value of 20 to 100 can be achieved by a linear concentrator such as parabolic trough concentrator
and the C value of 100 to 4000 can be achieved by a point focus concentrator such as parabolic dish.

Fig. 2.5 Different types of concentrating / focusing collectors

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 81
Materials for concentrators
Reflector: Reflector should have high reflectivity. Therefore, mirror glass may be used. Glass is the most
durable with low iron content so it is a good reflector. Aluminum and silver are also good reflecting
surface. Plastics are also used as reflector now days.
Receiving material: Glass and transparent plastic films are generally used as cover material for receivers.
Glass should have low iron content to reduce absorption by it.
Coatings are required to have strong solar absorptivity. Weather resistance, stability at high temperature
Examples are black paints, black chrome etc.

2.2.3 Solar thermal power plant

In solar thermal power plants, the concentrating collectors are used for generation of electricity. There
are two types of solar thermal power plants namely solar distributed collector power plant and solar
central receiver power plant.
2.2.3 (a) Solar distributed collector power plants

Fig. 2.6 Solar distributed collector electric power plant

In this type of power plants, collectors are used. Collectors may be parabolic trough unit with line focus
or parabolidal dishes with center focus. The flat plate collectors are not used in power plants because
their efficiency is very poor and operating temperature is very low. Water is heated by the collector and
stored in the storage tank. This heated water is converted into steam by boiler and steam is provided to
turbine to make it run. This turbine is coupled with generator so rotation of turbine makes generator to
rotate hence electricity is generated. The steam is condensed in the condenser and feed water is
provided to boiler for reuse.
2.2.3 (b) Solar central receiver power plant

Fig. 2.7 Solar central receiver electrical power plant

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 82
In this system, a large number of linear reflectors are used. These are called heliostat. Heliostat focus on
the central receiver as shown in the figure
When solar radiations fall on heliostat, sun rays after getting reflected from the heliostat are focused on
the boiler. The output of boiler is high temperature steam which is provided to the turbine. This will
rotate turbine. As the generator is also coupled with the turbine so with the rotation of turbine,
generator will also rotate and electricity will produce.

2.3 Thermal energy storage for solar heating and cooling

Thermal energy storage is essential for both domestic water and space heating applications. Thermal
energy can be stored in well insulated fluids or solids. There are two ways for thermal energy storage
namely sensible heat storage and latent heat storage.

2.3.1 Sensible heat storage

In sensible heat storage the temperature of the medium changes during charging and discharging of the
storage. In this, there is no change in phase. The basic equation for energy storage is given by
Q = mcpΔT -------------------------------- (2.2)
Where
Q: Total thermal capacity
M: Mass of storage medium
Cp: Specific heat
Heat stored per unit volume (Q/Vs) is given by
𝑚𝐶𝑝 Δ𝑇
𝑉𝑠
------------------------------------ (2.3)
Where Vs is the volume of the given storage container
Water is generally used for storing thermal energy at low temperature. Heat transfer oils are used in
sensible heat storage system for temperature range 100 - 300°C
Solid materials like rocks, metals, concrete, sand and bricks etc. are also used for thermal storage.
Water is also used as heat transfer fluid for heat flow to and from (but the temperature range is limited)

2.3.2 Latent heat storage

In latent heat storage, the temperature of the medium remains more or less constant, since it undergoes
a phase transformation i.e. The transition from solid to liquid or liquid to vapor
In a latent heat storage system, the heat is stored in a material when it melts and heat is extracted from
material when it freezes example of such materials are paraffin wax, calcium chloride hex-hydrate,
magnesium nitrate hex-hydrate, ice, sodium hydroxide etc.
For latent heat storage charging, phase transition solid- liquid (melting) is most suitable and for storage
discharging, liquid- solid (solidification) is most suitable.
The basic equation for energy storage is given by
Q= m [Cs(tm – tmin) + hm + CL(tmax – tm)] joule ----------------------------------(2.4)
Where;
m: Mass of phase change material (PCM) storage medium, Cs: Specific heat of PCM – solid state (J/KgK)
CL: Specific heat of PCM – liquid state (J/KgK), hm: melting enthalpy of PCM storage medium (J/Kg),

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 83
tmin: Minimum storage temperature (°C), tmax: storage temperature (°C), tm: Melting temperature of
PCM storage medium (°C)
The latent heat storage charging process comprises three stages. First stage is heating of the phase
change material in solid state
Second stage is melting of phase change material at constant temperature for pure substance or in the
range of temperatures for mixed composition
Third stage involve heating of the molten phase change material to the maximum temperature (tmax)

2.4 Limitations of Solar thermal energy

 Low energy density 0.1 to 1 KW/ m2
 Large area is required to collect solar thermal energy
 Direction of rays changes continuously with time
 Energy not available during night and during clouds
 Energy storage is essential
 It has high cost
 Solar central power plants in MW range are not economical

Chapter 3. Solar photovoltaic (PV) and application

3.1 Solar photovoltaic (PV) energy conversion (Photovoltaic effect)

Fig. 3.1 Photovoltaic effect (Semiconductor)

A solar cell is nothing but a PN junction diode under light illumination. Sun light can be converted into
electricity due to photovoltaic effect. Sun light composed of photons (packets of energy). These photons
contain various amount of energy corresponding to different wave lengths of light. When photons strike
a solar cell they may be reflected or absorbed or pass through the cell. When solar radiation is absorbed
in PN junction diode, electron-hole pairs (EHP) are generated.
 Electron hole pair (EHP) generated in depletion layer: Electrons of EHP will be repealed towards
N side because of electric field and holes of EHP will be repealed towards P side because of
electric field.
 Electron hole pair (EHP) generated in quasi neutral region: In this region, the electron and holes
of EHP will wander around in the region randomly. There is no electric force to guide them in any
direction.
 Minority carriers of P and N regions: The minority carrier near the depletion region will also

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 84
 get direction by electric field.
In this way there will be increase of positive charge at P side and increase of negative charge at N side.
This build up of positive and negative charge causes a potential difference to appear across the PN
junction due to light falling on it. This generation of photo voltage is known as photovoltaic effect.

3.2 Performance analysis of photovoltaic (PV) cell

Fig. 3.2 Photovoltaic cell performance

Consider a PN junction with resistive load as shown in figure. When solar cell is illuminated, electron
hole pair is generated in the depletion region. This electron hole pair when separated from each other
across junction then a current (𝐼𝐿 ) flows in external circuit by photovoltaic effect.
This photo current (𝐼𝐿 ) produces a voltage drop across resistive load and this voltage will forward bias
the PN junction. Forward bias voltage produces forward current (𝐼1 ).
So the net current will be, I = 𝐼𝐿 - 𝐼1
𝑒𝑣
I = I(L) - I(0)[exp (𝑘𝑇) - 1------------------- (3.1)

3.2.1 Short circuit current (ISC)

When R=0 and V = 0 then 𝐼1 =0
so I =𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 ----------------------------------------- (3.2)

3.2.2 Open circuit voltage (VOC)

When R=∞ then I = 0
𝑒𝑣
0 = I(L) - I(0)[exp ( ) – 1]
𝑘𝑇
𝑒𝑣
I(L) = I(0)[exp (𝑘𝑇) – 1]
𝑘𝑇 𝐼(𝐿)
Voc = [ln(1+ )] --------------------------------------------------- (3.3)
𝑒 𝐼(0)

3.2.3 Power delivered to load

P= V.I
𝑒𝑣
P= V. [I(L) – I(0) [exp (𝑘𝑇) – 1]]
𝑑𝑃
for maximum power delivered to load, 𝑑𝑉 = 0
𝐼(𝐿) 𝑒.𝑣𝑚 𝑒.𝑣𝑚
By solving, 1 + 𝐼(0)= exp ( 𝑘𝑇
). [1 + (𝑘𝑇
)------------------------- (3.4)
Where Vm is the voltage which produces maximum power

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 85
3.2.4 Maximum Current
𝑒.𝑣𝑚
If we put the value of “ 𝑘𝑇
“from equation 4 to equation 1, we get the maximum value of current (Im)
3.2.5 Maximum Power
The maximum power is obtained by multiplying vm and Im
𝑒.𝑉𝑚.(𝐼𝐿+𝐼0)⁄𝑘𝑇
Pm = Vm.Im = Vm. --------------------------------------- (3.5)
1+𝑒𝑉𝑚⁄𝑘𝑇

Fig. 3.3 I-V characteristics of solar cell

3.2.6 Efficiency of solar cell
Conversion efficiency of solar cell is defined as the ratio of output power to incident optical power. For
maximum power output,
𝑃𝑚
%n = .100
𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑚.𝐼𝑚
%n = 𝐼.𝐴
.100------------------------------------------- (3.6)
Where, Pm- maximum power(watt), Pin- input power(Watt), Vm- maximum voltage(Volt), Im-maximum
current(Amp), I- solar intensity(watt/m2), A- area(m2)
3.2.7 Fill Factor (FF)
It is the ratio of maximum power to the product of Voc and Isc
𝑉𝑚.𝐼𝑚
FF = 𝑉𝑜𝑐 .𝐼𝑠𝑐 -------------------------------------------------- (3.7)

3.2.8 Limitation of solar cell

There are several factors that limit the efficiency of solar cells, these are:
Photons with energy below the band gap energy, cannot generate electron hole pair so their energy is
not converted into useful output. These electrons generate only heat and reduces the electrical
efficiency of solar cell
Photons with energy above the band gap energy, only a fraction of energy is used for generating free
electrons for conduction. Remaining energy will produce heat and reduce electrical efficiency of solar
cells.
When sun light falls on solar cell, some part of it is reflected back, some part is absorbed and some part
is transmitted, only absorbed solar light is converted into electricity so its efficiency is poor
Example 1: Calculate Fill factor, maximum power and cell efficiency with following parameters- Voc=
0.24 volt, Isc= 10mAmp, Vm= 0.14 volt, Im= 6.5 mAmp., Intensity = 24 W/m2, Area= 4 cm2
Solution
0.14 . 0.0065
FF = 0.24 . 0.001
Pm = Vm × Im = 0.91 m Watt

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 86
 0.14 . 0.0065
%n = . 100 = 9.48 %
24 . 0.0004
3.3 Solar cell material
The solar cells are made of various materials. Silicon is the most commonly used material for solar cells.
The electrical properties of silicon depend on the type and amount of dopants. Phosphorous and boron
are most widely used donor and accepter dopant respectively.
The choice of material depends upon the energy gap, efficiency and cost. In order to reduce the cost, the
level of efficiency should be high. The cost can be reduced by using thin film technology. A variety of
compound semiconductor are to be used to manufacture thin film solar cell. These materials are CdS,
CdTe, InP, GaAs, ZnTe, AlSb (Aluminum Antimonite).
Table 3.1 Energy Gap of some materials
Material Energy Gap (ev)
Si 1.1 According to types of crystal, the solar cells are of three types
CdTe 1.44 First is mono crystalline silicon cells (Maximum efficiency= 24%)
CdS 2.42 Second is poly crystalline silicon cells (Maximum efficiency= 17.8%)
GaAs 1.4
Third is amorphous silicon cell (Maximum efficiency= 13%)
InP 1.27
ZnTe 2.2
3.4 Solar Cells, Solar Modules and Solar Array
AlSb 1.63
Solar cell is basic unit of solar electricity generator. It is made up of
semiconductor material. When sun light falls on solar cells, it produces electricity by photovoltaic effect.
One solar cell produces 0.5 Volt DC voltages.

Fig. 3.4 Series connection of three solar cells

When solar cells are connected in series to produce high voltage, it is called as solar module. The
number of solar cells in solar module is determined by the required voltage. Generally solar modules are
made to produce output voltage of 18 Volt DC voltage
(Voltage of one solar cell) × (Number of solar cells) = Output of solar module - (3.8)
By using this formula, we can say that 36 solar cells of 0.5 Volt each will be required for producing 18
Volt output voltage module. These 36 solar cells will be connected in series as shown in the figure
Solar modules are of two types namely Opaque module and Semitransparent module. In opaque
modules, front side is transparent glass cover and back side is insulating toddler material which is not
transparent.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 87
 3.5 (a) Opaque PV Module and (b) Semitransparent PV Module
In semitransparent type module, both the front and back side is transparent glass cover (ethyl vinyl
acetate). Packing factor (PF) is defined as the ratio of area covered by solar cell to the area of PV module.
In case of rectangular solar cells, packing factor is 1.
Area covered by solar cell = Area of PV module × Packing Factor -------------------------- (3.9)
Non packing factor area (Area between two solar cells) = (1 - PF) × Module Area ------- (3.10)
The efficiency of semitransparent module is higher than opaque module because in semitransparent PV
module only un-used solar energy by cell is responsible for raising the cell temperature and energy
received by space between two solar cells is transmitted outside so it is not responsible for increment in
temperature ie. Top heat loss and bottom heat loss is more in semitransparent PV module.
While in case of opaque module, energy received by space between two solar cells is reflected back so it
also responsible for increment in temperature ie. Top heat loss and bottom heat loss is less in opaque PV
module.
From semitransparent PV module, we get electrical energy, space heating and illumination while from
opaque PV module, we get electrical energy and space heating only.
When sun rays fall on PV module, heat s transferred inside by convection. To regulate this heat, we have
to provide force movement of air from top to bottom. For this, use a DC fan.
When solar modules are electrically connected in series or parallel, the arrangement is called solar array
/ solar generator. For series connection of two solar modules, the plus terminal of one module is
connected to the minus terminal of second module. When two modules are connected in series then
total output voltage will be 24 Volt.

Fig. 3.6 Series connection of two PV Modules to form a PV array

For increasing output current and power, a number of modules are connected in parallel. The modules
which are being connected in parallel, they must have same output voltage.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 88
 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦
No. of modules connected in parallel (Np) = 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒
--(3.11)
𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦
No. of modules connected in series (Ns) = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒
--(3.12)
Total no. of modules in solar generator= Ns × Np --------------------------- (3.13)
Example 2: The semitransparent and opaque PV modules are tested under sun light in order to measure
the module parameters. The intensity of sun light is measured by solar meter, which is 746 W/m2 and
the area of each module is 0.61 m2. The module voltage, current and power is measured by multimeter
under variable load condition. These measurements are shown below in observation tables
Semitransparent module Opaque module
V (Volt) I (Amp.) P (Watt) V (Volt) I (Amp.) P (Watt)
0 2.4 0 0 1.8 0
2.7 2.1 5.67 0.2 1.7 0.34
8.9 2 17.8 1.5 1.6 2.4
12 1.8 21.6 7.1 1.5 10.65
14.1 1.7 23.97 9.6 1.4 13.44
14.6 1.6 23.36 12.8 1.3 16.64
15.4 1.5 23.1 14.2 1.2 17.04
16.8 1 16.8 14.6 1 14.6
17 0.8 13.6 14.9 0.8 11.92
18 0 0 15.6 0 0
(I) Draw Current vs Voltage & Power vs Voltage characteristics for both the modules
(II) Find open circuit voltage & short circuit current for both the modules
(III) Calculate Fill factor for both the modules
(IV) Calculate the efficiency of both the modules
Solution
(I) Current vs Voltage & Power vs Voltage characteristics of semitransparent module:

Current vs Voltage & Power vs Voltage characteristics of opaque modules:

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 89
(II) Open circuit voltage: it is the voltage when the current flowing through the PV module is zero i.e. It is
the voltage measured when no load is connected with PV circuit.
The open circuit voltage is measured across the open terminals of circuit.
By observation table of semitransparent module, when current (I) is zero then voltage measured is 18
voltes.
So, Voc = 18 Volt (for semitransparent module)
Similarly, Voc = 15.6 Volt (for opaque module)

Short circuit current: it is the current when the voltage across the PV module terminal is zero i.e. It is the
current measured when there is short circuit (R=0 Ω) with PV circuit.
The short circuit current is measured across the shorted terminals of circuit.
By observation table of semitransparent module, when voltage (V) is zero then current measured is 2.4
Amp.
So, Isc = 2.4 Amp. (For semitransparent module)
Similarly, Isc = 1.8 Amp (For opaque module)
(III) Fill Factor:

For semitransparent module:

From the characteristics curve of semitransparent PV module,
Vm. Im = Pm= 24 Watt, Voc = 18 Volt, Isc = 2.4 Amp.
24
Hence, FF = = 0.55
18∗2.4
For opaque module:
From the characteristics curve of opaque PV module,
Vm. Im = Pm= 20 Watt, Voc = 15.6 Volt, Isc = 1.8 Amp.
20
Hence, FF = = 0.71
15 ∗1.8

(IV) Electrical efficiency of modules:

Electrical efficiency of module is given by
𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
ηm = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦∗𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
For semitransparent module:
24
ηm = * 100 = 5.27 %
746∗0.61
For opaque module:
20
ηm = 746∗0.61 * 100 = 4.39 %
The output power of opaque PV module is less than semitransparent PV module because in opaque PV
module, the glass cover is used on front side of module and insulating material (white tedlar) is used on
back side of module. In opaque PV module, the unused solar energy in solar cells of module is
responsible to raise the solar cell temperature and the energy received by the space between two solar
cells (non packing area) is also responsible for increasing the cell temperature. In semitransparent PV

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 90
module, the glass cover is used on both front and back side of module. In it whatever solar energy falls
on non-packing area goes directly out which is called as direct gain. So in such modules, only unused
solar energy is responsible to raise the cell temperature. The bottom heat loss is less in opaque module
in comparison to the semitransparent module because of insulating material (white tedlar) at its back
surface and this is responsible for increasing the cell temperature of opaque PV modules. When the cell
temperature increases, the saturation current also increases with intrinsic carrier concentration so the
open circuit voltage of module reduces and the short circuit current of module increases. But the effect
of increasing module temperature on short circuit current is small than open circuit voltage so the
overall effect of increased module temperature is a reduction in output power of module hence the
efficiency of module reduces.
3.5 Solar power Plant
Solar cell power plants are of two types namely autonomous power plant (Off grid power plant) and Grid
connected power plants.
3.5.1 Autonomous Solar Power Plant

Fig. 3.7 Block diagram of off grid / autonomous solar plant

Description of different components of Installed PV System:
PV Array
In this system, PV modules are connected in parallel and mounted on an inclined structure. The
inclination of the system is kept at latitude of location to receive maximum annual insolation.
Charge Controller
This device regulates rates of flow of electricity from the PV Array to the battery and the load. This
controller keeps the battery full charged without over charging it. When the load is drawing power, the
controller allows the charge to flow from the PV Array into the battery, the load or both. When the
controller senses that the battery is fully charged, it reduces or stops the flow of electricity from the PV
Array.
A charge controller may be used to power DC equipment with solar panels. The charge controller
provides a regulated DC output and stores excess energy in a battery as well as monitoring the battery
voltage to prevent under /over charging, it will also perform maximum power point tracking.
Inverter
An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as battery to AC electricity. The electricity can
be at any required voltage; in particular it can operate AC equipment designed for mains operation, or
rectified to produce DC at any desired voltage.
A solar inverter or PV inverter is a critical component in a photovoltaic system. It converts the variable
DC output of the solar panel into a utility frequency alternating current that can be fed into the

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 91
commercial electrical grid or used by a local, off-grid electrical network. Solar inverters have special
functions adapted for use with PV arrays, including maximum power point tracking
 Stand-alone inverters, used in isolated systems where the inverter draws its DC energy from
batteries charged by photovoltaic arrays. Many stand-alone inverters also incorporate integral
battery chargers to replenish the battery from an AC source, when available.
 Maximum power point tracking is a technique that solar inverters use to get the maximum
possible power from the PV array. Solar cells have a complex relationship between solar
irradiation, temperature and total resistance that produces a non-linear output efficiency
known as the I-V curve. It is the purpose of the MPPT system to sample the output of the cells
and apply a resistance (load) to obtain maximum power for any given environmental conditions.
Essentially, this defines the current that the inverter should draw from the PV in order to get the
maximum possible power (since power equals voltage times current).
Battery: A battery stores electricity produced by a solar electric system. The energy storage capacity of a
battery is measured in watt-hours, which is the amp-hour rating times the voltage.
Kerosene Generator: Generators are useful appliances that supply electrical power during a power
outage and prevent discontinuity.
An electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy obtained from an external source into
electrical energy as the output.
Working of Installed PV System: PV Modules use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate
electricity through the photovoltaic effect. The output of PV Array is given to the charge controller.
Charge controller regulates rates of flow of electricity from the PV Array to the battery and the load. This
controller keeps the battery full charged without over charging it. The output of charge controller is
given to the Battery. This stores electricity produced by a solar electric system. Now the battery output is
connected with inverter input. An inverter converts the DC electricity from This AC output of Inverter is
now provided to the load connected with it.
When battery is not sufficiently charged to supply the loads, Generator is used.
3.5.2 Grid connected solar power plants

Fig.3.8 Grid connected solar power plant

In grid connected system power is fed into the grid during day time and taking power from the grid
during night. PV array supplies the current only when sun light fall on it, Photovoltaic array produces DC

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 92
power and this must be converted into ac power for local use and feeding into grid so inverters are used
along with PV array. Inverter converts DC supply into AC and feeds the solar power to grid or supply to
the consumer. In case of low power availability from PV generator, the local load can be fed from the grid
(as shown in diagram). At the time of excessive generation, the energy can be stored and maybe used at
the time of low generation. Regulation and dispatch unit regulates the flow of power from photovoltaic
power system into grid and vice-versa.
Grid connected system require additional components to regulate voltage, frequency, and waveform to
meet the requirement of feeding the power into grid.
3.5.3 Solar Energy in Rwanda
Rwanda’s solar insolation is 5 kWh/m2/day and daily 5 peak sun hours. Such radiations and other climatic
weather conditions in Rwanda prove that solar energy would significantly contribute to national
electricity generation once well exploited. Also, data on the global horizontal irradiation (GHI) map of
Rwanda (1534-2018) classify this country as good for solar energy (Figure 3.9)

Fig.3.9 Global horizontal irradiation for Rwanda (1534-2018)

3.6 Limitations of solar photovoltaic energy conversion
 High initial cost
 Irregular supply of solar energy
 Require battery storage for supply power at night
 Low efficiency
 Require large area
 Do not generate power during cloudy season

Self-assessment Questions
1. What is the difference between: Renewable and nonrenewable, primary and secondary energy,
commercial and noncommercial?

2. Beside the energy distribution according to the wavelength, the amount of solar energy received
on earth is not uniform. What factors do cause that irregularity?
3. Differentiate between Direct (Beam), Diffuse, reflected solar radiation and solar irradiance?

4. Define main angles used to determine the irradiance variation at specific location on earth:
Latitude, Declination, Hour, altitude and Zenith angles?

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 93
 5. (i) Calculate declination angle for March 31 in a leap year 078537723
(ii) Calculate the hour angle at 02:30 PM
(iii) Calculate the sun’s altitude and azimuth angle at 9 AM solar time on September 1st at
latitude of 23°N

6. (i) The sun is termed a fusion-based thermonuclear furnace. Why?

(ii) It is known that the Sun fuels all energy resources. How for Wind, hydropower, Biomass and
Fossil fuels?

7. Name and explain the functions of main components of solar collectors (flat and parabolic
trough)?

8. Why concentrating collectors are often used at industrial level?

9. Briefly, explain the working system of a solar-fueled power plant?

10. Provide the difference between a solar distributed collector power plant and a solar central
receiver power plant?

11. How the liquid cycle used in solar-fueled hydropower plant involves sensible and latent heating?
12. What are the benefits and limitations of solar energy?

13. Define the following: Concentrator ratio, Photovoltaic effect, sun tracking mechanism,
semiconducting material, dopants, packing factor?

14. Enumerate the factors that affect the efficiency of a solar cell?

15. (i) Where is the difference between a solar cell, module and a PV array?
(ii) What are the functions of basic components of an autonomous/off-grid solar plant?

N.B: It worth mentioning that every student should be able to answer these questions so as to say that
he understood basics of solar energy.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 94
 “Skills for a Better Destiny”
Integrated Polytechnic Regional College – Kigali Campus
II. THE HYDROPOWER

Prepared and contributed by

Alexis M. and a 12-students group, respectively

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 95
1. INTRODUCTION
Both small and large hydroelectric power developments were instrumental in the early expansion of the
electric power industry. Hydroelectric power comes from flowing water runoff from mountain streams
and clear lakes. Water, when it is falling by the force of gravity, can be used to turn turbines and
generators that produce electricity.

1.1 Historical background

Water has always been one of mankind’s most vital resources. While the human body can’t go weeks
without food, it can only survive for a couple of days without water consumption. Crops in the field will
shrivel and die without a readily available supply. We use it for cleaning; we use it for cooking. And since
almost the start of recorded history, we have used it as an energy source. Some of the first recorded
mentions of hydropower go back over 2,000 years ago to ancient Greece and Egypt, where water wheels
were connected to grindstones to turn wheat into flour. Later, these same water wheels were
connected to rudimentary equipment such as lathes, saw blades, and looms in order to produce such
goods as furniture and fabric. By the 1700’s, factories were mass-producing these products.

The Water Wheels

The ancient Greeks were the first recorded society to successfully develop a form of hydropower–
the water wheel. The Greek water wheel was designed as a work of art rather than science, and was
highly inefficient. However, the torque from the simple water wheel was successfully
used to grind wheat into flour. The Greek flour mill was later adopted by the Romans, and by 500 A.D.
the invention had spread throughout the known world. However, the use of slave and animal labor
restricted its widespread application until the 12th century. The original Greek water wheel later
became known as an undershot water wheel, as the water passes underneath the wheel (see Figure
1(a)). Undershot water wheels are the least expensive to construct, cause negligible change to the river,
and are typically installed in large or swift moving rivers with minimal elevation change. The undershot
water wheel may be installed directly in the river, or as part of a millrace system with flow control gates.
In modern vernacular, the undershot water wheel would be considered an impulse, or kinetic turbine, as
it operates exclusively on the transfer of momentum from the moving fluid to the paddles of the wheel.
The volume and speed of the moving water determine the maximum power output.

Fig. 1 Water wheel design schematics

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 96
The undershot water wheel (a) was originally developed by the ancient Greeks, and is considered the
first form of hydropower. The overshot water wheel (b) was a significant improvement in efficiency. The
breastshot water wheel (c) combines the advantages of both previous designs.
The overshot water wheel design first appeared during the Middle Ages. In an overshot water
wheel, the weight of the water filling the buckets causes the wheel to rotate, producing power
from the change in potential energy of falling water (see Figure 1(b)). One major advantage of overshot
water wheels is that they are able to utilize the complete fluid stream, giving them a higher operational
efficiency. However, compared with an undershot design, overshot water wheels have significant
construction costs as the water from the river must be diverted to pass through a flume or penstock at
the top of the wheel. Overshot water wheels are preferred for mountain streams, where the elevation
change and limited water flow can be leveraged. By the 1700’s, water wheels were used extensively for
milling. Saw mills, textile mills, paper mills, and flour mills formed an important role in local economies
where any amount of moving water was available. Mining operations also used water wheels to lift
water, ore, and personnel.
As industrial power requirements continued to increase, water wheel efficiency became an important
concern. John Smeaton, a British civil engineer, performed the first scientific evaluation of the water
wheel in the mid 1700’s. He developed methods for determining the efficiency of the water wheel.
Smeaton found that on average the undershot wheel used 22% of the energy in the water passing
through the wheel, while an overshot wheel used 63%. Smeaton’s work led to changes in water wheel
design that resulted in a dramatic increase in performance.
The breastshot water wheel followed Smeaton’s findings, and incorporated the advantages of both the
undershot and overshot designs (see Figure 1(c)), extracting energy from both the fluid momentum, as
well as the change in potential energy. The breastshot water wheel is also able to harness significantly
larger flow rates than are possible with an overshot design. The increased flow rate allowed greater
power output to be achieved, though breastshot water wheels had an average efficiency of only 50%.
The breastshot water wheel gained significant popularity in the United States in the early 1800’s and
was the workhorse of the industrial revolution.
In 1824, a French engineer, Jean-Victor Poncelet, first demonstrated the use of curved buckets on
undershot water wheels. The curved profile caused the water to exit the bucket at something close to
180 degrees from the incidence angle, thus extracting the maximum fluid momentum from the fluid
stream. In addition, Poncelet adjusted the wheel rotational speed such that the water left the buckets
with a very low velocity compared to when it entered. His two design modifications increased the
efficiency of undershot water wheels to more than 60%.

The invention of the electrical generator in the late 1800’s produced a new way to exploit hydropower
for the growth of civilization. By marrying water turbines to generators with belts and gears, a reliable
source of electricity was created that could be used to power factories and businesses around the clock.
The first hydroelectric power plant was built in Niagara Falls in 1881 to power streetlights in the city.
2. HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER SOURCE AND GENERATION
Nature ensures that water is a renewable resource. HP can be seen as a form of solar energy, as the sun
powers the hydrologic cycle. In the hydrologic cycle, atmospheric water reaches the earth’s surface as

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 97
precipitation. Some of this water evaporates, but much of it either percolates into the soil or becomes
surface runoff. Water from rain and melting snow eventually reaches ponds, lakes, reservoirs, or oceans
where evaporation is constantly occurring.

Fig. Water cycle

Moisture percolating into the soil may become ground water (subsurface water), some of which also
enters water bodies through springs or underground streams. Ground water may move upward through
soil during dry periods and may return to the atmosphere by evaporation. Water vapor passes into the
atmosphere by evaporation then circulates, condenses into clouds, and some returns to earth as
precipitation. Thus, the water cycle is complete.
To generate electricity, water must be in motion (kinetic energy). When flowing water turns blades in a
turbine, the form is changed to mechanical (machine) energy. The gravitational potential energy of an
object depends upon the height through which an object is allowed to fall.
Newton’s Universal Law of Gravity tells us that the gravitational force between two objects depends
upon the inverse of the square of the distance between the objects and is, therefore, not a constant
force with displacement. However, if we limit the movements of the objects to small values compared
to the total distance between them, then we can consider the force of gravity to be a constant. Objects
falling near the surface of the Earth fall into this category. The distance between the center of the Earth
and the center of any object near the surface is over 4,000 miles. If we limit the object to fall a distance
of less than a mile, then the change in the force of gravity over that distance is less than 05%. Thus, we
can take it to be a constant. In this situation, Newton’s Universal Law of Gravity reduces to the
expression:
𝑭𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒕 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑬𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒉 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝒎⁄𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐
Since the force is a constant, the potential energy is merely this force multiplied by the distance through
which the object falls.
𝑷. 𝑬 = 𝑭𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 × 𝑯 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝒎⁄𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 × 𝑯

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 98
For a hydroelectric dam, the object that is “falling” is water. The mass of the water that is falling is
determined by how much volume it occupies.

Fig. Diagram of a hydroelectric facility and an overview of the structure of the high head hydropower plant
The relationship between the two is given by the formula mass = density x volume. For fresh water, the
density is 1gm/cm3, which is equivalent to 1000 kg/m3. Thus, our formula for the potential energy of a
volume of water V that falls through a height H is
𝑷. 𝑬 = (𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟎 𝑱⁄𝒎𝟒 ) × 𝑽𝑯
J being the symbol for the unit of energy called the joule. When we write about the water “falling”, we
are giving a somewhat false impression of how a hydroelectric dam works. The water does not fall onto
the turbine to turn it. Instead, the water near the bottom of the dam is forced by the pressure of the
water above it past the turbines. While this is not the same as falling onto the turbines, it turns out
that it is equivalent mathematically. Therefore, the formula that we derived above for potential energy
is the one used for a dam, where H is the difference in heights between the surface of the water in the
reservoir and the turbine.

Some powerplants are located on rivers, streams, and canals, but for a reliable water supply, dams are
needed. Dams store water for later release for such purposes as irrigation, domestic and industrial use,

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 99
and power generation. The reservoir acts much like a battery, storing water to be released as needed to
generate power.
The dam creates a “head” or height from which water flows. A pipe (penstock) carries the water from
the reservoir to the turbine. The fast-moving water pushes the turbine blades, something like a
pinwheel in the wind. The waters force on the turbine blades turns the rotor, the moving part of the
electric generator. When coils of wire on the rotor sweep past the generator’s stationary coil (stator),
electricity is produced. This concept was discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831 when he found that
electricity could be generated by rotating magnets within copper coils.

𝜕𝑝
= −𝜌𝑔 = −𝛾
𝜕𝑧
∆𝑝 = −𝛾∆𝑧 ∴ 𝜌：𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = −𝛾(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )

Bernoulli’s Equation, where 𝐻𝑙 : pipe losses; 𝑊 = 𝛾𝑄 = 𝛾𝐴𝑣 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴𝑣:weight flow rate

𝑃1 1 𝑊 2 𝑃2 1 𝑊 2
𝐸𝑡 = 𝑊ℎ1 + 𝑊 + 𝑣1 − 𝐻𝑙 = 𝑊ℎ2 + 𝑊 + 𝑣
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 2

[EL: Energy line, HGL: Hydraulic grade line]

Fig. Different forms of head in Bernoulli equation and its application on a HP system
Head: The difference in elevation between two water surfaces; normally measured in feet or meters.
Critical head: The hydraulic head at which the full-gate output of the turbine equals the generator
rated capacity (full-gate referring to the condition where the turbine wicket gates are wide open, thus
permitting maximum flow through the turbine). Below critical head, the full-gate turbine capability will
be less than the generator rated capacity. Above critical head, generated rated capacity can be obtained
at a discharge less than full-gate discharge. At many older plants, generators have a continuous overload
rating. At these plants, critical head is defined as the head at which full-gate output of the turbine equals
the generator overload capacity. In recent practice, the term critical head is used to refer only to
operating projects. For planning and design purposes, the term "rated head" is used to describe the
same head conditions.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 100
Design head is the head at which the turbine will operate to give the best overall efficiency under
various operating conditions.
Net head is the gross head, less all hydraulic losses except those chargeable to the turbine.
Rated head: Technically, the head at which a turbine at rated speed will deliver rated capacity at
specified gate and efficiency. However, for planning and design purposes, rated head is identical to
critical head.
Head, gross (H): The difference in elevation between the headwater surface above and the tailwater
surface below a hydroelectric powerplant, under specified conditions.
Head, net: Normally used in the context of head availability to the turbine. It is equal to the gross head
minus hydraulic losses in the waterways as the water passes from headwater to tailwater.
Head, operating: Difference in elevation between the water surface forebay and tailrace with
allowances for velocity heads.
Head, suction: The head that a pump must provide on inlet side to raise the liquid from the supply well
to the level of the pump.
Head losses: The various energy losses sustained as water flows from the headwater to the tailwater.
Head losses through the turbine are normally accounted for in the turbine efficiency.

3. MEASURING THE HEAD AND WATER FLOW

Head is water pressure for HPPs (conversely to pumps), created by the difference in elevation between
the intake of the pipeline and turbine. Head can be measured as vertical distance (m) or as pressure
((𝑁⁄𝑚2 ). Regardless of the size of the stream, higher head will produce greater pressure and therefore
higher output at the turbine.
An altimeter (altitude meter) can be useful in estimating head for preliminary site evaluation, but
should not be used for the final measurement. It is quite common for low-cost barometric altimeters to
reflect errors 46m or more, even when calibrated. GPS altimeters are often even less accurate.
Topographic maps can also be used to give you a very rough idea of the vertical drop along a section of a
stream’s course. But only two methods of head measurement are accurate enough for hydro system
design—direct height measurement and water pressure.

3.1 Direct Height Measurement

To measure head, you can use a laser level, a surveyor’s transit, a contractor’s level on a tripod, or a
sight level (“peashooter”). Direct measurement requires an assistant.
One method is to work downhill using a tall pole with graduated measurements. A measuring tape
affixed to a 6m section of PVC pipe works well. After each measurement, move the transit, or person
with the sight level, to where the pole was, and begin again by moving the pole further downhill toward
the generator site. Keep each transit or sight level setup exactly level, and make sure that the measuring
pole is vertical. Take detailed notes of each measurement and the height of the level. Then, add up the
series of measurements and subtract all of the level heights to find total head.
As illustrated below; the steps to do measurements are: (a) Subtract height of level from measurement
on stick to determine head for each leg; (b) Repeat multiple legs from intake location to turbine location;
and (c) add the head of each leg together to determine total head

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 101
 Fig. Measuring downhill
(a) Height of level is head for each leg (b) Repeat multiple legs from turbine location to intake location;
(c) Multiply the height of level times the number of legs to determine total head
Note: If the final leg is not an even increment, subtract the height of the sighting on the assistant from
the height level to determine the head of that leg.

Fig. Measuring uphill

3.2 Water Pressure Measurement
If the distance is short enough, you can use one or more garden hoses or lengths of flexible plastic
tubing to measure head. This method relies on the constant that each vertical 30.48 cm (foot) distance
of head creates 2985.4Pa/0.0298bar of water pressure from the formula:
h = 𝑝⁄𝜌𝑔 ⇔ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ℎ = 1𝑚; 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 1000 × 9.81 × 1 = 9810𝑏𝑎𝑟
By measuring the pressure at the bottom of the hose, you can calculate the elevation change.
Run the hose (or tubing) from your proposed intake site to your proposed turbine location. If you attach
multiple hoses together, make sure that each connection is tight and leak free. Attach an accurate

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 102
pressure gauge to the bottom end of the hose, and completely fill the hose with water. Make sure that
there are no high spots in the hose that could trap air. You can flush water through the hose before the
gauge is connected to force out any air bubbles.
If necessary, you can measure total head over longer distances by moving the hose and taking multiple
readings. Keep in mind, however, the chance for error significantly increases with a series of low-head
readings. Use the longest possible hose, along with a highly accurate pressure gauge.

3.3 Net head computation

Previous sections determine gross head, i.e. the true vertical distance from intake to turbine, and the
resulting pressure at the bottom. Net head, on the other hand, is the pressure at the bottom of your
pipeline when water is actually flowing to your turbine. This will always be less than the gross head you
measured, due to friction losses within the pipeline. Longer pipelines, smaller diameters, and higher
flows create greater friction. A properly designed pipeline will yield a net head of 85 to 90 percent of the
gross head you measured.
Net head is a far more useful measurement than gross head and, along with design flow, is used to
determine hydro system components and electrical output. Here are the basics of determining pipe size
and net head, but you should work with your turbine supplier to finalize your pipeline specifications.
Head loss refers to the loss of water power due to friction within the pipeline (also known as the
penstock). Although a given pipe diameter may be sufficient to carry all of the design flow, the sides,
joints, and bends of the pipe create drag as the water passes by, slowing it down. The effect is the same
as lowering the head—less water pressure at the turbine.
Head loss cannot be measured unless the water is flowing. A pressure gauge at the bottom of even the
smallest pipe will read full psi when the water is static in the pipe. But as the water flows, the friction
within the pipe reduces the velocity of the water coming out the bottom. Greater water flows increase
friction further.
Larger pipes create less friction, delivering more power to the turbine. But larger pipelines are also more
expensive, so there is invariably a trade-off between head loss and system cost. Size your pipe so that
not more than 10 to 15 percent of the gross (total) head is lost as pipeline friction. Higher losses may be
acceptable for high-head sites, but pipeline friction losses should be minimized for most low-head sites.
The length of your pipeline has a major influence on both the cost and efficiency of your system. The
measurement is easy, though. Simply run a tape measure between your intake and turbine locations,
following the route you’ll use on your pipeline. Remember that you want to run the pipeline up out of
the creek bed, when possible, to avoid damage during high water.

3.4 Water flow measurement

Stream levels change through the seasons, so it is important to measure flow at various times of the
year. Flow is typically expressed as volume per second or minute. Common examples are liters (gallons)
or cubic meters (cubic feet), per second or minute. Three popular methods are used for measuring
flow—container, float, and weir.
3.4.1 Container Fill Method: The container fill method is the most common method for determining flow
in micro-hydro systems. Find a location along the stream where all the water can be caught in a bucket.
If such a pot doesn’t exist, build a temporary dam that forces all of the water to flow through a single

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 103
outlet. Using a bucket or larger container of a known volume, use a stopwatch to time how long it takes
to fill the container. Then divide the container size by the number of seconds.
3.4.2 Float Method: The float method is useful for large streams if you can locate a section about 3m
long where the stream is fairly consistent in width and depth.
Step1. Measure the average depth of the stream. Select a board able to span the width of the stream
and mark it at 0.3m (1foot) intervals. Lay the board across the stream, and measure the stream depth a
teach 0.3m interval. To compute the average depth, add all of your measurements together and divide
by the number of measurements you made.
Step2: Compute the area of the cross-section ou just measured by multiplying the average depth you
just computed by the width of the stream. For example, a 1.8m (6foot)-wide stream with an average
depth of 0.45m (1.5 feet) would yield a cross-sectional area of 0.81m2 (9 square feet).
Step 3: Measure the speed. A good way to measure speed is to mark off a 3m (10-foot) length of the
stream that includes the point where you measured the cross-section. Remember, you only want to
know the speed of the water where you measured the cross-section, so the shorter the length of stream
you measure, the better.
Use a weighted float that can be clearly seen—an orange or grapefruit works well. Place it well
upstream of your measurement area, and use a stopwatch to time how long it takes to travel the length
of your measurement section. The stream speed probably varies across its width, so record the times for
various locations and average them.

Fig. The float method of estimating flow

3.4.3 Weir Method: A weir is perhaps the most accurate way to measure small- and medium-sized
streams. All the water is directed through an area that is exactly rectangular, making it very easy to
measure the height and width of the water to compute flow.
This kind of weir is a temporary dam with a rectangular slot, or gate. The bottom of the gate should be
exactly level, and the width of the gate should allow all the water to pass through without spilling over
the top of the dam. A narrower gate will increase the depth of the water as it passes through, making it
easier to measure.
The depth measurement is not taken at the gate itself because the water depth distorts as it moves
through the gate. Instead, insert a stake well upstream of the weir gate and make the top of the stake
exactly level with the bottom of the weir gate. Measure the depth of the water from the top of the stake.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 104
Once the width and depth of the water are known, a weir table is used to compute the flow. The weir
table is based on a gate that has a certain width.

The table-used empirical formula for rectangular contracted weirs, i.e. the
ditch or canal leading up to the weir is wider than the weir opening itself, is
0.566𝐿1.9
𝑄 = 3.247 × 𝐿 × 𝐻1.48 − × 𝐻1.9
1 + 2𝐿1.87
Where, Q: Flow rate, L: Bottom width of the weir, H: Height of the upstream
water above the weir crest.

Simply multiply the table amount by the width of your gate. The water before the weir should be held in
a relatively calm and smooth pool. There should be air (not trapped) underneath the water leaving the
weir. A weir is especially effective for measuring flow during different times of the year. Once the weir is
in place, it is easy to quickly measure the depth of the water and chart the flow at various times.

Fig. The weir method of measuring flow

The Gibson method
The pressure-time method, better known as the Gibson method, is a method to determine the flow rate
in a conduit with governed equipment installed. Normally, the initial flow rate is determined based on
the pressure difference between two cross sections upstream closing equipment, in this case a governed
turbine. The concept is that when the flow is retarded, a pressure-rise is induced in front of the closing
turbine. Newton’s 2nd law is applied to a fluid control volume where forces acting on the control
volume are considered. The derivation of the method gives the final result.
𝑡
𝑔𝐴
∆Q = Q − 𝑄0 = ∫(∆ℎ − ∆ℎ𝑓 )𝑑𝑡
𝐿
𝑡0
The common procedure using the Gibson method is to operate the turbine at a constant operational
point before the guide vanes are closed completely in a short period of time. The pressure difference is
recorded for the full closing time. Both the pressure and the head loss is a function of time, but the head
loss is more difficult to measure and must therefore be approximated. The initial head loss at the initial
flow rate may be determined by considering the equilibrium level of the pressure before and after the

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 105
closure. The head loss is then approximated by an iteration process for all t by an approximated formula
using the flowrate in the previous time step.
With the net head and flow measurements; one can determine the power output of a stream engine.
Higher head and flow bring out more power; however a right selection of the turbine is critical stage of
the design process sand will determine the output capacity.
How Power is computed
Before a hydroelectric power site is developed, engineers compute how much power can be produced
when the facility is complete. The actual output of energy at a dam is determined by the volume of
water released (discharge) and the vertical distance the water falls (head). The head and the discharge
at the power site and the desired rotational speed of the generator determine the type of turbine to be
used.
The head produces a pressure (water pressure), and the greater the head, the greater the pressure to
drive turbines. More head or faster flowing water means more power.
To find the theoretical horsepower (the measure of mechanical energy) from a specific site, this formula
is used:
𝑇𝐻𝑃 = (𝑄 × 𝐻)⁄8.8 ∴ 𝑄: 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻: ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 8.8: 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑝𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
A more complicated formula is used to refine the calculations of this available power. The formula takes
into account losses in the amount of head due to friction in the penstock and other variations due to the
efficiency levels of mechanical devices used to harness the power.
To find how much electrical power we can expect, we must convert the mechanical measure
(horsepower) into electrical terms (watts). One horsepower is equal to 746 watts.
Introduction:
The device which converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy or vice versa is known as Hydraulic
Machines. The hydraulic machines which convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy are known as
Turbines and that convert mechanical energy into hydraulic energy is known as Pumps.

Fig. A general layout of a hydroelectric plant.

It consists of the following:
1. A Dam constructed across a river or a channel to store water. The reservoir is also known as Headrace.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 106
2. Pipes of large diameter called Penstocks which carry water under pressure from storage reservoir to
the turbines. These pipes are usually made of steel or reinforced concrete.

Fig.: Ohakuri dam blue penstock

3. Turbines having different types of vanes or buckets or blades mounted on a wheel called runner.
4. Tailrace which is the channel carrying water away from the turbine after the water has worked on the
turbines. The water surface in the tailrace is also referred to as tailrace.
Important Terms:
Gross Head (Hg): It is the vertical difference between headrace and tailrace.
Net Head: (H): Net head or effective head is the actual head available at the inlet of the turbine to work
on the turbine.

Surge tank reduces pressure spikes

Gross head: 𝐻𝐺 = 𝑍𝑅 − 𝑍𝑁
𝑯 = 𝑯𝒈 − 𝒉𝑳
∴ ℎ𝐿 : The total head loss during the transit of water from the
headrace to tailrace which is mainly head loss due to friction,
and is given by
4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝑓 =
2𝑔𝐷

Fig. Pelton turbine hydroelectric scheme.

Where f is the coefficient of friction of penstock depending on the type of material of penstock; L is the
total length of penstock; V is the mean flow velocity of water through the penstock; D is the diameter of
penstock and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 107
 THEORY OF FLUID MARCHINERY
A fluid machine is a device which converts the energy stored by a fluid into mechanical energy or work.
A reaction turbine is a horizontal or vertical wheel that operates with the wheel completely submerged;
a feature which reduces turbulence. In theory, the reaction turbine works like a rotating lawn sprinkler
where water at a central point is under pressure and escapes from the ends of the blades, causing
rotation. Reaction turbines are the type most widely used.
While there are only two types of turbines (impulse and reaction), there are many variations. The
specific type of turbine to be used in a powerplant is not selected until all operational studies and cost
estimates are complete. The turbine selected depends largely on the site conditions.
In theory, the reaction turbine works like a rotating lawn sprinkler where water at a central point is
under pressure and escapes from the ends of the blades, causing rotation. Reaction turbines are the
type most widely used.

Fig. Cutaway of reaction and impulse turbine

An impulse turbine is a horizontal or vertical wheel that uses the kinetic energy of water striking its
buckets or blades to cause rotation. The wheel is covered by a housing and the buckets or blades are
shaped so they turn the flow of water about 170 degrees inside the housing. After turning the blades or
buckets, the water falls to the bottom of the wheel housing and flows out.
Main types of Hydraulic Turbines
The hydraulic turbines can be classified based on type of energy at the inlet, direction of flow through
the vanes, head available at the inlet, discharge through the vanes and specific speed. They can be
arranged as per the following table:
Turbine Type of Head Discharge Direction Specific speed
Name Type energy of flow
Pelton Impulse KineticHigh head > Low Tangential Low <35 single jet
wheel 250m to 1000m to runner 35-60 multiple jet
Francis Medium 60m to Medium Radial flow Medium 60 to
Turbine Reaction Kinetic + 150m Mixed flow 300
Kaplan Turbine Pressure Low < 30m High Axial flow High 300 to 1000
Turbine

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 108
 Fig. Hydraulic turbines’ classifications and respective head-discharge ranges of operation

Fig. Application of turbines of different kind

1. Pelton wheel turbines
Pelton wheel, named after an eminent engineer (Lester Allan Pelton September 5, 1829 – March 14,
1908), is an impulse turbine wherein the flow is tangential to the runner and the available energy at the
entrance is completely kinetic energy. Further, it is preferred at a very high head and low discharges
with low specific speeds. The pressure available at the inlet and the outlet is atmospheric.
Components of a pelton turbine
The main components of a Pelton turbine are:
(i) Nozzle and flow regulating arrangement:

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 109
Water is brought to the hydroelectric plant site through large penstocks at the end of which there will
be a nozzle, which converts the pressure energy completely into kinetic energy. This will convert the
liquid flow into a high-speed jet, which strikes the buckets or vanes mounted on the runner, which in-
turn rotates the runner of the turbine.

Fig. A real and portrayed view of the Pelton turbine

The amount of water striking the vanes is controlled by the

forward and backward motion of the spear.
As the water is flowing in the annular area between the
nozzle opening and the spear, the flow gets reduced as the
spear moves forward and vice-versa.

Fig. Needle valve or spear to regulate the amount of water striking vanes: The water jet has to reduce and increase as
the spear is brought forward and backward.

(ii) Runner with buckets:

Runner is a circular disk mounted on a shaft on the periphery of which a number of buckets are fixed
equally spaced.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 110
 Fig. Schematic and pictorial panorama of a runner and buckets
The buckets are made of cast -iron cast -steel, bronze or stainless steel depending upon the head at the
inlet of the turbine. The water jet strikes the bucket on the splitter of the bucket and gets deflected
through (𝛼) 1600 – 1700.
(iii) Casing:
It is made of cast -iron or fabricated steel plates. The main function of the casing is to prevent splashing
of water and to discharge the water into tailrace.
(iv) Breaking jet:
Even after the amount of water striking the buckets is completely stopped, the runner goes on rotating
for a very long time due to inertia. To stop the runner in a short time, a small nozzle is provided which
directs the jet of water on the back of bucket with which the rotation of the runner is reversed. This jet
is called as breaking jet.

Fig.: 3 D Picture of a jet striking the splitter and getting split in to two parts and deviating.

From the impulse-momentum theorem, the force with which the jet
strikes the bucket along the direction of vane is given by
𝐹𝑥 = Rate of change of momentum of the jet along the direction of vane
motion = (Mass of water / second) x change in velocity along the x
direction
⟺ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑊1 − (−𝑉𝑊2 )] = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑊1 + 𝑉𝑊2 ]
Work done per second by the jet on the vane is given by the product of
Force exerted on the vane and the distance moved by the vane in one
second
𝑊𝐷⁄𝑠 = 𝐹𝑥 × 𝑢 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑊1 + 𝑉𝑊2 ]𝑢
Fig.: Velocity triangles for the jet impinging on to a bucket and the relative and absolute velocities of the flow (only one-half of
the emergent velocity diagram is shown)
1
Input to the jet per second = Kinetic energy of the jet per second = 2 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 3

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 111
 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
Efficiency of the jet = =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑊1 + 𝑉𝑊2 ]𝑢 2𝑢[𝑉𝑊1 + 𝑉𝑊2 ]
⟺𝜂= =
1 3 𝑉1 2
2 𝜌𝑎𝑉1
From inlet velocity triangle, 𝑉𝑊1 = 𝑉1 and assuming no shock and ignoring frictional losses through the
vane, we have
𝑉𝑟1 = 𝑉𝑟2 = (𝑉1 − 𝑢1 )
In case of Pelton wheel, the inlet and outlet are located at the same radial distance from the centre of
runner and hence 𝑢1 = 𝑢2 = 𝑢
From outlet velocity triangle, we have 𝑉𝑤2 = 𝑉𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 − 𝑢2 = (𝑉1 − 𝑢)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 − 𝑢
⟺ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑊1 + 𝑉𝑊2 ] = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉1 + (𝑉1 − 𝑢)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 − 𝑢] = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 (𝑉1 − 𝑢)[1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙]
Substituting these values in the above equation for efficiency, we have
2𝑢[𝑉𝑊1 + 𝑉𝑊2 ] 2𝑢[𝑉1 + (𝑉1 − 𝑢)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 − 𝑢] 2𝑢
⟺𝜂= = = 2 (𝑉1 − 𝑢)[1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙]
𝑉1 2 𝑉1 2 𝑉1
The above equation gives the efficiency of the jet striking the vane in case of Pelton wheel.
To obtain the maximum efficiency for a given jet velocity and vane angle, from maxima-minima, we have
𝑑𝜂 2 𝑑
= 0 ⟺ 2 [1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙] (𝑢𝑉1 − 𝑢2 ) = 0
𝑑𝑢 𝑉1 𝑑𝑢
𝑉1
⟹ 𝑉1 − 2𝑢 = 0 ⇔ 𝑢 =
2
i.e. When the bucket speed is maintained at half the velocity of the jet, the efficiency of a Pelton wheel
will be maximum. Substituting we get,
2𝑢 1
𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2
(2𝑢 − 𝑢)[1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙] = [1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙]
(2𝑢) 2
From the above it can be seen that more the value of 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙, more will be the efficiency. Form maximum
efficiency, the value of 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 should be 1and the value of 𝜙 should be 00. This condition makes the jet to
completely deviate by 1800 and this, forces the jet striking the bucket to strike the successive bucket on
the back of it acting like a breaking jet. Hence to avoid this situation, at least a small angle of 𝜙 = 50
should be provided.

Worked examples
1. The head at the base of the nozzle of a Pelton wheel is 640m. The outlet vane angle of the bucket is
150. The relative velocity at the outlet is reduced by 15% due to friction along the vanes. If the discharge
at outlet is without whirl find the ratio of bucket speed to the jet speed. If the jet diameter is 100mm
while the wheel diameter is 1.2m, find the speed of the turbine in rpm, the force exerted by the jet on
the wheel, the Power developed and the hydraulic efficiency. Take Cv=0.97.
Soln.: H = 640m; =150; 𝑉𝑟1 = 0.85𝑉𝑟2; 𝑉𝑤2 = 0, d = 100mm, D = 1.2m; Cv=0.97; Ku = ?; N = ?; Fx =?; P = ?;
𝜂ℎ =?
Absolute velocity of the jet: 𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔ℎ = 0.97√2 × 10 × 640 = 109.74 𝑚⁄𝑠

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 112
 Let the bucket speed be u; Relative velocity at inlet =
𝑉𝑟1 = 𝑉1 − 𝑢1 = 109.74 − 𝑢
Relative velocity at outlet: 𝑉𝑟2 = (1 − 0.15)𝑉𝑟1 =
0.85(109.74 − 𝑢)
But; 𝑢 = 𝑉𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = 0.85(109.74 − 𝑢)𝑐𝑜𝑠15
⟺ 𝑢 = 49.48 𝑚⁄𝑠
𝜋𝐷𝑁 60𝑢 60 × 49.48
𝑢= ⟺𝑁= = = 𝟕𝟖𝟕. 𝟓𝒓𝒑𝒎
60 𝜋𝐷 𝜋 × 1.2

𝑢 49.48
Jet ratio: K u = = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓
𝑉 109.74
𝜋
Weight of water supplied = 𝑄 × 𝛾 = (1000 × 4 × 0.12 × 109.742 ) × 10 = 8.62 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑠
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑊1 + 𝑉𝑊2 ] ∴ 𝑉𝑊1 = 𝑉1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑊2 = 0
𝜋
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 2 = 1000 × × 0.12 × (109.74)2 = 𝟗𝟒. 𝟓𝟖𝒌𝑵
4
𝑃 = 𝑊𝐷⁄𝑠 = 𝐹𝑥 × 𝑢 = 94.58 × 49.48 = 𝟒𝟔𝟕𝟗. 𝟖𝟐 𝒌𝑵⁄𝒔
Kinetic energy of the jet per second (KE/s)
1 1 𝜋
= 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 3 = × 1000 × × 0.12 × 109.743 = 5189.85 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑠
2 2 4
𝑊𝐷⁄𝑠 4679.82
Hydraulic Efficiency = 𝜂ℎ = 𝐾𝐸⁄𝑠 = 5189.85 × 100 = 𝟗𝟎. 𝟏𝟕%

2. A PELTON wheel turbine is having a mean runner diameter of 1.0m and is running at 1000rpm. The
net head is 100.0m. If the side clearance is 20° and discharge is 0.1 m3/s, find the power available at the
nozzle and hydraulic efficiency of the turbine. Assume Cv = 0.98
Soln.:
D = 1.0 m; N = 1000 rpm; H = 100.0 m; 𝜙 = 200; Q = 0.1 m3 /s; WD/s = ? and 𝜂ℎ =? Cv = 0.98
Absolute velocity of the jet is given by
𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻 = 0.98√2 × 10 × 100 = 43.83 𝑚⁄𝑠
𝜋𝐷𝑁 𝜋×1×1000
The absolute velocity of the vane is given by 𝑢 = 60
⟺ 60
= 52.36 𝑚⁄𝑠
This situation is impracticable and hence the data has to be modified. Clearly state the assumption as
follows:
Assume H = 700 m (Because it is assumed that the typing and seeing error as 100 for 700)
𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻 = 0.98√2 × 10 × 700 = 115.96 𝑚⁄𝑠

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 113
 Power available at the nozzle is the given by work done per
second WD/second
= 𝛾𝑄𝐻 = 𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻 = 1000 × 10 × 0.1 × 700 = 700𝑘𝑊
Hydraulic Efficiency is given by
2𝑢
𝜂ℎ = 2 (𝑉1 − 𝑢)[1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙]
𝑉1
2 × 52.36
= (115.96 − 52.36)[1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠20] = 96.07%
115.962

3. A Pelton wheel has a mean bucket speed of 10 m/s with a jet of water flowing at the rate of 700 lps
under a head of 30 m. The buckets deflect the jet through an angle of 160°. Calculate the power given by
water to the runner and the hydraulic efficiency of the turbine. Assume the coefficient of nozzle as 0.98.
Soln.: u = 10 m/s; Q = 0.7 m3/s; 𝜙 = 180-160 = 200; H = 30m; Cv = 0.98; WD/s = ? and 𝜂ℎ =? Assume g =
10m/s2

𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻 = 0.98√2 × 10 × 30 = 24 𝑚⁄𝑠

𝑉𝑟1 = 𝑉1 − 𝑢1 = 24 − 10 = 14 𝑚⁄𝑠
Assuming no shock and frictional losses we have 𝑉𝑟1 = 𝑉𝑟2 =
14 𝑚⁄𝑠
𝑉𝑤2 = 𝑉𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 − 𝑢 = 14 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠20 − 10 = 3.16 𝑚⁄𝑠
Work done by the jet on the vane is given by
𝑊𝐷⁄𝑠 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑊1 + 𝑉𝑊2 ]𝑢 = 𝜌𝑄𝑢[𝑉𝑊1 + 𝑉𝑊2 ] ∴ 𝑄 = 𝑎𝑉1
⟹ 𝑊𝐷⁄𝑠 = 1000 × 0.7 × 10[24 + 3.16] = 190.12 𝑘𝑁 − 𝑚⁄𝑠
1 1 1
𝐼𝑃⁄𝑠 = 𝐾𝐸 ⁄𝑠 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 3 = 𝜌𝑄𝑉1 2 = × 1000 × 0.7 × 242
2 2 2
= 201.6 𝑘𝑁 − 𝑚⁄𝑠

Hydraulic Efficiency = Output/ Input = 190.12/201.6 = 94.305%

It can also be directly calculated by the derived equation as
2𝑢 2 × 10
𝜂ℎ = 2 (𝑉1 − 𝑢)[1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙] = (24 − 10)[1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠20] = 94.29%
𝑉1 242
4. A Pelton wheel has to develop 13230kW under a net head of 800m while running at a speed of
600rpm. If the coefficient of Jet Cy = 0.97, speed ratio = 0.46 and the ratio of the Jet diameter is 1 /16
of wheel diameter. Calculate: i) Pitch circle diameter; ii) the diameter of jet; iii) the quantity of water
supplied to the wheel and iv) The number of Jets required. Assume overall efficiency as 85%.
Soln.: P = 13239kW; H = 800m; N = 600rpm; Cv = 0.97; = 0.46 (Speed ratio); d/D = 1/16; ηo = 0.85; D =?
d =? n =? Assume g = 10 m/s2 and ρ = 1000 kg/m3
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃 13239
𝜂𝑜 = = = = 0.85 ⟺ 𝑄 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟒𝟕 𝒎𝟑 ⁄𝒔
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝛾𝑄𝐻 10 × 1000 × 𝑄 × 800
Absolute velocity of jet is given by
𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻 = 0.97√2 × 10 × 800 = 122.696 𝑚⁄𝑠

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 114
Absolute velocity of vane is given by

𝑢 = ∅√2𝑔𝐻 = 0.46√2 × 10 × 800 = 58.186 𝑚⁄𝑠

The absolute velocity of vane is also given by
𝜋𝐷𝑁 60𝑢 60 × 58.186
𝑢= ⟺𝐷= = = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟓𝒎
60 𝜋𝑁 𝜋 × 600
1.85
𝑑=
= 𝟏𝟏𝟓. 𝟔𝟐𝟓𝒎𝒎
16
𝜋 𝜋
Discharge per jet = 𝑞 = 4 𝑑2 × 𝑉 2 = 4 0.1156252 × 122.6962 = 1.288 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠
𝑄 1.947
No. of jets = 𝑛 = = ≈𝟐
𝑞 1.288
5. Design a Pelton wheel for a head of 80m and speed of 300rpm. The Pelton wheel develops 110kW.
Take co-efficient of velocity= 0.98, speed ratio= 0.48 and overall efficiency = 80%.
Soln.: H = 80m; N = 300rpm; P = 110kW; Cv = 0.98, Ku=0.48; 𝜂𝑜 = 0.80. Assume g = 10 m/s2 and ρ = 1000
kg/m3
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃 110 × 103
𝜂𝑜 = = = = 0.8 ⟺ 𝑄 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟓 𝒎𝟑 ⁄𝒔
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝛾𝑄𝐻 10 × 1000 × 𝑄 × 80
Absolute velocity of jet is given by
𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻 = 0.98√2 × 10 × 80 = 39.2 𝑚⁄𝑠
Absolute velocity of vane is given by

𝑢 = ∅√2𝑔𝐻 = 0.48√2 × 10 × 80 = 19.2 𝑚⁄𝑠

The absolute velocity of vane is also given by
𝜋𝐷𝑁 60𝑢 60 × 19.2
𝑢= ⟺𝐷= = = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝒎
60 𝜋𝑁 𝜋 × 300

Single jet Pelton turbine is assumed. The diameter of jet is given by the discharge continuity equation
𝜋 𝜋
𝑞 = 𝑑2 × 𝑉 = 𝑑2 × 39.22 = 0.171875 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠 ⟺ 𝑑 = 74.7𝑚𝑚
4 4
The design parameters are: Single jet, Pitch Diameter = 1.22 m, Jet diameter = 74.7 mm
𝐷 1.22
Jet Ratio = 𝑚 = = = 16.32, No. of Buckets = 0.5 × 𝑚 + 15 = 24
𝑑 0.0747
6. It is desired to generate 1000kW of power and survey reveals that 450m of static head and a
minimum flow of 0.3m3/s are available. Comment whether the task can be accomplished by installing a
Pelton wheel run at 1000rpm and having an overall efficiency of 80%. Further, design the Pelton wheel
assuming suitable data for coefficient of velocity and coefficient of drag.
Soln.: P = 1000kW; H = 450m; Q = 0.3m3 /s; N = 1000rpm; ηo = 0.8 Assume g = 10 m/s2 and ρ = 1000
kg/m3
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃 1000 × 103
𝜂𝑜 = = = = 0.74
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝛾𝑄𝐻 10 × 1000 × 0.3 × 450
For the given conditions of P, Q and H, it is not possible to achieve the desired efficiency of 80%.
To decide whether the task can be accomplished by a pelton turbine compute the specific speed 𝑁𝑠

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 115
 𝑁√𝑃 1000√1000
𝑁𝑠 =
5 = 5 = 15.25 < 35
𝐻 ⁄4 450 ⁄4
Hence the installation of single jet Pelton wheel is justified. Absolute velocity of jet is given by
𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻 = 0.98√2 × 10 × 450 = 92.97 𝑚⁄𝑠
Absolute velocity of vane is given by

𝑢 = ∅√2𝑔𝐻 = 0.48√2 × 10 × 80 = 19.2 𝑚⁄𝑠

The absolute velocity of vane is also given by
𝜋𝐷𝑁 60𝑢 60 × 19.2
𝑢= ⟺𝐷= = = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝒎
60 𝜋𝑁 𝜋 × 300

Single jet Pelton turbine is assumed. The diameter of jet is given by the discharge continuity equation
𝜋 𝜋
𝑞 = 𝑑2 × 𝑉 = 𝑑2 × 39.22 = 0.171875 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠 ⟺ 𝑑 = 74.7𝑚𝑚
4 4
The design parameters are: Single jet, Pitch Diameter = 1.22 m, Jet diameter = 74.7 mm
𝐷 1.22
Jet Ratio = 𝑚 = = = 16.32, No. of Buckets = 0.5 × 𝑚 + 15 = 24
𝑑 0.0747

Self assessment exercises

1. A double jet Pelton wheel develops 895MKW with an overall efficiency of 82% under a head of 60m.
The speed ratio = 0.46, jet ratio = 12 and the nozzle coefficient = 0.97. Find the jet diameter, wheel
diameter and wheel speed in RPM.
Answers: d=0.186m, D = 2.232 m, N=136rpm

2. The following data is related to a Pelton wheel: Head at the base of the nozzle = 80m; Diameter of the
jet = 100mm; Discharge of the nozzle = 0.3m3 /s; Power at the shaft = 206kW; Power absorbed in
mechanical resistance = 4.5kW. Determine (i) Power lost in the nozzle and (ii) Power lost due to
hydraulic resistance in the runner.
Answers: Power lost in the nozzle = 21.15kW; Power lost in the runner = 5.35 kW

3. The water available for a Pelton wheel is 4m3/s and the total head from reservoir to the nozzle is 250
m. The turbine has two runners with two jets per runner. All the four jets have the same diameters. The
pipeline is 3000 m long. The efficiency if power transmission through the pipeline and the nozzle is 91%
and efficiency of each runner is 90%. The velocity coefficient of each nozzle is 0.975 and coefficient of
friction 4f for the pipe is 0.0045. Determine: (i) The power developed by the turbine; (ii) The diameter of
the jet and (iii) The diameter of the pipeline.
Answers: P= 7786.25 kW, d = 0.14 m, D = 0.956 m

4. The three jet Pelton wheel is required to generate 10,000kW under a net head of 400m. The blade at
outlet is 150 and the reduction in the relative velocity while passing over the blade is 5%. If the overall
efficiency of the wheel is 80%, Cv = 0.98 and the speed ratio = 0.46, then find: (i) the diameter of the jet,
(ii) total flow (iii) the force exerted by a jet on the buckets (iv) The speed of the runner.
Answers: Q = 3.125 m3/s, d = 123 mm, N= 638.8 rpm
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 116
Tutorials
1. Sketch the layout of a PELTON wheel turbine showing the details of nozzle, buckets and wheel
when the turbine axis is horizontal?
2. Obtain an expression for maximum - efficiency of an impulse turbine?
3. With a neat sketch explain the layout of a hydro-electric plant?
4. With a neat sketch explain the parts of an Impulse turbine?
5. What is specific speed of turbine and state its significance?
6. Draw a neat sketch of a hydroelectric plant and mention the function of each component?
7. Classify the turbines based on head, specific speed and hydraulic actions. Give examples for
each?
8. What is meant by Governing of turbines? Explain with a neat sketch the governing of an impulse
turbine?
9. Explain the classification of turbines?

2. Francis turbines
Reaction Turbine: The principal feature of a reaction turbine that distinguishes it from an impulse
turbine is that only a part of the total head available at the inlet to the turbine is converted to velocity
head, before the runner is reached. Also in the reaction turbines the working fluid, instead of engaging
only one or two blades, completely fills the passages in the runner. The pressure or static head of the
fluid changes gradually as it passes through the runner along with the change in its kinetic energy based
on absolute velocity due to the impulse action between the fluid and the runner. Therefore the cross-
sectional area of flow through the passages of the fluid. A reaction turbine is usually well suited for low
heads. A radial flow hydraulic turbine of reaction type was first developed by an American Engineer,
James Bicheno Francis (May 18, 1815 –September 18, 1892) and is named after him as the Francis
turbine. The schematic diagram of a Francis turbine is shown in Fig.

Fig. Francis runner

Figure right, the Three Gorges Project, including a 2,309-meter-long, 185-meter-high dam with 26 power
generators, has been built on the middle reaches of the Yangtze, China's longest river. The project
power output is 22500 MW, Water from upstream flows into the reservoir at a rate of 13,200 cubic m/s.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 117
 Fig. Francis turbine components and vertical section of vanes’ radial, runner’s mixed and draft tube’s axial flow
Spiral Casing: Most of these machines have vertical shafts although some smaller machines of this type
have horizontal shaft. The fluid enters from the penstock (pipeline leading to the turbine from the
reservoir at high altitude) to a spiral casing which completely surrounds the runner. This casing is known
as scroll casing or volute. The cross-sectional area of this casing decreases uniformly along the
circumference to keep the fluid velocity constant in magnitude along its path towards the guide vane.

Fig. Spiral Casing and its Assembly with the draft tube
This is so because the rate of flow along the fluid path in the volute decreases due to continuous entry
of the fluid to the runner through the openings of the guide vanes or stay vanes.

Guide or Stay vane

The basic purpose of the guide vanes or stay vanes is to convert a part of pressure energy of the fluid at
its entrance to the kinetic energy and then to direct the fluid on to the runner blades at the angle

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 118
appropriate to the design. Moreover, the guide vanes are pivoted and can be turned by a suitable
governing mechanism to regulate the flow while the load changes. The guide vanes are also known as
wicket gates. The guide vanes impart a tangential velocity and hence an angular momentum to the
water before its entry to the runner. The flow in the runner of a Francis turbine is not purely radial but a
combination of radial and tangential. The flow is inward, i.e. from the periphery towards the center. The
height of the runner depends upon the specific speed. The height increases with the increase in the
specific speed. The main direction of flow change as water passes through the runner and is finally
turned into the axial direction while entering the draft tube.

Draft tube
The draft tube is a conduit which connects the runner exit to the tail race where the water is being
finally discharged from the turbine. The primary function of the draft tube is to reduce the velocity of the
discharged water to minimize the loss of kinetic energy at the outlet. This permits the turbine to be set
above the tail water without any appreciable drop of available head.

The shape of draft tube plays an important role especially for high specific speed turbines, since the
efficient recovery of kinetic energy at runner outlet depends mainly on it. Typical draft tubes, employed
in practice, are discussed as follows.

Straight divergent tube [Fig. 30.4(a)] The shape of this tube is that of frustum of a cone. It is usually
employed for low specific speed, vertical shaft Francis turbine. The cone angle is restricted to 8 0 to
avoid the losses due to separation. The tube must discharge sufficiently low under tail water level. The
maximum efficiency of this type of draft tube is 90%. This type of draft tube improves speed regulation
of falling load.

Simple elbow type (Fig. 30.4b) The vertical length of the draft tube should be made small in order to
keep down the cost of excavation, particularly in rock. The exit diameter of draft tube should be as large
as possible to recover kinetic energy at runner's outlet. The cone angle of the tube is again fixed from
the consideration of losses due to flow separation. Therefore, the draft tube must be bent to keep its
definite length. Simple elbow type draft tube will serve such a purpose. Its efficiency is, however,
low(about 60%). This type of draft tube turns the water from the vertical to the horizontal direction with
a minimum depth of excavation. Sometimes, the transition from a circular section in the vertical portion
to a rectangular section in the horizontal part (Fig. 30.4c) is incorporated in the design to have a higher
efficiency of the draft tube. The horizontal portion of the draft tube is generally inclined upwards to lead
the water gradually to the level of the tail race and to prevent entry of air from the exit end.

Fig. Different types of draft tubes

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 119
A clear understanding of the function of the draft tube in any reaction turbine, in fact, is very important
for the purpose of its design. The purpose of providing a draft tube will be better understood if we
carefully study the net available head across a reaction turbine.

Net head across a reaction turbine and the purpose to providing a draft tube: The effective head across
any turbine is the difference between the head at inlet to the machine and the head at outlet from it. A
reaction turbine always runs completely filled with the working fluid. The tube that connects the end of
the runner to the tail race is known as a draft tube and should be completely filled with the working fluid
flowing through it. The kinetic energy of the fluid finally discharged into the tail race is wasted. A draft
tube is made divergent so as to reduce the velocity at outlet to a minimum. Therefore a draft tube is
basically a diffuser and should be designed properly with the angle between the walls of the tube to be
limited to about 8 degree so as to prevent the flow separation from the wall and to reduce accordingly
the loss of energy in the tube.

The total head H1 at the entrance to the turbine can be found out by applying the Bernoulli's equation
between the free surface of the reservoir and the inlet to the turbine as
𝑝1 𝑣12 𝑝1 𝑣12
𝐻0 = + + 𝑧 + ℎ𝑓 (∗) 𝑜𝑟 𝐻1 = 𝐻0 − ℎ𝑓 = + +𝑧
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

where ℎ𝑓 is the head lost due to friction in the pipeline connecting the reservoir and the turbine. Since
the draft tube is a part of the turbine, the net head across the turbine, for the conversion of mechanical
work, is the difference of total head at inlet to the machine and the total head at discharge from the
draft tube at tail race and is shown as H in Fig.

Fig. Head across a reaction turbine

Therefore, H = total head at inlet to machine (1) - total head at discharge (3)
𝑝1 𝑣12 𝑣32 𝑣32 𝑣32
+ +𝑧− = 𝐻1 − = 𝐻0 − ℎ𝑓 −
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔
The pressures are defined in terms of their values above the atmospheric pressure. Section 2 and 3 in
Figure represent the exits from the runner and the draft tube respectively. If the losses in the draft tube
are neglected, then the total head at 2 becomes equal to that at 3. Therefore, the net head across the
machine is either (𝐻1 − 𝐻3 ) or (𝐻1 − 𝐻2 ). Applying the Bernoulli's equation between 2 and 3 in
consideration of flow, without losses, through the draft tube:

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 120
 𝑝2 𝑣22 𝑣32 𝑝2 𝑣22 − 𝑣32
+ +𝑧 =0+ +0 ⟹ = − [𝑧 + ]
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

Since 𝑣3 < 𝑣2 , both the terms in the bracket are positive and hence 𝑝2 ⁄𝜌𝑔 is always negative, which
implies that the static pressure at the outlet of the runner is always below the atmospheric pressure.
Equation (*) also shows that the value of the suction pressure at runner outlet depends on z, the height
of the runner above the tail race and(𝑣22 − 𝑣32 )⁄2𝑔 the decrease in kinetic energy of the fluid in the
draft tube. The value of this minimum pressure 𝑝2 should never fall below the vapour pressure of the
liquid at its operating temperature to avoid the problem of cavitation. Therefore, we find that the
incorporation of a draft tube allows the turbine runner to be set above the tail race without any drop of
available head by maintaining a vacuum pressure at the outlet of the runner.

Runner of the Francis Turbine

The shape of the blades of a Francis runner is complex. The exact shape depends on its specific speed.

Fig. Typical geometries of Francis turbine runner as function of the specific speed ν

It is obvious from the equation of specific speed that higher specific speed means lower head. This
requires that the runner should admit a comparatively large quantity of water for a given power output
and at the same time the velocity of discharge at runner outlet should be small to avoid cavitation. In a
purely radial flow runner, as developed by James B. Francis, the bulk flow is in the radial direction. To be
clearer, the flow is tangential and radial at the inlet but is entirely radial with a negligible tangential
component at the outlet. The flow, under the situation, has to make a 90o turn after passing through the
rotor for its inlet to the draft tube. Since the flow area (area perpendicular to the radial direction) is
small, there is a limit to the capacity of this type of runner in keeping a low exit velocity. This leads to

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 121
the design of a mixed flow runner where water is turned from a radial to an axial direction in the rotor
itself. At the outlet of this type of runner, the flow is mostly axial with negligible radial and tangential
components. Because of a large discharge area (area perpendicular to the axial direction), this type of
runner can pass a large amount of water with a low exit velocity from the runner.

The blades for a reaction turbine are always so shaped that the tangential or whirling component of
velocity at the outlet becomes zero (𝑉𝑤 2 = 0). This is made to keep the kinetic energy at outlet a
minimum. Usually the flow velocity (velocity perpendicular to the tangential direction) remains constant
throughout, i.e. 𝑉𝑓1 = 𝑉𝑓2and is equal to that at the inlet to the draft tube.
The Euler's equation for turbine in this case reduces to 𝐸 ⁄𝑚 = 𝑒 = 𝑉𝑤 1 𝑈1 . Where, e is the energy
transfer to the rotor per unit mass of the fluid.

Fig. Velocity triangle at inlet and outlet for a Francis runner

From the inlet velocity triangle shown in Figure,
𝑉𝑤 1 = 𝑉𝑓1 cot 𝛼1
{ ⟹ 𝑒 = 𝑉𝑓21 cot 𝛼1 (𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼1 + cot 𝛽1 )
𝑈1 = 𝑉𝑓1 (𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼1 + cot 𝛽1 ) ∗∗
2
The loss of kinetic energy per unit mass becomes equal to𝑉𝑓2 ⁄2. Therefore neglecting friction, the blade
efficiency becomes
2
𝑒 2𝑉𝑓1 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼1 (𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛽1 )
𝜂𝑏 = 2⁄
= 2 2
𝑒 + (𝑉𝑓2 2) 𝑉𝑓2 + 2𝑉𝑓1 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼1 (𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛽1 )

Since𝑉𝑓1 = 𝑉𝑓2 , 𝜂𝑏 can be written as

1
𝜂𝑏 = 1 −
1 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼1 (𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛽1 )

The change in pressure energy of the fluid in the rotor can be found out by subtracting the change in its
kinetic energy from the total energy released. Therefore, we can write for the degree of reaction.
1 1 2
𝑒 − 2 (𝑉12 − 𝑉𝑓22 ) 2 𝑉𝑓1 cot 2 𝛼1
𝑅= =1− [𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉12 − 𝑉𝑓22 = 𝑉12 − 𝑉𝑓21 = 𝑉𝑓21 cot 2 𝛼1 ]
𝑒 𝑒

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 122
Using the expression 𝑒 = 𝑉𝑓21 cot 𝛼1 (𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼1 + cot 𝛽1 ) ∗∗∗
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼1
𝑅 =1−
2(𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛽1 )
The inlet blade angle 𝛽1 of a Francis runner varies 45-1200 and the guide vane angle 𝛼1 from 10-400. The
ratio of blade width to the diameter of runner B/D, at blade inlet, depends upon the required specific
speed and varies from 1/20 to 2/3.
The dimensional specific speed of a turbine, can be written as
𝑁𝑃1⁄2
𝑁𝑆𝑇 =
𝐻 5⁄4
Power generated P for a turbine can be expressed in terms of available head H and hydraulic efficiency
𝜂ℎ as
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑄𝑔𝐻𝜂ℎ
Hence, it becomes
𝑁𝑆𝑇 = 𝑁(𝜌𝑄𝑔𝐻𝜂ℎ )1⁄2 𝐻−3⁄4
Again, 𝑁 = 𝑈1 ⁄𝜋𝐷1
Substituting 𝑈1 from Eq. **,

𝑉𝑓1 (𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼1 + cot 𝛽1 )

𝑁= ∗∗∗∗
𝜋𝐷1
Available head H equals the head delivered by the turbine plus the head lost at the exit. Thus,
𝑔𝐻 = 𝑒 + (𝑉𝑓22 ⁄2) ⇔ 𝑔𝐻 = 𝑒 + (𝑉𝑓21 ⁄2), 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑓1 = 𝑉𝑓2
With the help of Eq. ***, it becomes
2
𝑉𝑓21 𝑉𝑓21
𝑔𝐻 = 𝑉𝑓1 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼1 (𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛽1 ) + ⟺𝐻= [1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼1 (𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛽1 )] ∗∗∗∗∗
2 2𝑔
Substituting the values of H and N from Eqs (*****) and (****) respectively into the expression 𝑁𝑆𝑇 we
get,
1⁄2
𝑉𝑓1
𝑁𝑆𝑇 = 23⁄4 𝑔5⁄4 (𝜌𝜂ℎ 𝑄)1⁄2 (𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼1 + cot 𝛽1 )[1 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼1 (𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛽1 )]−3⁄4
𝜋𝐷1
Flow velocity at inlet 𝑉𝑓1 can be substituted from the equation of continuity as
𝑄
𝑉𝑓1 =
𝜋𝐷1 𝐵
Where B is the width of the runner at its inlet
Finally, the expression for 𝑁𝑆𝑇 becomes
𝐵 1⁄2
𝑁𝑆𝑇 = 23⁄4 𝑔5⁄4 (𝜌𝜂ℎ )1⁄2 ( ) (𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼1 + cot 𝛽1 )[1 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼1 (𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛽1 )]−3⁄4
𝜋𝐷1
For a Francis turbine, the variations of geometrical parameters like𝛼1 , 𝛽1 𝐵⁄𝐷 have been described
earlier. These variations cover a range of specific speed between 50 and 400. Figure below shows an
overview of a Francis Turbine (The figure is specifically shown in order to convey the size and relative
dimensions of a typical Francis Turbine).

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 123
 Fig. Installation of a Francis Turbine

Pump-storage units do have a turbine similar to Francis turbines. However, blades are comparatively
longer.

Fig. Reversible pump turbine model

3. KAPLAN TURBINES
Higher specific speed corresponds to a lower head. This requires that the runner should admit a
comparatively large quantity of water. For a runner of given diameter, the maximum flow rate is
achieved when the flow is parallel to the axis. Such a machine is known as axial flow reaction turbine. An

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 124
Australian engineer, Vikton Kaplan first designed such a machine. The machines in this family are called
Kaplan Turbines.

Fig. A typical Kaplan Turbine

The following figure shows in stages the change in the shape of a Francis runner with the variation of
specific speed. The first three types [Fig. (a), (b) and (c)] have, in order: the Francis runner (radial flow
runner) at low, normal and high specific speeds. As the specific speed increases, discharge becomes
more and more axial. The fourth type Fig. (d), is a mixed flow runner (radial flow at inlet axial flow at
outlet) and is known as Dubs runner which is mainly suited for high specific speeds. Figure (e) shows a
propeller type runner with a less number of blades where the flow is entirely axial (both at inlet and
outlet). This type of runner is the most suitable one for very high specific speeds and is known as Kaplan
runner or axial flow runner.
From the inlet velocity triangle for each of the five runners, it is found that an increase in specific speed
(or a decreased in head) is accompanied by a reduction in inlet velocity 𝑉1 . But the flow velocity 𝑉𝑓1 at
inlet increases allowing a large amount of fluid to enter the turbine. The most important point to be
noted in this context is that the flow at inlet to all the runners, except the Kaplan one, is in radial and
tangential directions. Therefore, the inlet velocity triangles of those turbines (Figure a to d) are shown in
a plane containing the radial ant tangential directions, and hence the flow velocity 𝑉𝑓1 represents the
radial component of velocity.
In case of a Kaplan runner, the flow at inlet is in axial and tangential directions. Therefore, the inlet
velocity triangle in this case (Fig.e) is shown in a place containing the axial and tangential directions, and
hence the flow velocity 𝑉𝑓1 represents the axial component of velocity 𝑉𝑎 .The tangential component of
velocity is almost nil at outlet of all runners. Therefore, the outlet velocity triangle (Figure f) is identical
in shape of all runners. However, the exit velocity 𝑉2 is axial in Kaplan and Dubs runner, while it is the
radial one in all other runners

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 125
 (a) Francis runner for low specific speeds (b) Francis runner for normal specific speeds

(c) Francis runner for high specific speeds (d) Dubs runner

(e) Kaplan runner (f) For all reaction (Francis as well as Kaplan) runners
Figure below shows a schematic diagram of propeller or Kaplan turbine. The function of the guide vane
is same as in case of Francis turbine. Between the guide vanes and the runner, the fluid in a propeller
turbine turns through a right-angle into the axial direction and then passes through the runner. The
runner usually has four or six blades and closely resembles a ship's propeller. Neglecting the frictional
effects, the flow approaching the runner blades can be considered to be a free vortex with whirl velocity
being inversely proportional to radius, while on the other hand, the blade velocity is directly
proportional to the radius. To take care of this different relationship of the fluid velocity and the blade
velocity with the changes in radius, the blades are twisted. The angle with axis is greater at the tip that
at the root.

Fig. A propeller of Kaplan turbine

Bulb Turbine
The bulb turbine is a reaction turbine of Kaplan type which is used for extremely low heads. The

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 126
characteristic feature of this turbine is that the turbine components as well as the generator are housed
inside a bulb, from which the name is developed. The main difference from the Kaplan turbine is that
the water flows in a mixed axial-radial direction into the guide vane cascade and not through a scroll
casing. The giude vane spindles are normally inclined to 600 in relation to the turbine shaft and thus
results in a conical guide vane cascade contrary to other types of turbines. The runner of a bulb turbine
may have different numbers of blades depending on the head and water flow. The bulb turbines have
higher full-load efficiency and higher flow capacity as compared to Kaplan turbine. It has a relatively
lower construction cost. The bulb turbines can be utilized to tap electrical power from the fast flowing
rivers on the hills. Figure below shows the schematic of a Bulb Turbine Power Plant.

Fig. Schematic of Bulb Turbine Power Generating Station

Fig. Turbine selection abacus

EXERCISES
1) A quarter scale turbine model is tested under a head of 10.8m. The full-scale turbine is required to
work under a head of 30 m and to run at 7.14rev/s. At what speed must the model be run? If it develops
100 kW and uses 1.085m3 of water per second at the speed, what power will be obtained from the full

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 127
scale turbine? The efficiency of the full-scale turbine being 3% greater than that of the model? What is
the dimensionless specific speed of the full-scale turbine?
(Ans.17.14 rev/s,7.66MW,0.513 rev/s)
2) A Pelton wheel operates with a jet of 150mm diameter under the head of 500m. Its mean runner
diameter is 2.25 m and and it rotates with speed of 375 rpm. The angle of bucket tip at outlet as
150 coefficient of velocity is 0.98, mechanical losses equal to 3% of power supplied and the reduction in
relative velocity of water while passing through bucket is 15%. Find (a) the force of jet on the bucket, (b)
the power developed (c) bucket efficiency and (d) the overall efficiency.
(Ans. 165.15kN,7.3MW, 90.3%,87.6%)
3) A pelton wheel works at the foot of a dam because of which the head available at the nozzle is 400m.
The nozzle diameter is 160mm and the coefficient of velocity is 0.98. The diameter of the wheel bucket
circle is 1.75 m and the buckets deflect the jet by 150. The wheel to jet speed ratio is 0.46. Neglecting
friction, calculate (a) the power developed by the turbine, (b) its speed and (c) hydraulic efficiency.
[Ans. (a) 6.08 MW,(b) 435.9rpm,(c) 89.05%]
4) A Powerhouse is equipped with impulse turbines of Pelton type. Each turbine delivers a power of
14MW when working under a head 900m and running at 600rpm. Find the diameter of the jet and mean
diameter of the wheel. Assume that the overall efficiency is 89%, velocity coefficient of jet 0.98, and
speed ratio 0.46.
(Ans.132mm. 191m)
5) A Francis turbine has a wheel diameter of 1.2m at the entrance and 0.6m at the exit. The blade angle
at the entrance is 900 and the guide vane angle is 150. The water at the exit leaves the blades without
any tangential velocity. The available head is 30m and the radial component of flow velocity is constant.
What would be the speed of wheel in rpm and blade angle at exit? Neglect friction.
(Ans. 268rpm, 28.20)
6) In a vertical shaft inward-flow reaction turbine, the sum of the pressure and kinetic head at entrance
to the spiral casing is 120 m and the vertical distance between this section and the tail race level is 3 m.
The peripheral velocity of the runner at entry is 30m/s, the radial velocity of water is constant at 9m/s
and discharge from the runner is without swirl. The estimated hydraulic losses are (a) between turbine
entrance and exit from the guide vanes 4.8 m(b) in the runner 8.8m (c) in the draft tube 0.79 m (d)
kinetic head rejected to the tail race 0.46m. Calculate the guide vane angle and the runner blade angle
at inlet and the pressure heads at entry to and exit from the runner.
(Ans.14.280, 59.220 , 47.34m, -5.88m)
7) The following data refer to an elbow type draft tube:
Area of circular inlet = 25m2, Area of rectangular outlet = 116m2, Velocity of water at inlet to draft tube =
10m/s, the frictional head loss in the draft tube equals to 10% of the inlet velocity head. Elevation of
inlet plane above tail race level = 0.6m
Determine:
a) Vacuum or negative head at inlet; b) Power thrown away in tail race
(Ans.4.95 m vac, 578kW)
8) Show that when vane angle at inlet of a Francis turbine is 90 o and the velocity of flow is constant, the
hydraulic efficiency is given by 2⁄2 tan2 𝛼 , where 𝛼 is the guide blade angle.
9) A conical type draft tube attached to a Francis turbine has an inlet diameter of 3 m and its area at
outlet is 20m2. The velocity of water at inlet, which is 5 m above tail race level, is 5 m/s. Assuming the
loss in draft tube equals to 50% of velocity head at outlet, find (a) the pressure head at the top of the
draft tube (b) the total head at the top of the draft tube taking tail race level as datum (c) power lost in
draft tube.
(Ans. 6.03m vac, 0.24m, 0.08m)

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 128
EFFICIENCY
The formula for the potential energy of a volume of water V that falls through a height H is
𝑃. 𝐸 = (9810 𝐽⁄𝑚4 ) × 𝑉𝐻
This potential energy, though, will not be the actual amount of electrical energy that we can get out of
the dam. This is because of the first and second laws of thermodynamics stating that "Energy can
neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be transferred from one form to another." While this
statement of the first law is the most common expression of it, it really does not say anything about how
energy can be transferred. In mathematical terms, the first law is normally stated as
∆𝑬 = 𝑾 + 𝑸
Where ΔE is the change in the energy of an object, W is the work done on the object, and Q is the heat
added to the object. In laymen's terms, this means that the only way to change the energy of an object
is to either do work on it or add heat to it (it should be noted that having the object do work on its
surroundings, or allowing the object to give off heat, are equivalent to having negative values for W or
Q).
The First Law of Thermodynamics tells us that the energy involved in any transfer must be conserved.
This would seem to mean that we should never run out of energy and should pay no heed to anybody
talking about an energy crisis. While the total amount of energy does not change, the second law of
thermodynamics puts limits on the amount of usable energy that can be transferred. One of the
consequences of this law is that the total amount of usable energy that comes out of any process will be
less than the total amount of energy that went into the process. The difference between the total
amount of energy input and the usable energy output is expended as waste heat.
This brings us to the issue of efficiency, which is a measure of the amount of usable energy that is
generated during any type of transfer. If a transfer is very efficient, then the amount of usable energy
that is generated is almost equal to the total amount of energy that went into the transfer. This means
that very little waste energy will be produced. An inefficient transfer, conversely, is one in which most of
the energy going into the process is converted to waste heat. For example, a fluorescent light bulb
converts about 20% of the electrical energy that runs through it into visible light energy. While this may
not sound like a very efficient transfer, it is much better than the 5% efficiency of an incandescent light
bulb, which most people use.
Types of efficiencies
Depending on the considerations of input and output, the efficiencies can be classified as
(i) Hydraulic Efficiency (𝜼𝒉 ): It is the ratio of the power developed by the runner of a turbine to the
power supplied at the inlet of a turbine.

Since the power supplied is hydraulic, and the probable loss is

between the striking jet and vane it is rightly called hydraulic
efficiency.
𝑹. 𝑷
𝜼𝒉 =
𝑾. 𝑷
∴ R.P. is the Runner Power and W.P. is the Water Power

Fig. Illustration of turbine’s inlet, vane, runner and shaft

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 129
(ii) Mechanical Efficiency (𝜼𝒎 ): It is the ratio of the power available at the shaft to the power developed
by the runner of a turbine. This depends on the slips and other mechanical problems that will create a
loss of energy between the runner in the annular area between the nozzle and spear, the amount of
water reduces as the spear is pushed forward and vice-versa and shaft which is purely mechanical and
hence mechanical efficiency.
𝑺. 𝑷
𝜼𝒎 =
𝑹. 𝑷
∴ S.P. is the Shaft Power
(iii) Overall efficiency: It is the ratio of the power available at the shaft to the power supplied at the inlet
of a turbine. As this covers overall problems of losses in energy, it is known as overall efficiency. This
depends on both the hydraulic losses and the slips and other mechanical problems that will create a loss
of energy between the jet power supplied and the power generated at the shaft available for coupling of
the generator.
𝑺. 𝑷
𝜼=
𝑾. 𝑷
Therefore 𝜼 = 𝜼𝒉 × 𝜼𝒎

Fig. Typical design point efficiencies of Pelton, Francis and Kaplan turbines
Pros and cons of Hydropower generation
Advantages
Hydroelectric powerplants do not use up resources
Hydropower plant has the lowest operating costs (Comparatively, less maintenance and Very small
running charge; such as water is available free of charge)
Longest plant life compared with other large-scale generating options.
It also serves another purpose, such as irrigation.
No fuel is required, as potential energy is stored, which is used to produce electricity.
Neat and clean source of energy, HPPs do not pollute the air, land, or water, as other powerplants may
Ability to respond quickly to rapidly varying loads or system disturbances, which base load plants with
steam systems powered by combustion or nuclear processes cannot accommodate
Disadvantages
The initial construction cost is very high.
Dependence on rainfall or melting of snow
This blocks the flow of fish and thus disturbs their natural habitat.
Well-settled people have to leave their homes.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 130
There is always a possibility of dam breakage, which will be a major tragedy for the people living
downstream.
This increases carbon-dioxide production due to a large amount of cement used on the construction site.
Very high capital cost due to the construction of the dam.
High transmission cost since hydroelectric plants are located in hilly remote areas far away from
consumers.
The loss of land under the reservoir
Interference with the transport of sediment by the dam
Climatic and seismic effects
Impact on aquatic ecosystems, flora and fauna
FAQs
What is a fluid Machine?
A fluid machine is a device which converts the energy stored by a fluid in to mechanical energy or work.
What are positive displacement machines?
The machine functioning depend essentially on the change of volume of a certain amount of fluid within
the machine. There is a physical displacement of the boundary of certain fluid hence it is called positive
displacement machine.
Based on the direction of fluid flow how are the fluid machines classified?
According to the flow direction of fluid, the fluid machines are classified as Axial flow machines - The
main flow direction is parallel to the axis of the machine. Radial flow machines - The main flow direction
is perpendicular to the axis of the machine i.e. in radial direction. Mixed flow machines - The fluid enters
radially and leaves axially or vice-versa.
What are the two primary types of hydropower facilities?
1) Impoundment system (or dam)
2) Run-of-the-river system.

Fig. Impoundment and run-off type SHPP (Small Hydro Power Plant) with a Weir or low dam
Most large, high-head hydropower facilities use impoundments. A run-of-the-river system uses the river’s
natural flow and requires no impoundment. It may involve a diversion of a portion of the stream through a
canal or penstock, or it may involve placement of a turbine right in the stream channel. Low head are often
use in Run-of-the river systems.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 131
What is a turbine?
Hydraulic turbines may be defined as prime movers that convert the energy of the fluid in to mechanical
energy of rotation and whose primary function is to drive a electric generator of a power plant.
A cubic meter of water can give about 9800 Joules of mechanical energy for every meter it descends and
a flow of a cubic meter per second in a fall of 1 meter can provide 9800 W of power

Fig. Schematic layout of a hydro-electric plant with surge tank

What is the necessity of surge Tank?
The performance of hydraulic turbines is strongly influenced by the characteristics of water conduit that
feeds the turbine. These characteristics include the effect of water inertia, water compressibility and
pipe wall elasticity in the penstock.
• Hydroelectric turbines present non-minimal phase characteristics due to water inertia; this means
that a change in the gate produces an initial change in mechanical power, which is opposite to the
one requested.
• The water compressibility effect produces traveling waves of pressure and is usually called water
hammer. The water hammer is characterized by a sudden high-pressure rise caused by stopping the
flow too rapidly. The wave propagation speed is around 1200 m/s.
In those plants where distance between the forebay i.e. reservoir and the turbine is quite large a surge
tank is usually utilized. The function of this tank is to hydraulically isolate the turbine from deviations in
the head produced by the wave effects in the conduits. Some surge tanks include an orifice whose
function is to dampen and absorb the energy of the hydraulic oscillations.
What are major components of hydroelectric power plants and their function?
Reservoirs: The function or purpose of reservoir is to store the water during rainy season and supply the
same during dry season. This is in simple, water storage area. The water reservoir is
the place behind the dam where water is stored. The water in the reservoir is located higher than the
rest of the dam structure. The height of water in the reservoir decides how much potential energy the
water possesses. The higher the height of water, the more its potential energy. The high position of
water in the reservoir also enables it to move downwards effortlessly.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 132
Dam: The function of dam is to increase the height of the water level (increase in the potential energy)
behind it which ultimately increases the reservoir capacity. The dam also helps in increasing the working
head of the power plant. Dams are generally built to provide necessary head to the power plant
Trash Rack: The water intake from the dam or from the forebay is provided with trash rack. The main
function of trash rack is to prevent the entry of any debris which may damage the wicket gates and
turbine runners or choke-up the nozzles of impulse turbine. During winter season when water forms ice,
to prevent the ice from clinging to the trash racks, they are often heated electrically. Sometimes air
bubbling system is provided in the vicinity of the trash racks which bring warmer water to the surface of
the trash racks
Forebay: The function of forebay is to act as regulating reservoir temporarily storing water when the
load on the plant is reduced and to provide water for initial increment of an increasing load while water
in the canal is being accelerated. In many cases, the canal itself is large enough to absorb the flow
variations. In short, forebay is naturally provided for storage of water to absorb any flow variations if
exist. This can be considered as naturally provided surge tank as it does the function of the surge tank.
The forebay is always provided with some type of outlet structure to direct water to penstock
depending upon the local conditions.
Surge Tank: Extra storage near to turbine, usually provided in high head plants to provides space for
holding water as to the load change on the turbine. The main function of surge tank is to reduce the
water hammering effect. When there is a sudden increase of pressure in the penstock which can be due
sudden decrease in the load demand on the generator. When there is sudden decrease in the load, the
turbine gates admitting water to the turbine closes suddenly owing to the action of the governor. This
sudden rise in the pressure in the penstock will cause the positive water hammering effect. This may
lead to burst of the penstock because of high pressures.
When there is sudden increase in the load, governor valves opens and accepts more water to the turbine.
This results in creation of vacuum in the penstock resulting into the negative water hammering effect.
Therefore the penstock should have to withstand both positive water hammering effect created due to
close of governor valve and negative water hammering effect due to opening of governor valve. In order
to protect the penstock from these water hammering effects, surge tank is used in hydroelectric power
station.
A surge tank is introduced in the system between dam and the power house nearest. Surge tank is a
tank provided to absorb any water surges caused in the penstock due to sudden loading and unloading
of the generator. When the velocity of the water in the penstock decreases due to
closing of turbine valves, the water level in the surge tank increases and fluctuating up and down till its
motion is damped out by the friction. Similarly when the water accelerates in the penstock, water is
provided by the surge tank for acceleration. Surge tank water level falls down and fluctuates up and
down absorbing the surges.
Intake or control (sluice) gates: These are the gates built on the inside of the dam. The water from
reservoir is released and controlled through these gates. These are called inlet gates because water
enters the power generation unit through these gates. When the control gates are opened the water
flows due to gravity through the penstock and towards the turbines. The water flowing through the
gates possesses potential as well as kinetic energy.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 133
Fig. Typical representative of sluice gate - basic dimensions and Sluice gate flow metering/modulating is often used to measure
flow rate in open channels
For this case, the pressure components in the equation are in general irrelevant since pressure upstream
and downstream are the same (p1 - p2 = 0)⇒ 1⁄2 𝜌𝑉12 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 = 1⁄2 𝜌𝑉22 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 (1)
Assuming uniform upstream and downstream velocity profiles
⇒ q = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 (2) ⟺ ℎ1 𝑏𝑉1 = ℎ2 𝑏𝑉2 (3)
Where 𝑏 is the width of the sluice and ℎ1 , ℎ2 are up-and down-stream height. Combining (1) and (3),
gives the "ideal" equation:
1⁄2
q = ℎ2 𝑏[2𝑔 (ℎ1 − ℎ2 )⁄(1 − (ℎ2 ⁄ℎ1 ))] (4)
Assuming h1 >> h2, this equation can be modified to:
q = ℎ2 𝑏(2𝑔ℎ1 )1⁄2 (5)
This is approximately true when the depth ratio h1 / h2 is large, the kinetic energy upstream is negligible
(v1 is small) and the fluid velocity after it has fallen the distance (h2 - h1) ≈ h1 - is:
𝑉2 = (2𝑔ℎ1 )1⁄2
The ideal equation (2) can be modified with a discharge coefficient:
q = 𝐶𝑑 ℎ2 𝑏(2𝑔ℎ1 )1⁄2
The discharge coefficient (𝐶𝑑 )depends on different parameters - such as upstream and tail-water
depths, gate opening, contraction coefficient of the gate and the flow condition (approximately 0.61 for
free flow conditions and depth ratios ho / h1 < 0.2).
The most commonly used specification for sluice gates in water and wastewater treatment plants is
ANSI/AWWA C560-00. This specification should be used as a guidance for gates selection and operating
equipment and associated hardware.
Penstock: The penstocks are open or closed conduits/ long pipe or the shaft that carries the water
flowing from the reservoir towards the power generation unit, comprised of the turbines and generator.
The water in the penstock possesses kinetic energy due to its motion and potential energy due to its
height. The total amount of power generated in the hydroelectric power plant depends on the height of
the water reservoir and the amount of water flowing through the penstock. The amount of water
flowing through the penstock is controlled by the control gates.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 134
Concrete penstocks are suitable for low heads less then 30mtrs. Thickness of penstocks increases with
head or water pressure
The water turbines “Prime Mover”: Water flowing from the penstock is allowed to enter the power
generation unit, which houses the turbine and the generator. When water falls on the blades of the
turbine the kinetic and potential energy of water is converted into the rotational motion of the blades of
the turbine. The rotating blades cause the shaft of the turbine to also rotate. The turbine shaft is
enclosed inside the generator. In most hydroelectric power plants there is more than one power
generation unit. There is large difference in height between the level of turbine and level of water in the
reservoir. This difference in height, also known as the head of water, decides the total amount of power
that can be generated in the hydroelectric power plant. There are various types of water turbines such
as Kaplan turbine, Francis turbine, Pelton wheels etc. The type of turbine used in the hydroelectric power
plant depends on the height of the reservoir, quantity of water and the total power generation capacity.
Generators: It is in the generator where the electricity is produced. The shaft of the water turbine
rotates in the generator, which produces alternating current in the coils of the generator. It is the
rotation of the shaft inside the generator that produces magnetic field which is converted into electricity
by electromagnetic field induction. Hence the rotation of the shaft of the turbine is crucial for the
production of electricity and this is achieved by the kinetic and potential energy of water. Thus in
hydroelectricity power plants potential energy of water is converted into electricity.
Spillway: The function of spillway is to provide safety of the dam. Spillway should have the capacity to
discharge major floods without damage to the dam and at the same time keeps the reservoir levels
below some predetermined maximum level.
Power House: Power house contains the electro mechanical equipment: Hydro power turbine,
Generator, Excitation system, Main inlet valves, Transformers, Switchyard, DC systems, Governor, Step
up transformers and Step down transformers.
A power house consists of two main parts, a sub-structure to support the hydraulic and electrical
equipment and a superstructure to house and protect this equipment. The superstructure of most power
plants is the buildings that house all the operating equipment. The generating unit and the exciter is
located in the ground floor. The turbines which rotate on vertical axis are placed below the floor level
while those rotating on a horizontal axis are placed on the ground floor alongside of the generator.
Tail race: Important criteria of designing the tail race is kind of draft tube, the gross head and
geographical situation of the area. Tail race is designed in such a way that water hammer is minimizes
when water leaves the draft tube.

State the difference between impulse and reaction turbines?

The entire pressure of water is converted into kinetic energy in a nozzle and the velocity of the jet drives
the blades of turbine; i.e. at the inlet of the turbine the energy available is only kinetic energy, the
turbine is known as impulse turbine. If the inlet of the turbine, partly possesses kinetic energy and
pressure energy, the turbine known as reaction turbine
Name the main parts of a radial flow reaction turbine?
i) Casing ii) Guide vane iii) Runner iv) Draft tube.
What is the purpose of the guide vanes in radial flow reaction turbine?

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 135
The purpose of the guide vane is to convert a part of pressure energy of the fluid at its entrance to the
kinetic energy and then direct the fluid on to the number of blades (i.e. guide water onto the runner,
with appropriate velocity and direction).
The conventional Francis turbine is provided with a wicket gate assembly to permit placing the unit on
line at synchronous speed, to regulate load and speed, and to shutdown the unit. The mechanisms of
large units are actuated by hydraulic servomotors. Small units may be actuated by electric motor gate
operations. It permits operation of the turbine over the full range of flows. In special cases, where the
flow rate is constant, Francis turbines without wicket gate mechanisms may be used. These units
operate in case of generating units in Micro Hydro range (up to 100 kW) with Electronic Load Controller
or Shunt Load Governors. Start up and shut down of turbines without a wicket gate is normally
accomplished using the shut off valve at the turbine inlet. Synchronizing is done by manual load control
to adjust speed.
Francis turbines may be mounted with vertical or horizontal shafts. Vertical mounting allows a smaller
plan area and permits a deeper setting of the turbine with respect to tailrace water elevation locating
the generator below tailrace water. Turbine costs for vertical units are higher than for horizontal units
because of the need for a larger thrust bearing. However, the savings on construction costs for medium
and large units generally offset this equipment cost increase. Horizontal units are more economical for
smaller sets with higher speed applications where standard horizontal generators are available.
The water supply case is generally fabricated from steel plate. However open flume and concrete cases
may be used for heads below 15 meters.
What is the purpose of stay vanes and stay ring?
Stay vanes. Curved, airfoil-shaped, stationary surfaces located between the spiral case and wicket gates
in a hydraulic turbine whose purpose is to induce a pre-rotation or pre-whirl to the fluid and reduce the
relative velocity to the runner. They also serve as columns that aid in supporting the generator weight
and the loads associated with the internally pressurized machine.
Stay ring. A structural part of a hydraulic turbine that contains the stay vanes and to which the spiral
case and headcover are attached

What is a draft tube? In which turbine it is mostly used.

The draft tube is a conduit which connects the runner exit to the trail race, when water is being finally
discharged from the turbine. In reaction turbine, the draft tube is mostly used.
Francis turbines are generally provided with a 90-degree elbow draft tube, which has a venturi design to
minimize head loss. Conical draft tubes are also available, however the head loss will be higher and
excavation may be more costly.
What is the primary function of a draft tube?
The primary function of the draft tube is to reduce the velocity of the discharged water to minimize the
loss of kinetic energy at the outlet.
Name the main parts of Kaplan turbine?
i) Scroll casing ii) Guide vanes iii) Hub with vanes iv) draft tube
Name the main parts of pelton wheel?
i) Nozzle ii) Runner with buckets iii) Casing

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 136
What are the different performance characteristic curves?
i) Variable speed curves (or) main characteristics
ii) Constant speed curves (or) operating characteristics
iii) Constant efficiency curves (or) Muschel characteristics
Give an example for a low head turbine, a medium head turbine and a high head turbine?
Low head turbine - Kaplan turbine
Medium head turbine - Francis turbine and High head turbine - Pelton wheel.
What is axial Flow Turbine?
Axial flow turbines are those in which water flow through the runner is aligned with the axis of rotation.
Axial flow hydraulic turbines have been used for net heads up to 75 meters with power output up to
200MW. However, they are generally used in head applications below 35 meters. Tubular turbines (S-
type) are used below 30meters head and 8 MW capacity. Bulb units can be used to about 25 meters
head and up to about 100MW capacity. In SHP Bulb units can be used for low heads if runner diameter
is more than 1meter. Specific mechanical designs, civil construction, and economic factors must be given
full consideration when selecting among these three axial flow turbine arrangements.
A Kaplan/propeller turbine is one having a runner with three, four, five or six blades in which the water
passes through the runner in an axial direction with respect to the shaft. The pitch of the blades may be
fixed or movable. Principal components consist of a water supply case, wicket gates, a runner and a
draft tube. Axial flow turbine with movable blades is called Kaplan turbines. Axial flow turbines with fixed
blades is called propeller turbine. An axial flow turbine with movable blades but fixed guide vanes (no
wicket gates) is called semi Kaplan turbine.
Do Hydropower Plants Also Vary in Size?
Large power plants produce hundreds of megawatts of electricity which is used to serve thousands of
families. There are also small and micro hydropower plants that individuals can operate for their own
energy needs. A large hydropower has the capacity to generate more than 30,000 kilowatts (kW) of
electricity. Large hydropower systems typically require a dam Small hydropower facilities can generate
100 – 30,000 kilowatts (kW) of electricity. Small hydropower facilities may provide a small dam, or be a
diversion of the main stream, or be a run-of-the-river system. Micro hydropower plants have the
capacity to generate 100 kilowatts (kW) or less. Micro-hydro facilities typically use a run-of-the-river
system.

Fig. Scheme of a river power plant, where the turbine is located in a manmade channel in parallel to the natural river course.
Give definition, types and measuring way of Head?
Energy extracted from the water depends on the volume and on the difference in height between the
source and the water’s outflow “Head”. The amount of potential energy in water is proportional to the
head. To obtain very high head, water for hydraulic turbine may run through a large pipe called a

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 137
penstock. Thus; the first step in designing a hydro system is to evaluate the water resource by measuring
the head (vertical drop) and flow of the stream so as to calculate its energy potential. Also
measurements must be made of pipeline and electrical transmission line length (from turbine to home
of battery bank) to take into consideration the system losses. The head and flow will determine the
system’s pipeline size, turbine type, rotational speed and generator size.
The amount of electricity can be depend on two factors:
• Flow rate - the quantity of water flowing in a given time
• Head - the height from which the water falls.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 138
 STUDENTS PRESENTATION
REPORT
[Group: PRODUCTION technology]

What Is Hydropower? Hydropower (from the Greek word hydor, meaning water) is energy that comes
from the force of moving water. The fall and movement of water is part of a continuous natural cycle
called the water cycle. Energy from the sun evaporates water in the Earth’s oceans and rivers and draws
it upward as water vapor. When the water vapor reaches the cooler air in the atmosphere, it condenses
and forms clouds.
The moisture eventually falls to the Earth as rain or snow, replenishing the water in the oceans and
rivers. Gravity drives the moving water, transporting it from high ground to low ground. The force of
moving water can be extremely powerful. Hydropower is called a renewable energy source because the
water on Earth is continuously replenished by precipitation. As long as the water cycle continues, we
won’t run out of this energy source.
Fig bellow shows water cycle

History of Hydropower
Hydropower has been used for centuries. The Greeks used water wheels to grind wheat into flour more
than 2,000 years ago. In the early 1800s, American and European factories used the water wheel to
power machines. The water wheel is a simple machine. The water wheel is located below a source of
flowing water. It captures the water in buckets attached to the wheel and the weight of the water
causes the wheel to turn. Water wheels convert the potential energy (gravitational potential energy) of
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 139
the water into motion. That energy can then be used to grind grain, drive sawmills, or pump water. In
the late 19th century, the force of falling water was used to generate electricity.
The first hydroelectric power plant was built on the Fox River in Appleton, WI in 1882. In the following
decades, many more hydroelectric plants were built. At its height in the early 1940s, hydropower
provided 33 percent of this country’s electricity. By the late 1940s, the best sites for big dams had been
developed. Inexpensive fossil fuel plants also entered the picture. At that time, plants burning coal or oil
could make electricity more cheaply than hydro plants. Soon they began to underprice the smaller
hydroelectric plants. It wasn’t until the oil shocks of the 1970s that people showed a renewed interest in
hydropower.
Water power is quite cheap where water is available in abundance. Although capital cost of hydro
electric power plants is higher as compared to other types of power plants but their operating Costs are
quite low, as no fuel is required in this case. The development rate of hydropower is still low, due to the
following problems:
1. In developing a project, it will take about 6-10 years time for planning, investigation and
construction.
2. High capital investment is needed, and some parts of the investment have to be designed from
foreign sources.
3. There are growing problems on relocation of villages, involved, compensation for damage,
selecting the suitable resettlement area and environmental impact.
In order to reduce the cost of development following Measures have to be taken into consideration:
(a) Development of low cost turbines and generators.

(b) Participation of villages in the development and operation of the project.

(c) Using the appropriate technology and tolerable substandard requirement and project civil work
component at the beginning stage.

HOW HYDROPOWER WORKS

Hydroelectric power comes from water at work, water in motion. It can be seen as a form of solar
energy, as the sun powers the hydrologic cycle which gives the earth its water. In the hydrologic cycle,
atmospheric water reaches the earth=s surface as precipitation. Some of this water evaporates, but
much of it either percolates into the soil or becomes surface runoff. Water from rain and melting snow
eventually reaches ponds, lakes, reservoirs, or oceans where evaporation is constantly occurring.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 140
Moisture percolating into the soil may become ground water (subsurface water), some of which also
enters water bodies through springs or underground streams. Ground water may move upward through
soil during dry periods and may return to the atmosphere by evaporation. Water vapor passes into the
atmosphere by evaporation then circulates, condenses into clouds, and some returns to earth as
precipitation. Thus, the water cycle is complete. Nature ensures that water is a renewable resource
A typical hydropower plant is a system with three parts:
 a power plant where the electricity is produced;
 a dam that can be opened or closed to control water flow and
 a reservoir (artificial lake) where water can be stored.
To generate electricity, a dam opens its gates to allow water from the reservoir above to flow down
through large tubes called penstocks. At the bottom of the penstocks, the fast-moving water spins the
blades of turbines. The turbines are connected to generators to produce electricity. The electricity is
then transported via huge transmission lines to a local utility company.

Basic components of a hydropower system

Figure below shows the major components of a typical hydropower scheme

an electricity generator. The machinery or appliances which are energized by the turbine are called the
‘load’. When electricity is generated, the ‘power house’ where the generator is located transfers the

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 141
electricity to a step-up ‘transformer’ which is then transmitted to the grid sub-station or to the
village/area where this electricity is to be used.
Turbulence: In all parts of the water supply line, including the weir, the intake and the channel, sudden
alterations to the flow direction will create turbulence which erodes structures and causes energy losses.
Most common civil structures used in a hydro power scheme are:
Weir and intake
A hydro power system necessitates that water from the river to be diverted and extracted in a reliable
and controllable manner. The water flowing in the channel must be regulated during high river flow and
low flow conditions
Power channels
The power channel or simply a channel conducts the water from the intake to the forebay tank. The
length of a channel depends upon the topography of the region and the distance of powerhouse from
the intake.
In the Himalayan region, the hydro power channels are sometimes as long as a few kilometers to create
a head of 10 to 60 meters or more.
Settling basin
The water diverted from the stream and carried by the channel usually carries a suspension of small
particles such as sand that are hard and abrasive and can cause expensive damage and rapid wear to
turbine runners. To get rid of such particles and sediments, the water flow is allowed to slow down in
‘settling basins’ so that the sand and silt particles settle on the basin floor.
Spillways
Spillways along the power channel are designed to permit overflow at certain points along the channel.
The spillway acts as a flow regulator for the channel. During floods the water flow through the intake
can be twice the normal channel flow, so the spillway must be large enough to divert this excess flow

Forebay tank
The forebay tank serves the purpose of providing steady and continuous flow into the turbine through
the penstocks. Forebay also acts as the last settling basin and allows the last particles to settle down
before the water enters the penstock. Forebay can also be a reservoir to store water depending on its
size (large dams or reservoirs in large hydropower schemes are technically forebay).
Penstock
The penstock pipe transports water under pressure from the forebay tank to the turbine, where the
potential energy of water is converted into kinetic energy in order to rotate the turbine. The penstock is
often the most expensive item in the project budget – as much as 40 percent is not uncommon in high-
head installations. It is therefore worthwhile to optimize its design in order to minimize its cost.
Turbines
Turbine is the main piece of equipment in the hydro power scheme that converts energy of the falling
water into the rotating shaft power. The selection of the most suitable turbine for any particular hydro
site depends mainly on two of the site characteristics – head and flow available. All turbines have a
power-speed characteristic. This means they will operate most efficiently at a particular speed, head and
flow combination. Thus the desired running speed of the generator or the devices being connected/

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 142
loading on to the turbine also influence selection. Other important consideration is whether the turbine
is expected to generate power at part-flow conditions.
Water turbines are divided into two groups; reaction turbines and impulse turbines.

Impulse turbines
Impulse turbines are more widely used for micro-hydro applications as compared to reaction turbines
because they have several advantages such as simple design (no pressure seals around the shaft and
better access to working parts - easier to fabricate and maintain), greater tolerance towards sand and
other particles in the water, and better part-flow efficiencies.
Pelton turbine
The cutaway on the lower lip allows the following bucket to move further before cutting off the jet
propelling the bucket ahead of it and also permits a smoother entrance of the bucket into the jet. The
Pelton bucket is designed to deflect the jet through 165 degrees which is the maximum angle possible
without the return jet interfering with the following bucket for the oncoming jet. They are used only for
sites with high heads ranging from 60 m to more than 1000 m.
Crossflow turbine
Also called a Michell-Banki turbine a crossflow turbine has a drum-shaped runner consisting of two
parallel discs connected together near their rims by a series of curved blades. A crossflow turbine always
has its runner shaft horizontal (unlike Pelton and Turgo turbines which can have either horizontal or
vertical shaft orientation). Unlike most water turbines, which have axial or radial flows, in a crossflow
turbine the water passes through the turbine transversely, or across the turbine blades. As with a
waterwheel, water enters at the turbine's edge. After passing the runner, it leaves on the opposite side.
Going through the runner twice provides additional efficiency. When the water leaves the runner, it also
helps clean the runner of small debris and pollution. The cross-flow turbines generally operate at low
speeds.
Reaction turbines
Given the same head and flow conditions, reaction turbines rotate faster than impulse turbines. This
high specific speed makes it possible for a reaction turbine to be coupled directly to an alternator
without requiring a speed-increasing drive system This specific feature enables simplicity (less
maintenance) and cost savings in the hydro scheme. The Francis turbine is suitable for medium heads,
while the propeller is more suitable for low heads. The reaction turbines require more sophisticated

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 143
fabrication than impulse turbines because they involve the use of larger and more intricately profiled
blades together with carefully profiled casings.
Francis turbine
The Francis turbine is a reaction turbine where water changes pressure as it moves through the turbine,
transferring its energy. A watertight casement is needed to contain the water flow. Generally such
turbines are suitable for sites such as dams where they are located between the high pressure water
source and the low pressure water exit. The inlet of a Francis turbine is spiral shaped. Guide vanes direct
the water tangentially to the turbine runner. This radial flow acts on the runner's vanes, causing the
runner to spin. The guide vanes (or wicket gate) are adjustable to allow efficient turbine operation for a
wide range of flow conditions. As the water moves through the runner, it’s spinning radius decreases,
further delivering pressure acting on the runner. This, in addition to the pressure within the water, is the
basic principle on which the Francis turbine operates. While exiting the turbine, water acts on cup
shaped runner buckets leaving without any turbulence or swirl and hence almost all of the kinetic or
potential energy is transferred. The turbine's exit tube is shaped to help decelerate the water flow and
recover the pressure.
Kaplan turbine
The Kaplan turbine has adjustable blades and was developed on the basic platform (design principles) of
the Francis turbine by the Viktor Kaplan in 1913. The main advantage of Kaplan turbines is its ability to
work in low head sites which was not possible with Francis turbines.s

Selection of an appropriate turbine to a large extent is dependent upon the available water head and to
a lesser extent on the available flow rate. In general, impulse turbines are used for high head sites, and
reaction turbines are used for low head sites
. Turbine type, dimensions and design are basically governed by the following criteria:
 Net head
 Variation of flow discharge through the turbine
 Rotational speed
 Cavitation problems (quality of water available from penstock)
 Cost
Water turbine - Typical range of heads
• Kaplan 2 < H < 40 (H = head in meters)
• Francis 10 < H < 350
• Pelton 50 < H < 1300
• Turgo 50 < H < 250

Economics of Hydropower
Hydropower is the cheapest way to generate electricity today. No other energy source, renewable or
nonrenewable, can match it. It costs about one cent per kilowatt-hour (kWh) to produce electricity at a
typical hydro plant. In comparison, it costs coal plants about four cents per kWh and nuclear plants
about two and one half cents per kWh to generate electricity.
Producing electricity from hydropower is cheap because, once a dam has been built and the equipment
installed, the energy source—flowing water—is free. Hydropower plants also produce power cheaply
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 144
due to their sturdy structures and simple equipment. Hydro plants are dependable and long-lived, and
their maintenance costs are low compared to coal or nuclear plants. One requirement may increase
hydropower’s costs in the future.
The procedure for licensing and relicensing dams has become a lengthy and expensive process. Many
environmental impact studies must be undertaken and multiple state and federal agencies must be
consulted. It takes up to seven years to get a license to build a hydroelectric dam or relicense to
continue operations.
Advantages of hydroelectric energy Disadvantages of hydroelectric energy
• It is renewable because rain keeps • Dams are very expensive to build.
falling and rivers flow continually. • There are few good sites and land
• It is reliable because the water can be for homes may be lost when they are
stored until it is needed. built.
• It creates no pollution. • Wildlife habitats can be lost when land
• Once built, the supply of electricity is is flooded to make reservoirs. River life
relatively cheap. can also be affected by dams.

Transmitting Power
Once the electricity is produced, it must be delivered to where it is needed -- our homes, schools,
offices, factories, etc. Dams are often in remote locations and power must be transmitted over some
distance to its users. Vast networks of transmission lines and facilities are used to bring electricity to us
in a form we can use. All the electricity made at a powerplant comes first through transformers which
raise the voltage so it can travel long distances through powerlines. (Voltage is the pressure that forces
an electric current through a wire.) At local substations, transformers reduce the voltage so electricity
can be divided up and directed throughout an area.
Transformers on poles (or buried underground, in some neighborhoods) further reduce the electric
power to the right voltage for appliances and use in the home. When electricity gets to our homes, we
buy it by the kilowatt-hour, and a meter measures how much we use.

While hydroelectric powerplants are one source of electricity, other sources include powerplants that
burn fossil fuels or split atoms to create steam which in turn is used to generate power. Gasturbine,
solar, geothermal, and wind-powered systems are other sources. All these powerplants may use the
same system of transmission lines and stations in an area to bring power to you. By use of this Apower
grid,” electricity can be interchanged among several utility systems to meet varying demands. So the

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 145
electricity lighting your reading lamp now may be from a hydroelectric powerplant, a wind generator, a
nuclear facility, or a coal, gas, or oil-fired powerplant … or a combination of these.
How Power is Computed
Before a hydroelectric power site is developed, engineers compute how much power can be produced
when the facility is complete. The actual output of energy at a dam is determined by the volume of
water released (discharge) and the vertical distance the water falls (head). So, a given amount of water
falling a given distance will produce a certain amount of energy. The head and the discharge at the
power site and the desired rotational speed of the generator determine the type of turbine to be used.
Hydropower potential= Q × H × g KW

P= Q × H × e × 9.81 kW
Where
P Power at the generator terminal, in kilowatts (kW)
H The gross head from the pipeline intake to the tail water in meters (m)
Q Flow in pipeline, in cubic meters per second (m3 /s)
e The efficiency of the plant, considering head loss in the pipeline and the efficiency of the turbine and
generator, expressed by a decimal (e.g. 85% efficiency= 0.85)
9.81 is a constant and is the product of the density of water and the acceleration due to gravity (g)
Example: A site has a head of 100 m with flow of 0.1 m3 /s .calculate the output power output if a)
e=100% , b) e=50% .
Solution:
a. P = 100 * 0.1 * 9.81 * 100% = 98.1 KW
b. P = 100 * 0.1 * 9.81 * 50% = 49 KW
OR
The power available in a stream of water is;
P=ρghQη
where:
P = power (J/s or watts)
η = turbine efficiency
ρ = density of water (kg/m3)
g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2)

h = head (m, this is the difference in height between the inlet and outlet water surfaces)
Q = flow rate (m3/s)
Electrical Power
𝑷×𝒆
𝑬𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎
(𝑲𝒘)
Where P is hydropower potential and e is the efficiency
Tying Hydropower to Other Energy Forms
When we hear the term Asolar energy,” we usually think of heat from the sun=s rays which can be put
to work. But there are other forms of solar energy. Just as hydropower is a form of solar energy, so too
is windpower. In effect, the sun causes the wind to blow by heating air masses that rise, cool, and sink to

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 146
earth again. Solar energy in some form is always at work -- in rays of sunlight, in air currents, and in the
water cycle.
Solar energy, in its various forms, has the potential of adding significant amounts of power for our use.
The solar energy that reaches our planet in a single week is greater than that contained in all of the
earth=s remaining coal, oil, and gas resources. However, the best sites for collecting solar energy in
various forms are often far removed from people, their homes, and work places. Building thousands of
miles of new transmission lines would make development of the power too costly.
Because of the seasonal, daily, and even hourly changes in the weather, energy flow from the wind and
sun is neither constant nor reliable. Peak production times do not always coincide with high power
demand times. To depend on the variable wind and sun as main power sources would not be acceptable
to most American lifestyles. Imagine having to wait for the wind to blow to cook a meal or for the sun to
come out from behind a cloud to watch television!
As intermittent energy sources, solar power and wind power must be tied to major hydroelectric power
systems to be both economical and feasible. Hydropower can serve as an instant backup and to meet
peak demands.
Linking windpower and hydropower can add to the Nation=s supply of electrical energy. Large wind
machines can be tied to existing hydroelectric powerplants. Wind power can be used, when the wind is
blowing, to reduce demands on hydropower. That would allow dams to save their water for later release
to generate power in peak periods.
The benefits of solar power and wind power are many. The most valuable feature of all is the
replenishing supply of these types of energy. As long as the sun shines and the wind blows, these
resources are truly renewable.
Future Potential
What is the full potential of hydropower to help meet the Nation=s energy needs? The hydropower
resource assessment by the Department of Energy=s Hydropower Program has identified 5,677 sites in
the United States with acceptable undeveloped hydropower potential. These sites have a modeled
undeveloped capacity of about 30,000 MW. This represents about 40 percent of the existing
conventional hydropower capacity.
A variety of restraints exist on this development, some natural and some imposed by our society. The
natural restraints include such things as occasional unfavorable terrain for dams. Other restraints
include disagreements about who should develop a resource or the resulting changes in environmental
conditions. Often, other developments already exist where a hydroelectric power facility would require
a dam and reservoir to be built.
Finding solutions to the problems imposed by natural restraints demands extensive engineering efforts.
Sometimes a solution is impossible, or so expensive that the entire project becomes impractical.
Solution to the societal issues is frequently much more difficult and the costs are far greater than those
imposed by nature. Developing the full potential of hydropower will require consideration and
coordination of many varied needs.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 147
Hydropower, the Environment, and Society
It is important to remember that people, and all their actions, are part of the natural world. The
materials used for building, energy, clothing, food, and all the familiar parts of our day-to-day world
come from natural resources.
Our surroundings are composed largely of the Abuilt environment@ -- structures and facilities built by
humans for comfort, security, and well-being. As our built environment grows, we grow more reliant on
its offerings. To meet our needs and support our built environment, we need electricity which can be
generated by using the resources of natural fuels. Most resources are not renewable; there is a limited
supply. In obtaining resources, it is often necessary to drill oil wells, tap natural gas supplies, or mine
coal and uranium. To put water to work on a large scale, storage dams are needed.
We know that any innovation introduced by people has an impact on the natural environment. That
impact may be desirable to some, and at the same time, unacceptable to others. Using any source of
energy has some environmental cost.
It is the degree of impact on the environment that is crucial.

TYPES OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 148
ACCORDING TO AVAILABILITY OF HEAD

CONCLUSION
Reclamation is helping to meet the needs of our country, and one of the most pressing needs is the
growing demand for electric power. Reclamation powerplants annually generate more than 42 billion
kWh of hydroelectric energy, which is enough to meet the annual residential needs of 14 million people
or the energy equivalent of more than 80 million barrels of crude oil.
The deregulation of wholesale electricity sales and the imposition of requirements for open
transmission access are resulting in dramatic changes in the business of electric power production in the
United States. This restructuring increases the importance of clean, reliable energy sources such as
hydropower.
Hydropower is important from an operational standpoint as it needs no "ramp-up" time, as many
combustion technologies do. Hydropower can increase or decrease the amount of power it is supplying
to the system almost instantly to meet shifting demand. With this important load-following capability,
peaking capacity and voltage stability attributes, hydropower plays a significant part in ensuring reliable

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 149
electricity service and in meeting customer needs in a market driven industry. In addition, hydroelectric
pumped storage facilities are the only significant way currently available to store electricity.
Hydropower=s ability to provide peaking power, load following, and frequency control helps protect
against system failures that could lead to the damage of equipment and even brown or blackouts.
Hydropower, besides being emissions-free and renewable has the above operating benefits that provide
enhanced value to the electric system in the form of efficiency, security, and most important, reliability.
The electric benefits provided by hydroelectric resources are of vital importance to the success of our
National experiment to deregulate the electric industry.
Water is one of our most valuable resources, and hydropower makes use of this renewable treasure. As
a National leader in managing hydropower, Reclamation is helping the Nation meet its present and
future energy needs in a manner that protects the environment by improving hydropower projects and
operating them more effectively.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 150
 STUDENTS PRESENTATION
REPORT
[Group: Automobile technology & Air conditioning and Refrigeration]
Chapter 0: Background of hydropower
Hydropower has been used for centuries. The Greeks used water wheels to grind wheat into flour more
than 2,000 years ago. In the early 1800s, American and European factories used the water wheel to
power machines. The water wheel is a simple machine. The water wheel is located below a source of
flowing water. It captures the water in buckets attached to the wheel and the weight of the water
causes the wheel to turn. Water wheels convert the potential energy (gravitational potential energy) of
the water into motion. That energy can then be used to grind grain, drive sawmills, or pump water. In
the late 19th century, the force of falling water was used to generate electricity. The first hydroelectric
power plant was built on the Fox River in Appleton, WI in 1882. In the following decades, many more
hydroelectric plants were built. At its height in the early 1940s, hydropower provided 33 percent of this
country’s electricity. By the late 1940s, the best sites for big dams had been developed. Inexpensive
fossil fuel plants also entered the picture. At that time, plants burning coal or oil could make electricity
more cheaply than hydro plants. Soon they began to underprice the smaller hydroelectric plants. It
wasn’t until the oil shocks of the 1970s that people showed a renewed interest in hydropower.
Chapter 1: General introduction to hydropower
Hydropower (from the Greek word hydro, meaning water) is energy that comes from the force of
moving water. Hydro-energy is known as traditional renewable energy source. Hydroelectric power, or
hydroelectricity, is electrical energy that has been generated using natural forces such as gravity or
flowing water. The fall and movement of water is part of a continuous natural cycle called the water
cycle. Energy from the sun evaporates water in the Earth’s oceans and rivers and draws it upward as
water vapor. When the water vapor reaches the cooler air in the atmosphere, it condenses and forms
clouds.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 151
The moisture eventually falls to the Earth as rain or snow, replenishing the water in the oceans and
rivers. Gravity drives the moving water, transporting it from high ground to low ground.
The force of moving water can be extremely powerful. Hydropower is called a renewable energy source
because the water on Earth is continuously replenished by precipitation. As long as the water cycle
continues, we won’t run out of this energy source.

Chapter 2: Types of hydropower plant

There are three types of hydropower facilities: impoundment, diversion, and pumped storage. Some
hydropower plants use dams and some do not. The images below show both types of hydropower
plants.
2.1IMPOUNDMENT
The most common type of hydroelectric power plant is an impoundment facility. An impoundment
facility, typically a large hydropower system, uses a dam to store river water in a reservoir. Water
released from the reservoir flows through a turbine, spinning it, which in turn activates a generator to
produce electricity. The water may be released either to meet changing electricity needs or to maintain
a constant reservoir level.

2.2 DIVERSION
A diversion, sometimes called run-of-river, facility channels a portion of a river through a canal or
penstock. It may not require the use of a dam.

2.3 PUMPED STORAGE

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 152
Another type of hydropower called pumped storage works like a battery, storing the electricity
generated by other power sources like solar, wind, and nuclear for later use. It stores energy by
pumping water uphill to a reservoir at higher elevation from a second reservoir at a lower elevation.
When the demand for electricity is low, a pumped storage facility stores energy by pumping water from
a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir. During periods of high electrical demand, the water is released
back to the lower reservoir and turns a turbine, generating electricity.

Chapter 3: CLASSIFICATION OF HYDROPOWER PLANTS

The hydroelectric power plants may be classified according to:- A. Classification According to the Extent
of Water Flow Regulation Available B. Classification According to Availability of Water Head C.
Classification According to Type of Load Supplied D. Classification of Hydroelectric Power Plants Based
on Installed Capacity.
A. Classification According to the Extent of Water Flow Regulation Available:
According to the extent of water flow regulation available the hydroelectric power plants may be
classified into:
(1) Run-off river power plants without pondage.
(2) Run-off river power plants with pondage.
(3) Reservoir power plants.
1. Run-Off Power Plants without Pondage:
Some hydro power plants are so located that the water is taken from the river directly, and no pondage
or storage is possible. Such plants are called the run-off river power plants without pondage. Such plants
can use water only as and when available; these cannot be used at any time at will or fit any desired
portion of the load curve. In such plants there is no control on flow of water.
During high flow and low load periods, water is wasted and during the lean flow periods the plant
capacity is very low. As such these plants have a very little firm capacity. At such places, the water is
mainly used for irrigation or navigation and power generation is only incidental. Such plants can be built
at a considerably low cost but the head available and the amount of power generated are usually very
low.
During floods, the tail water level may become excessive rendering the plant inoperative. The main
objective of such plants is to use whatever flow is available for generation of energy and thus save coal

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 153
that otherwise be necessary for the steam plants. During the high flow periods such plants can be
employed to supply a substantial portion of base load.
2. Run-Off River Power Plants with Pondage:
The usefulness of run-off river power plants is increased by pondage. Pondage refers to storage at the
plant which makes it possible to cope, hour to hour, with fluctuations of load throughout a week or
some longer period depending on the size of pondage. With enough pondage, the firm capacity of the
power plant is increased.
Such type of power plants can be used on parts of the load curve as required, within certain limitations
and is more useful than a plant without pondage. Such power plants are comparatively more reliable
and its generating capacity is less dependent on available rate of flow of water. Such power plants can
serve as base load or peak load power plants depending on the flow of stream.
During high flow periods these plants may be used as base load and during lean flow periods these
plants may be used to supply peak loads only. When providing pondage, tailrace condition should be
such that floods do not raise the tailrace water level, thus reducing the head on the plant and impairing
its effectiveness. Such plants offer maximum conservation of coal when operated in conjunction with
steam power plants.
3. Reservoir Power Plants:
When water is stored in a big reservoir behind a dam, it is possible to control the flow of water and use
it most effectively. Storage increases the firm capacity of the plant and it can be used efficiently
throughout the year. Such a plant can be used as a base load or as a peak load plant as per requirement.
It can also be used on any portion of the load curve in a grid system. Most of the hydroelectric power
plants everywhere in the world are of this type.
B. Classification According to Availability of Water Head:

According to availability of water head the hydroelectric power plants may be classified into:
(a) Low Head
(b) Medium Head and
(c) High Head Power Plants.
Though there is no definite line of demarcation for low, medium and high heads but the head below 30
meters is considered low head, the head above 30 meters and below 300 meters is considered as
medium head and above 300 meters is considered as high head.
(a) Low Head Hydroelectric Power Plants:
A typical low head installation on a river consists essentially of a dam across the stream to back up the
river and create a fall, the water flowing through the turbines and remerging the river below the dam. A
dam or barrage constructed across the river creates the necessary head. The power plant is located near
the dam and therefore, no surge tank is required. Either one half of the barrage has regulating gates for
discharge of surplus water while the plant is in front of second half or the plant is constructed by the
side of the river.
In low head power plants Francis, propeller or Kaplan turbines are employed. Since for given output,
large quantity of water is required, head being low, therefore pipes of large diameter and short length

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 154
are required in low head plants. Structure of such plants is extensive and expensive. Generators
employed in such plants are of low speed and large diameter.
(b) Medium Head Hydroelectric Power Plants:
In these power plants, the river water is usually tapped off to a forebay on one bank of the river as in
case of a low head plant. From the forebay the water is led to the turbines through penstocks. The
forebay provided at the beginning of penstock serves as a water reservoir for such power plants.
In these plants, water is usually carried in open channel from main reservoir to the forebay and then to
the turbines through the penstock. The forebay itself serves as the surge tank in this case. In these
plants horizontal shaft Francis, propeller or Kaplan turbines are used. The arrangement is shown in Fig.
2.14.

(c) High Head Hydroelectric Power Plants:

If high head is available, a site may be chosen, where a stream descending a steep lateral valley can be
dammed and a reservoir for storage of water is formed. A pressure tunnel is constructed between
reservoirs to valve house at the start of penstock to carry water from reservoir to valve house.
Surge tank (a tank open from the top) is built just before the valve house so that the severity of water
hammer effect on penstock can be reduced in case of sudden closing of fixed gates of the water turbine.
Surge tank also serves as a ready reservoir from which the turbine can draw water temporarily when
there is sudden increase in demand.
The valve house consists of main sluice valves and automatic isolating valves, which operate on bursting
of penstock and cut off further supply of water to penstock. Penstocks are pipes and carry the water
from the valve house to the turbines.
For heads above 500 m Pelton wheels are used while for lower heads Francis turbines are employed.
The generators used are of high speed and small diameter. Penstocks are of large length and
comparatively smaller cross section.
C. Classification According to Type of Load Supplied:
According to the load supplied hydroelectric power stations may be classified into:
(a) Base Load,
(b) Peak Load, and
(c) Pumped Storage Plants for the Peak Load.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 155
(a) Base Load Plants:
The plants, which can take up load on the base portion of the load curve of the power system, are called
the base load power plants. Such plants are usually of large capacity. Since such plants are kept running
practically on block load (i.e., the load that is practically constant), load factor of such plants is therefore
high. Run-off river plants without pondage and reservoir plants are used as base load plants.
Plants having large storage can best be used as base load plants and particularly in rainy seasons, when
the water level of the reservoir will be raised by rain water. For a plant to be used as base load plant, the
unit cost of energy generated by the plant should be low.
(b) Peak Load Plants:
Plants used to supply the peak load of the system corresponding to the load at the top portion of the
load curve are called the peak load plants. Runoff river plants with pondage can be employed as peak
load plants. If the pondage is enough, a large portion of the load can be supplied by such a plant if and
when required. Reservoir plants can of course be used as peak load plants also. Peak load plants have
large seasonal storage. They store water during off-peak periods and are operated during peak load
periods. Load factor of such plants is low.
(c) Pumped Storage Plants for the Peak Load:
This is a unique design of peak load plant.
D. Classification of Hydroelectric Power Plants Based on Installed Capacity:
Apart from above classification, hydroelectric power plants can be classified, on the basis of installed
capacity, as large, medium, small, mini, and micro hydro power plants. Generally the mini, micro, and
pico hydro come under the subcategory of small hydro plants.
These are briefly described as below:

Apart from the above said classification, there is also a class of very large hydro power plants coming up
with capacity ranging from more than 5,000 MW up to 10,000 MW due to the large scale investment
and better technology available. However, as far as small hydro is concerned the upper and lower limit
varies from country to country while defining the small hydro. There is a general tendency all over the
world to define small hydro by power output. Different countries are following different norms keeping
the upper limit ranging from 5 to 50 MW.
Chapter 4: Components of hydropower plant
1. Dam

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 156
The dam is the most important component of hydroelectric power plant. The dam is built on a large
river that has abundant quantity of water throughout the year. It should be built at a location where the
height of the river is sufficient to get the maximum possible potential energy from water.
2. Water Reservoir
The water reservoir is the place behind the dam where water is stored. The water in the reservoir is
located higher than the rest of the dam structure. The height of water in the reservoir decides how
much potential energy the water possesses. The higher the height of water, the more its potential
energy. The high position of water in the reservoir also enables it to move downwards effortlessly.
The height of water in the reservoir is higher than the natural height of water flowing in the river, so it is
considered to have an altered equilibrium. This also helps to increase the overall potential energy of
water, which helps ultimately produce more electricity in the power generation unit.
3. Intake or Control Gates
These are the gates built on the inside of the dam. The water from reservoir is released and controlled
through these gates. These are called inlet gates because water enters the power generation unit
through these gates. When the control gates are opened the water flows due to gravity through the
penstock and towards the turbines. The water flowing through the gates possesses potential as well as
kinetic energy.
4. The Penstock
The penstock is the long pipe or the shaft that carries the water flowing from the reservoir towards the
power generation unit, comprised of the turbines and generator. The water in the penstock possesses
kinetic energy due to its motion and potential energy due to its height.
The total amount of power generated in the hydroelectric power plant depends on the height of the
water reservoir and the amount of water flowing through the penstock. The amount of water flowing
through the penstock is controlled by the control gates.
5. Water Turbines
Water flowing from the penstock is allowed to enter the power generation unit, which houses the
turbine and the generator. When water falls on the blades of the turbine the kinetic and potential
energy of water is converted into the rotational motion of the blades of the turbine. The rotating blades
causes the shaft of the turbine to also rotate. The turbine shaft is enclosed inside the generator. In most
hydroelectric power plants there is more than one power generation unit.

There is large difference in height between the level of turbine and level of water in the reservoir. This
difference in height, also known as the head of water, decides the total amount of power that can be

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 157
generated in the hydroelectric power plant. There are various types of water turbines such as Kaplan
turbine, Francis turbine, Pelton wheels etc. The type of turbine used in the hydroelectric power plant
depends on the height of the reservoir, quantity of water and the total power generation capacity.
6. Generators
It is in the generator where the electricity is produced. The shaft of the water turbine rotates in the
generator, which produces alternating current in the coils of the generator. It is the rotation of the shaft
inside the generator that produces magnetic field which is converted into electricity by electromagnetic
field induction. Hence the rotation of the shaft of the turbine is crucial for the production of electricity
and this is achieved by the kinetic and potential energy of water. Thus in hydroelectricity power plants
potential energy of water is converted into electricity.

7. Transmitting Power lines

Transmission lines. Conduct electricity from the hydropower plant to homes and business

Once the electricity is produced, it must be delivered to where it is needed -- our homes, schools, offices,
factories, etc. Dams are often in remote locations and power must be transmitted over some distance
to its users.
Vast networks of transmission lines and facilities are used to bring electricity to us in a form we can use.
All the electricity made at a power plant comes first through transformers which raise the voltage so it
can travel long distances through power lines. (Voltage is the pressure that forces an electric current

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 158
through a wire.) At local substations, transformers reduce the voltage so electricity can be divided up
and directed throughout an area.

Transformers on poles (or buried underground, in some neighborhoods) further reduce the electric
power to the right voltage for appliances and use in the home. When electricity gets to our homes, we
buy it by the kilowatt-hour, and a meter measures how much we use.

While hydroelectric power plants are one source of electricity, other sources include power plants that
burn fossil fuels or split atoms to create steam which in turn is used to generate power. Gas turbine,
solar, geothermal, and wind-powered systems are other sources. All these power plants may use the
same system of transmission lines and stations in an area to bring power to you. By use of this Power
grid,” electricity can be interchanged among several utility systems to meet varying demands. So the
electricity lighting your reading lamp now may be from a hydroelectric power plant, a wind generator, a
nuclear facility, or a coal, gas, or oil-fired power plant … or a combination of these.
Chapter 5: Working principle of hydropower plant
A power plant that utilizes the potential energy of water for the generation of electrical energy is known
as a hydroelectric power plant.
Hydroelectric power plants are generally located in hilly areas where dams can be built easily, and large
water reservoirs can be made. In a hydropower plant, a water head is created by building a dam across a
river or lake. From the dam, water is fed to a water turbine.
Working Principle of Hydroelectric Power Plant

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 159
The water turbine changes the kinetic energy of the falling water into mechanical energy at the turbine
shaft. In simple words, falling water spins the water turbine. The turbine drives the generator coupled
with it and converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. This is the basic “working principle of
hydroelectric power plant.”
Hydroelectric power plants are very popular because the stores of fuels (i.e., oil and coal) are exhausting
day by day. They are also beneficial for irrigation and flood control purposes.

Advantages and disadvantages

Hydroelectric Power Plant Advantages
 More reliable power plant.
 Low operating cost.
 Low starting time.
 High production rate capacity.
 The fuel cost is zero.
 Pollution-free.
 Renewable source of energy.
 Life of the power plant is more.
 They are also used for flood control and irrigation

Hydroelectric Power Plant Disadvantages

 Capital cost is high.
 Output depends upon the availability of water.
 Commonly found in hill-areas.
 Apparatus needs corrosion protection.

Chapter 6: Relationship between hydro power and environment

Hydropower generators produce clean electricity, but hydropower does affect the environment
Most dams in the United States were built mainly for flood control, municipal water supply, and
irrigation water. Although many of these dams have hydroelectric generators, only a small number of
dams were built specifically for hydropower generation. Hydropower generators do not directly emit air
pollutants. However, dams, reservoirs, and the operation of hydroelectric generators can affect the
environment.
A dam that creates a reservoir (or a dam that diverts water to a run-of-river hydropower plant) may
obstruct fish migration. A dam and reservoir can also change natural water temperatures, water
chemistry, river flow characteristics, and silt loads. All of these changes can affect the ecology and the
physical characteristics of the river. These changes may have negative effects on native plants and on
animals in and around the river. Reservoirs may cover important natural areas, agricultural land, or
archeological sites. A reservoir and the operation of the dam may also result in the relocation of people.
The physical impacts of a dam and reservoir, the operation of the dam, and the use of the water can
change the environment over a much larger area than the area a reservoir covers.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 160
Manufacturing the concrete and steel in hydropower dams requires equipment that may produce
emissions. If fossil fuels are the energy sources for making these materials, then the emissions from the
equipment could be associated with the electricity that hydropower facilities generate. However, given
the long operating lifetime of a hydropower plant (50 years to 100 years) these emissions are offset by
the emissions-free hydroelectricity.
Greenhouse gases (GHG) such as carbon dioxide and methane form in natural aquatic systems and in
human-made water storage reservoirs as a result of the aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of
biomass in the water. The exact amounts of GHG that form in and are emitted from hydropower
reservoirs is uncertain and depend on many site specific and regional factors.
Hydropower turbines kill and injure some of the fish that pass through the turbine. The U.S. Department
of Energy has sponsored the research and development of turbines that could reduce fish deaths to
lower than 2%, in comparison with fish kills of 5% to 10% for the best existing turbines.
Many species of fish, such as salmon and shad, swim up rivers and streams from the sea to reproduce in
their spawning grounds in the beds of rivers and streams. Dams can block their way. Different
approaches to fixing this problem include the construction of fish ladders and elevators that help fish
move around or over dams to the spawning grounds upstream.
Land use
The size of the reservoir created by a hydroelectric project can vary widely, depending largely on the size
of the hydroelectric generators and the topography of the land. Hydroelectric plants in flat areas tend to
require much more land than those in hilly areas or canyons where deeper reservoirs can hold more
volume of water in a smaller space.
At one extreme, the large Balbina hydroelectric plant, which was built in a flat area of Brazil, flooded
2,360 square kilometers—an area the size of Delaware—and it only provides 250 MW of power
generating capacity (equal to more than 2,000 acres per MW) [1]. In contrast, a small 10 MW run-of-
the-river plant in a hilly location can use as little 2.5 acres (equal to a quarter of an acre per MW).
Flooding land for a hydroelectric reservoir has an extreme environmental impact: it destroys forest,
wildlife habitat, agricultural land, and scenic lands. In many instances, such as the Three Gorges Dam in
China, entire communities have also had to be relocated to make way for reservoirs.
Power Estimation
The potential electric power of the water in terms of flow and head can be calculated from the
following equation.
KW = 9.81 x Q x H x η
Where,
kW = electric power in kW
Q = quantity of water flowing through the hydraulic turbine in cubic meters per second. Discharge
(quantity of water) flowing in a stream and available for power generation has daily and seasonal
variation. Optimum discharge for power generation is determined on the basis of energy generation
cost.
H = Net available head in meters (gross head – losses)
η = overall efficiency of the hydro power plant. For general estimation purposes, η is normally taken as
0.85

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 161
Example
A hydropower station has a gross head of 8.2 meter. Head loss in water conductor system is 0.5 meters.
Optimum discharge in comics is 267 cubic meter per second.
KW = 9.81 x 267 x 8.2 x 0.85
KW = 18256.3
According 2 units of 2 x 9000 kW can be installed.
Energy generation E = average power x 24 x 365 in (kWh) units
Hydro power plant Uprating
The uprating of existing hydroelectric generator and turbine units at power plants is one of the most
immediate, cost-effective, and environmentally acceptable means of developing additional electric
power. Since 1978, Reclamation has pursued an aggressive uprating program, which has added more
than 1,600,000 kW to Reclamation's capacity at an average cost of $69 per kilowatt. This compares to
an average cost for providing new peaking capacity through oil-fired generators of more than $400 per
kilowatt. Reclamation's uprating program has essentially provided the equivalent of another major
hydroelectric facility of the approximate magnitude of Hoover Dam and Power plant at a fraction of the
cost and impact on the environment when compared to any other means of providing new generation
capacity.
The uprating power plant give your plant a second life - Designed to increase the power output of your
power plant and extend its lifetime, our Upgrade module offers a range of services for specific
components, or can be implemented as a turnkey solution.
The Uprating program includes:
 Increases efficiency of old units
 Increases output with additional discharge
 Improves peaking capability
 Enables the addition of new units
 Complies with new environmental regulations
 Ensures safety standards upgrades
 Ensures obsolete equipment upgrades
 Can operate one or several plants remotely
Example of hydropower sites in Rwanda
Hydroelectric Name of Capacity Year
Community River Type
station reservoir (MW) completed
Ntaruka Power Mukungwa Run of
Ntaruka N/A 11.5 MW 1959[5]
Station River river
Mukungwa Mukungwa Run of
Mukungwa N/A 12 MW 1982
Power Station River river
Mukungwa II MUkungwa Run of
Mukungwa N/A 2.5 MW[6] 2010
Power Station River river

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 162
 Hydroelectric Name of Capacity Year
Community River Type
station reservoir (MW) completed
Nyabarongo I Nyabarongo Run of
Nyabarongo N/A 28 MW[7] 2014[2]
Power Station River river
Rukarara
River Run of
Hydroelectric Rukarara N/A 9.5 MW 2010[8]
Rukarara river
Power Station
Rusizi I
Run of
Hydroelectric Rusizi Rusizi River N/A 30 MW 1958
river
Power Station
Rusizi II
Run of
Hydroelectric Rusizi Rusizi River N/A 44 MW 1989
river
Power Station
CONCLUSION
Hydropower is using water to power machinery or make electricity. Water constantly moves through a
vast global cycle, evaporating from lakes and oceans, forming clouds, precipitating as rain or snow, then
flowing back down to the ocean. The energy of this water cycle, which is driven by the sun, can be
tapped to produce electricity or for mechanical tasks like grinding grain. Hydropower uses a fuel—
water—that is not reduced or used up in the process. Because the water cycle is an endless, constantly
recharging system, hydropower is considered a renewable energy.
Hydropower plants are a vital energy source to the world. Water is an efficient and reliable fuel. The use,
creation, and expansion of power plants should continue being pursued.

References:
[1] Fearnside, Phillip M. 1989. Brazil's Balbina Dam: Environment versus the legacy of the Pharaohs in
Amazonia. Environmental Management, July/Aug 1989, Volume 13, Issue 4, pp 401-423.
[2] National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). 2012. Renewable Electricity Futures Study. Hand,
M.M.; Baldwin, S.; DeMeo, E.; Reilly, J.M.; Mai, T.; Arent, D.; Porro, G.; Meshek, M.; Sandor, D. eds. 4
vols. NREL/TP-6A20-52409. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
[3] Yardley, Jim. November 19, 2007. Chinese Dam Projects Criticized for Their Human Costs.
New York Times
Hydro power Glance , 2016
Boyle G ED 2012 Renewable Energy
Power for substainable future Third ED Oxford University

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 163
 “Skills for a Better Destiny”
Integrated Polytechnic Regional College – Kigali Campus
III. WIND ENERGY

Prepared and contributed by

Alexis M. and a 12-students group, respectively

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 164
HISTORICAL REVIEW
Wind power is one of the oldest renewable technologies. Since ancient times, people have harnessed
the wind’s energy. Over 5,000 years ago, the ancient Egyptians used the wind to sail ships on the Nile
River.
Later, people built windmills to grind wheat and other grains. The early
windmills looked like paddle wheels. Centuries later, the people in Holland
improved the windmill. They gave it propeller type blades, still made with
sails. Holland is famous for its windmills.
In this country, the colonists used windmills to grind wheat and corn, to
pump water, and to cut wood at sawmills. Today, people occasionally use
windmills to grind grain and pump water, but they also use modern wind
turbines to make electricity.
The Persian windmill was used around 1000B.C. to turn a grindstone. It is the
oldest known windmill design. The machine works by blocking the wind
blowing on ½ of its sails.
The sails exposed to the wind are pushed downwind due to drag, causing the windmill to rotate.
Humans have been harnessing the wind ever since farmers in ancient Persia figured out how to use wind
power to pump water.

These simple wind driven machines, which utilize a long sucker rod to
pump underground water to the surface, were a critical tool in
settling the West
As the primary source of wind energy, how the wind is created and its
characteristics are evaluated: As wind speed doubles, power
generation capability increases eightfold. Higher is better: hilltops
and tall towers lead to greater energy production. Unlike fossil fuels,
wind power cannot be depleted and produces no pollution.
Due to its nature, the wind is an un-programmable energy source but
predictable through estimating the wind speed and direction for a
specific location using wind patterns.
Therefore, in the present chapter, how to describe the wind behavior
for a specific location, the kinetic energy contained in the wind is
described.

Fig. Mechanical pump windmill

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 165
 The uptake of wind energy in all the wind
machines is achieved through the action of
wind on the blades, is in these blades where
the kinetic energy contained in the wind is
converted into mechanic energy. Thus, the
different ways to harvest this energy are
evaluated, such as: different kind of blades,
generators, turbines…

Fig. Electricity generating wind turbine

The major components of this device are the blades, shaft, gearbox and generator. On large machines,
additional controllers and drive motors ensure that the machine is positioned for optimal capture of the
wind.

INTRODUCTION
Wind is simply air in motion. It is caused by the uneven heating of the Earth’s surface by radiant energy
from the sun. The wind intensity and direction is influenced by global and local effects. Nevertheless,
when global scale winds are light, local winds may dominate the wind patterns. Since the Earth’s surface
is made of very different types of land and water, it absorbs the sun’s energy at different rates. Water
usually does not heat or cool as quickly as land because of its physical properties. The main local wind
structures are sea breezes and mountain / valley breezes. The breeze is a light and periodic wind which
appears in locations with periodic thermal gradient variations.
An ideal situation for the formation of local wind is an area where land and water meet. During the day,
the air above the land heats up more quickly than the air above water. The warm air over the land
expands, becomes less dense and rises. The heavier, denser, cool air over the water flows in to take its
place, creating wind. At nightfall land and sea temperatures are equal and wind blows in the opposite
direction.

Fig. Illustration of the sea breezes direction

A similar phenomenon occurs in mountain/valleys. During the day, the sun heats up the slopes and the
neighboring air. This causes it to rise, causing a warm, up-slope wind. At night the wind direction is
reversed, and turns into a down-slope wind.
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 166
 Fig. Illustration of the mountain/valley breezes direction
Global or geostrophic winds (found at altitudes above 1000m from ground level and it’s not very much
influenced by the surface of the earth).

In the same way, the atmospheric winds that circle the Earth are
created because the land near the equator at 00 latitude is heated
more by the sun than land near the North and South Poles.
So, the wind rises from the equator and moves north and south in
the higher layers of the atmosphere. At the Poles, due to the cooling
of the air, the air mass sinks down, and returns to the equator. Thus,
the rotation with the unequal heating of the surface determines the
prevailing wind directions on earth. The general wind pattern of the
main regions on earth is depicted in Figure
Fig. Representation of the global wind on the earth
Besides the earth rotation, the relative position of the earth with the sun also varies during the year
(year seasons). Due to these seasonal variations of the sun’s radiation, the intensity and direction of the
global winds have variations too.

Caused by differential heating of the earth’s surface by the sun, the wind will blow as long as the sun
shines; Wind is thus an indirect form of solar energy by being replenished by the sun; reason why its
derived-energy is called renewable.

FUNDAMENTALS OF WIND MACHINES

Wind machines convert the kinetic energy contained in the wind into mechanic energy through the
action of wind on the blades. The aerodynamic principle in this transformation (kinetic to mechanic
energy) is similar to the principle that makes airplanes fly: the air is forced to flow over the top and
bottom of a blade generating a pressure difference between both sides.
The pressure difference causes a resultant force upon the blade. This force can be decomposed in two
components:
a) Lift force, which is perpendicular to the direction of the wind.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 167
 Hold a piece of paper by the edges, as shown in left side
of the figure below. The edge that you’re holding should
be parallel to the ground, while the unsupported edge
should be hanging down. Blow directly above the edge
of the paper that you’re holding.
The paper should lift. The higher velocity on the top creates a reduced pressure (Bernoulli’s effect). This
is the type of force used on lift based wind turbines.

b) Drag force, which is parallel to the direction of the wind. This force helps the circulation of air over
the surface of the blades.
Experiment: Hold a piece of paper by the top edges, as
shown in left side of the figure below - Blow directly at
the paper - The bottom of the paper should flip up as
shown - This is the type of force used on drag-based
wind turbines like the Savonius rotor

Fig. A cup anemometer that measures the speed of airflow, is a drag-type vertical axis wind turbine

Fig. Representation of lift force and drag force generated on the blades
The force which will generate a torque is lift force or drag force depending on the relative position of the
blades with the axis and the wind.
In wind turbines with horizontal axis, the lift component of the force is the only one that gives the
torque. Therefore, as the lift force gives torque, the profile of the blade has to be designed setting the
attack angle (α), the relative position of the blade with the wind, to make maximum lift / drag force ratio
This simple analysis is only valid when the blades of a wind turbine are at rest. If the rotation of the rotor
is allowed, the resultant force on the blades will be the resultant from the combination of direct action
of the real wind and the action of the wind created by the blades.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 168
 Fig. Wind created by the blade and the apparent wind
The incident wind on the blades is called apparent wind, is the result from the composition of the vector
of the true wind vector and the wind created by the blade.
Each section of the blade has a different speed and the wind speed is higher in terms of the height, thus,
the apparent wind in each section is different. To obtain the same resultant force along its length, the
profile of the blade has to have different dimensions. Therefore, to achieve this homogeneous resultant
force, the rotor blade is twisted. The wing does not change its shape, but changes the angle of the wing
in relation to the general direction of the airflow (also known as the angle of attack).

In drag-based wind turbines, the force of the wind

pushes against a surface, like an open sail. In fact, the
earliest wind turbines, dating back to ancient Persia,
used this approach. In fact, the earliest wind turbines,
dating back to ancient Persia, used this approach. The
Savonius rotor is a simple drag-based windmill that you
can make at home. It works because the drag of the
open, or concave, face of the cylinder is greater than
the drag on the closed or convex section.
Fig.: Drag-based wind turbine concept

More energy can be extracted from wind using lift rather

than drag, but this requires specially shaped airfoil surfaces,
like those used on airplane wings. The airfoil shape is
designed to create a differential pressure between the
upper and lower surfaces, leading to a net force in the
direction perpendicular to the wind direction. Rotors of this
type must be, carefully oriented (the orientation is referred
to as the rotor pitch) to maintain their ability to harness the
Fig.: Lift-based wind turbine concept power of the wind as wind speed changes.
WIND TURBINE CLASSIFICATION
Wind turbines can be classified by three parameters: the direction of the rotor axis, the number of rotor
blades and the rotor position.
1. Classification according to rotor axis

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 169
 Fig. HAWT and VAWT
1. Vertical axis wind turbines are the machines where drag force causes the torque in the perpendicular
direction of the rotation axis. The basic theoretical advantages of a vertical axis turbine are:
 The possibility to place the generator, gearbox etc on the ground avoiding a tower for the
machine.
 Do not need a yaw mechanism to turn the rotor against the wind.
 Vertical axes machine does not needs regulation with wind speed variations since it is self-
regulated at high wind speeds
The basic disadvantages are:
 The machine is not self-starting.
 The overall efficiency of the vertical axis machines is usually worst than horizontal axes
machines.
 To replace the main bearing for the rotor, it requires removing the rotor on both horizontal and
vertical axis machines. But, in the case of vertical axes machine, this means tearing the whole
machine down.
Vertical axis wind turbines:
1. Darrieus type is the most famous vertical axis wind turbine. It is characterized by its C-shaped
rotor blades which give it its eggbeater appearance.

This wind mill needs much less surface area. It is normally built with two or three blades shaped like aero

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 170
foils and it is not self-starting. It needs to start turning before the wind will begin rotating it.
2. Savonius type is S-shaped if viewed from top. This turbine turns relatively slow, but yields high
torque. It is used for grinding grains and for pumping water and many other tasks, but its slow
rotational speeds make it unsuitable for generating electricity on a large-scale.

2. Horizontal axis wind turbine: Today, all grid-connected commercial wind turbines are built with a
propeller-type rotor on a horizontal axis (i.e. a horizontal main shaft). Although vertical axis wind
turbines have existed for centuries, they are not as common as their horizontal counterparts. The main
reason for this is that they do not take advantage of the higher wind speeds at higher elevations above
the ground as well as horizontal axis turbines.

Living aside shown main parts, others are

Associated power electronics: The part of the wind turbine where electric power is adapted to the
frequency and the voltage amplitude of the grid.
Transformer: The turbines have their own transformer to step-up the voltage level of the wind turbine to
the medium voltage line.

Components of a horizontal turbine and their role

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 171
Fig. Various components of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT). The three most important parts are the rotor, the gear box,
and the generator.

1. Anemometer or wind gauge: Measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the
controller.
One type of anemometer is a device with three arms that spin on top of a shaft. Each
arm has a cup on its end. The cups catch the wind and spin the shaft. The harder the
wind blows, the faster the shaft spins. A device inside counts the number of rotations
per minute and converts that figure into meters per second. A display on the
anemometer shows the speed of the wind.
2. Blades: Most turbines have either two or three blades. Wind blowing over the blades causes the
blades to "lift" and rotate. Blades are generally 30 to 50 meters long, with the most common sizes
around 40 meters. Longer blades are being designed and tested. Blade weights vary, depending on the
design and materials a 40 meter LM Glasfiber blade for a 1.5 MW turbine weighs 5,780 kg (6.4 tons) and
one for a 2.0 MW turbine weighs 6,290 kg (6.9 tons).
At the tip, the blade is almost
perpendicular to the wind due to the
high speed caused by rotation.

Near hub (or center of blade), blade

is oriented more towards the wind,
since speed due to rotation is less

The blade experiences a relative velocity that is a vector sum of the actual
Fig. Why turbine blades are twisted:
wind speed (V) and the speed caused by the rotation of the rotor (𝜔r where ω is the rotational speed
and r is the distance from the rotation axis)
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 172
4. Controller: There is a controller in the nacelle and one at the base of the turbine. The controller
monitors the condition of the turbine and controls the turbine movement. It starts up the machine at
wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per hour (mph) and shuts off the machine at about 65 mph. Turbines
cannot operate at wind speeds above about 65 mph because their generators could overheat.
5. Gear box: To convert the slowly rotating, high torque power from the wind turbine rotor to a high
speed, low torque power rotation. Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and
increase the rotational speeds from about 30 to 60 rotations per minute (rpm) to about 1200 to
1500rpm, the rotational speed required by most generators to produce electricity. This is a costly (and
heavy) part of the wind turbine and engineers are exploring „direct-drive generators that operate at
lower rotational speeds and don't need gear boxes.
Some turbines use direct drive generators that are capable of producing electricity at a lower rotational
speed. These turbines do not require a gearbox.
6. Generator: Usually an off-the-shelf induction generator that produces 60-cycle AC electricity. Wind
turbines typically have a single AC generator that converts the mechanical energy from the wind
turbine’s rotation into electrical energy. Synchronous generators are used in most traditional generators
(hydro, thermal, nuclear ...). But if these kinds of generators are directly connected to the main grid,
they must have fixed rotational speed in synchronism to the frequency of the grid. Thus, torque
fluctuations in the rotor (like the fluctuations caused by the wind speed variations) are propagated
through the machine to the output electric power. Furthermore, with fixed speed of the rotor, the
turbine cannot vary the rotational speed in order to achieve the optimum speed and extract the
maximum torque from the wind. So, with fixed speed the aerodynamic losses are bigger.
Due to these drawbacks, synchronous generators are only used in wind turbines with indirect grid
connection. The synchronous generator is controlled electronically (using an inverter), as a result the
frequency of the alternating current in the stator of the generator may be varied. In this way, it is
possible to run the turbine at variable rotational speed.
Consequently, the turbine will generate alternating current at exactly the variable frequency applied to
the stator.
On the other hand, asynchronous generators can be used directly or indirectly connected to the grid.
Due to the fact that this kind of generators allows speed variations (little) when is connected directly to
the grid. Hence, until the present day, most wind turbines in the world connected directly to the grid use
a so-called three phase asynchronous generator (also called induction generator) to generate electric
power. Clipper Wind power uses a different design that features four DC generators.
7. High-speed shaft: Drives the generator. Low- speed shaft.
The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 30 to 60 rotations per minute.
8. Nacelle: The nacelle houses the main components of the wind turbine. The rotor attaches to the
nacelle, which sits atop the tower and includes the gear box, low- and high-speed shafts, generator,
controller, and brake. A cover protects the components inside the nacelle. Some nacelles are large
enough for a technician to stand inside while working.
9. Pitch: Blades are turned, or pitched, out of the wind to keep the rotor from turning in wind that are
too high or too low to produce electricity.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 173
10. Rotor: The blades and the hub (the component to which the blades are attached) together are called
the rotor.
Rotor in HAWTS: In order to produce lift, an airfoil shape must be oriented so that its rounded leading
edge is facing approximately into the airflow direction. But, the airflow direction for a wind turbine is
actually a vector sum of the wind itself and the relative wind caused by the rotation of the blade
through the air. (If you flap your arms up and down, you can feel the relative wind on your hands). This
effect is described using the tip-speed-ratio (TSR) = 𝛚𝑹⁄𝑽; where ω is the angular velocity of the rotor, R
is the distance between the axis of rotation and the tip of the blade, and V is the wind speed.
Since the speed of a rotating blade varies from the center to the tip, the angle with which the airflow
encounters the airfoil varies along the blade. To account for this, the rotor blades must be twisted.
For any tip speed ratio, an optimum blade twist can be found that maximizes the power generated. But,
as the wind speed changes, the twist is no longer optimum. There are several ways to deal with this,
including variable pitch operation (rotating the entire blade along its axis as the wind speed varies) or
variable rotation speeds.

Rotor in VAWTS: The unique egg-beater shape of a Darrieus VAWT is called a troposkein shape.
Troposkein, Greek for turning rope, is the shape that a rotating rope would create. Since a rope can only
support tension forces, a wind turbine with this shape will have only tension forces when in operation,
and thus can be made lighter than a comparable rotor for a HAWT. However, a true troposkein shape is
hard to manufacture - one reason that new VAWT designs have concentrated on the H-type rotor
configuration.

11. Tower: Towers are made from tubular steel or steel lattice 60 to 80 meters high that consist of three
sections of varying heights. Because wind speed increases with height, taller towers enable turbines to
capture more energy and generate more electricity (There are some towers with heights around 100
meters).
12. Wind direction: This is an upwind turbine, so-called because it operates facing into the wind. Other
turbines are designed to run, downwind, facing away from the wind.
13. Wind or weather vane: Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to orient the
turbine properly with respect to the wind.
A wind vane points toward the source of the wind. Wind direction is
reported as the direction from which the wind blows, not the direction
toward which the wind moves. A north wind blows from the north toward
the south.
14. Yaw drive: Upwind turbines face into the wind; the yaw drive is used to keep the rotor facing into
the wind as the wind direction changes. Downwind turbines don't require a yaw drive, the wind blows
the rotor downwind.
15. Yaw motor: Powers the yaw drive

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 174
 Table: Typical main components and materials used in a wind turbine (%)
1.5MW Weight Permanent Concrete Steel Aluminum Copper GRP CRP Adhesive Core Total
Magnet
Rotor
Hub 6.0 100 15 5 100.0
Blades 7.2 2 78 100.0
Nacelle
Gearbox 10.1 96 2 2 100.0
Generator 3.4 65 35 100.0
Frame 6.6 85 9 3 3 100.0
Tower 66.7 2 98
100 0.0 1.3 89.1 0.8 1.6 5.8 0.0 1.1 0.4 100.0
4MW Weight Permanent Concrete Steel Aluminum Copper GRP CRP Adhesive Core Total
Magnet
Rotor
Hub 6.00 100 100.0
Blades 7.6 2 68 10 15 5 100.0
Nacelle
Gearbox 10.10 96 2 2 100.0
Generator 2.7 3 93 4 100.0
Frame 6.60 85 9 3 3 100.0
Tower 67.00 2 98
100.0 0.08 1.34 89.6 0.80 0.51 5.37 0.76 1.14 0.38 100.0
3
Note: Tower includes foundation. GRP: glass-fiber-reinforced plastic; CRP: carbon fiber reinforced plastic (Source: Sterzinger and Svrcek, 2004)

2. Classification by the number of blades

A wind turbine does not give more power with more blades. If the machines are well designed, the
harvested power is more or less the same with different number of blades.
Wind turbines do not harvest power from the aerodynamic resistance; they do from the blades shape.
So, the difference between two wind turbines with a different number of blades is the torque generated
by each blade and consequently, the rotational speed of the rotor. Besides, wind turbines with multiple
blades starts working at low wind speeds, due to their high start-up torque.
A rotor with an odd number of blades (and at least three blades) can be considered as a disk when
calculating the dynamic properties of the machine. In the other hand, a rotor with an even number of
blades will give stability problems for a machine with a stiff structure. At the very moment when the
uppermost blade bends backwards, because it gets the maximum power from the wind, the lowermost
blade gets the minimum energy from the wind, which generates mechanic stress to the structure. Thus
most of the modern wind turbines have three blades.
3. Upwind or downwind classification
The machines can be upwind or downwind depending on the position of the rotor. Upwind machines
have the rotor facing the wind; on the contrary downwind machines have the rotor placed on the lee
side of the tower.

Fig. Illustration of upwind and downwind turbines

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 175
Downwind machines have the theoretical advantage that they may be built without a yaw mechanism.
The rotor and the nacelle have a suitable design that makes the nacelle follows the wind passively.
Another advantage is that the rotor may be made using more flexible materials. Thus, the blades will
bend at high wind speeds, taking part of the load off the tower. Therefore, downwind machines may be
built somewhat lighter than upwind machines.
The main drawback on downwind machines is that they are influenced by the wind shade behind the
tower. When blades cross the wind shade behind the tower, they lose torque and get it back again,
causing periodic effort variations in the rotor. Therefore, by far the vast majority of wind turbines have
upwind design.

4. According to power output

i. Very small wind turbines: 0.5-1Kw
ii. Small wind turbines: 1-15Kw
iii. Medium wind turbines: 15-200Kw
iv. Large wind turbines: 200-1000Kw
v. Very large wind turbines: 1000-6000Kw

WIND TURBINE POWER CALCULATIONS

Wind possesses energy by virtue of its motion. Any device capable of slowing down the mass of moving
air can extract part of the energy and convert into useful work. Following factors control the output of
wind energy converter:
* The wind speed
* Cross-section of the windswept by rotor
* Conversion efficiently of rotor
* Generator
* Transmission system
The amount of power that is produced by a wind turbine depends on many factors – one of which is the
rotor blades. The power that can be harvested in the area swept by the wind turbine rotor blades
The following nomenclature applies:
𝑑𝐸
E= Kinetic Energy (J), m = Mass (kg), v = wind speed (m/s), P = power (W), 𝑑𝑡 = Energy flow rate
𝑑𝑚
ρ= density (kg/m3), 𝑑𝑡 = Mass flow rate (kg/s), Cp = power coefficient, r = radius (m), x = distance (m)
t = time (s)
Under constant acceleration, the kinetic energy of an object having mass m and velocity v is equal to the
work done W in displacing that object from rest to a distance s under a force F, i.e.:
𝐸 = 𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑥 (1)
According to Newton’s Law (F = ma), we have:
𝐸 = 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚. 𝑎. 𝑥 (2)
Using the third equation of motion:
1 1
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 (3) 𝑥 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 (5)
{ 2 ∴ 𝑥0 = 0 ⟺ { 2
𝑣 − 𝑣0
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 (4) 𝑡= (6)
𝑎
Replacing Eq. (6) into Eq. (5), we get:

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 176
 1 𝑣 − 𝑣0 1 𝑣 − 𝑣0 2 𝑣0 . 𝑣 − 𝑣0 2 1 𝑣 2 − 2𝑣0 . 𝑣 + 𝑣0 2
𝑥 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 = 𝑣0 ( )+ 𝑎( ) = + ×
2 𝑎 2 𝑎 𝑎 2 𝑎
2 2 2 2 2
2𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑣0 . 𝑣 − 2𝑣0 + 𝑣 − 2𝑣0 . 𝑣 + 𝑣0 = 𝑣 − 𝑣0

(𝑣 2 − 𝑣0 2 )
𝑣 2 = 𝑣0 2 + 2𝑎𝑥 ⇔ 𝑎 = (7)
2𝑥
Since the initial velocity of the object is zero, i.e 𝑣0 2 = 0, we get:
𝑣2
𝑎= (8)
2𝑥
Substituting in Eq. (8) into Eq. (1), we reach the popular expression of kinetic energy:
𝑣2 𝟏
𝐸 = 𝑚. 𝑎. 𝑥 = 𝑚 𝑥 ⟺ 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 (9)
2𝑥 𝟐
As to the usual power definition (the work done or working/kinetic energy over time); the power in the
wind is given by the time-rated change of energy:
𝑑𝐸 1 2 𝑑𝑚
𝑃𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 = = 𝑣 (10)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
From the density definition,
𝜌 = 𝑚⁄𝑉 ⟺ 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 = 𝜌𝐴𝐷 (𝑠𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑔. 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝐿𝐻𝑆) 𝑜𝑟 𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴𝑥 (11)
Therefore, the mass flow rate in Eq. (10) is given by:
𝑑𝑚 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝜌𝐴 ∴ =𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚
= 𝜌𝐴𝑣 (12)
𝑑𝑡
Hence, from equation (10), the power can be defined as:
1 𝑑𝑚 𝟏
𝑷𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅 = 𝑣 2 = 𝝆𝑨𝒗𝟑
2 𝑑𝑡 𝟐
Where; Pwind is the power of the wind measured in Watts, ρ is the density of dry air ( 1.225 measured
in 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 at average atmospheric pressure at sea level at 15° C), V is the velocity of the wind measured
in m/s and A = the rotor swept area in square meters.
The term for the quotient 𝑷𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅 ⁄𝑨 is called the "Wind Power Density" (WPD) may be analogized to
irradiance in solar energy and has units of watts/m2.

Fig Power available from the wind with swept area

The rotor area determines how much energy a wind turbine is able to harvest from the wind. Due to the
fact that the amount of the air mass flow upon which the rotor can actuate is determined by this area,

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 177
this amount increases with the square of the rotor diameter, equation 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 and r = the radius of the
rotor measured in meters. Hence; the wind speed determines the amount of energy that a wind turbine
can convert to electricity. The potential energy per second in the wind varies in proportion to the cube
of the wind speed (If the wind speed is reduced by half (1/2), the power is reduced to 1/8 of the original
power), square of the radius of the rotor blades (If the radius of the rotor blades is doubled, the swept
area is quadrupled) and in proportion to the density of the air.

Sample exercises
1. For a wind turbine with rotor diameter 43 meters (a typical size for a 600 kW turbine), calculate the
volume and mass of a 1 meter thick parcel of air passing through the plane of the turbine blades (for this
exercise, assume a value for the air density of 1.225 kg/m3).

Ans: The volume of this disk of air equals its cross-sectional area A (=¼𝜋𝐷 2 ) times the disk's depth (D):
𝑉 = ¼ × 3.1416 × 43𝑚2 × 1𝑚 = 1451𝑚3
And its mass equals the volume of air times air density:
𝑀 = 𝜌 ∗ 𝑉𝑜𝑙 = 1.225 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 × 1451𝑚3 = 𝟏𝟕𝟖𝟎𝒌𝒈 (about the weight of intermediate car!)
2. Assume there is a wind blowing with a constant velocity V of 10.0 m/s through the blades of the
turbine described in no. 1. What is the wind power density? (Again, assume ρ = 1.225 kg/m3)
Ans:
1 1
𝑊𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 ⁄𝐴 = 𝜌𝑣 3 = × (1.225 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 ) × (10.0 𝑚⁄𝑠)3 = 𝟔𝟏𝟑 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔⁄𝒎𝟐
2 2
3. A smaller wind turbine which produces about 50kW has a blade rotor radius of 7m. (14m, diameter).
Calculate WPD for this wind turbine, assuming the same conditions as given in Exercises 1 and 2.
Ans.:
Easy! Remember that WPD is independent of turbine type or size, and only depends on wind speed and
density. Hence, the WPD is still 613 watts/m2, the same as calculated in exercise no. 2.

The roughness of the wind

About 1 Km above the ground level the wind is hardly influenced by the surface of the earth at all. But in
the lower layers of the atmosphere, wind speeds are affected by the friction against the surface of the
earth. Therefore, close to the surface the wind speed and wind turbulences are high influenced by the
roughness of the area. The more pronounced the roughness of the earth's surface, the more the wind
will be slowed down.
Trees and high buildings slow the wind down considerably, while completely open terrain will only slow
the wind down a little. Water surfaces are even smoother than completely open terrain, and will have
even less influence on the wind.
The fact that the wind profile is twisted towards a lower speed as we move closer to ground level is
usually called wind shear. The wind speed variation depending on the height can be described with the
following equation:
𝜶𝒘
𝑽′ 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒉′
=( )
𝑽𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒉

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 178
Where: 𝑉 ′ 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 = the velocity of the wind (m/s) at height h’ above ground level. 𝑉𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 =reference wind
speed, i.e. a wind speed is already known at height h. h’=height above ground level for the desired
velocity, αw=roughness length in the current wind direction. h = reference height (the height where is
known the exact wind speed, usually =10m).

Fig. Illustration of the wind speed variation due to the obstacles in the earth surface.
As well as the wind speed the energy content in the wind changes with the height. Consequently, the
wind power variations are described in equation
𝟑𝜶𝒘
𝑷′ 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒉′
=( )
𝑷𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒉
Table: Different 𝛼𝑤 (The roughness coefficient) values for different kind of surfaces.
0 – 0.0002: Water surface
0.002 – 0.5: Completely open terrain with a smooth surface, e.g. concrete runways in airports,
mowed grass, etc.
0.03 – 1: Open agricultural area without fences and hedgerows and very scattered buildings.
Only softly rounded hills
0.4 – 3: Villages, small towns, agricultural land with many or tall sheltering hedgerows,
forests and very rough and uneven terrain
1.6 – 4: Very large cities with tall buildings and skyscrapers

Fig. Evolution of wind turbine dimensions

In this example; the wind speed at 10 meter height is 15 m/s wind

speed. At 20 meter height, the wind speed is 17.2 m/s and there is
0.94 MW of power available in the wind, for a 300 m2 capture area. (1
MW= 1 million Watts). At 60 meters, the wind speed is about 25 %
higher, but the power is almost doubled at 1.8 MW.
Not all of this power can be captured by a wind turbine, due to
physical limits (e.g., Betz limit) as well as inefficiencies in the rotor,
generator and gearboxes

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 179
Wild is the Wind: Variability is a major problem associated with wind power. If the wind is too weak,
very little power is generated. But, if its too strong, the large forces exerted may cause structural
damage, so many turbines shut down in high winds.
The variations in wind speed are often modeled statistically using a Weibull curve. In addition to day-to-
day variability, winds are rarely steady. Instead, they are almost always gusting. This turbulence leads to
two problems: (1) the electrical power output of the generator will constantly vary, requiring proper
conditioning; and (2) the continually changing forces on the blades results in fatigue loading that is the
main factor in how long a blade can be run before needing replacement.

The power curve has three key points on the velocity scale:
To start a wind turbine, wind speed must exceed the so-called cut in speed (minimum value needed to
overcome friction and start producing energy) usually between 3-5m/s. With higher speeds the turbine
starts generating power depending on the known power equation. This will be so until it reaches the
nominal power. At this point the turbine activates its regulation mechanisms to maintain the same
output power. At very high wind speeds the turbine stops in order to avoid any damage. This stop wind
speed is called the cut out wind speed.
• Cut-in wind speed – the minimum wind speed at which the machine will deliver useful power. Typically
3 - 5 m/s
• Rated wind speed – the wind speed at which rated power is obtained (rated power is generally the
maximum power output of the electrical generator).
• Cut-out wind speed – the maximum wind speed at which the turbine is allowed to deliver power
(usually limited by engineering loads and safety constraints).

Fig. Typical power output versus wind speed curve

As any machine in movement, the generator has mechanic losses whether they are: at the bearings,
brushes, gear...; equally any electric machine has electric losses. Hence, only a part of the winds kinetic
energy can be converted to electric power. Actually, equ.4 should be 𝑃 = 0.5𝜌𝐴𝑉 3 𝐸 where, The
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 180
efficiency factor (E) needs to be considered due to blade size and shape, number of blades, pitch angle,
rotor speed, alternator efficiency, gear losses and other such factors.

Usable input power, Betz law

The more kinetic energy a wind turbine pulls out of the wind, the more the wind will be slowed down. In
one hand if the wind turbines extract all the energy from the wind, the air could not leave the turbine
and the turbine would not extract any energy at all. On the other hand, if wind could pass though the
turbine without being hindered at all; the turbine would not extract any energy from the wind.
Therefore is possible to assume that there must be some way of breaking the wind between these two
extremes, to extract useful mechanical energy from the wind.
Betz law says that “it’s only possible convert less than 16/27 (or 0.593 i.e. 59%) of the kinetic energy in
the wind to mechanical energy using a wind turbine”. This law can be applied to any kind of wind
generators with disc turbines. Besides this limit, also must be considered the aerodynamic and mechanic
efficiency from the turbines.
Useful electric energy from wind
In addition to Betz’s law; the process to harvest the wind also has other losses, even the best blades
have above 10% of aerodynamic losses. So, the electric power that can be extracted from the kinetic
energy of the wind with a turbine is given by the well-known equation (Pt (v) = the input power of the
generator)
𝟏
𝑷𝒕 (𝒗) = 𝝆. 𝝅. 𝒓𝟐 . 𝒗𝟑 . 𝑪𝒑
𝟐
Thus, the power coefficient tells how efficient is a turbine capturing the energy contained in the wind.
To measure this efficiency, the energy captured by the rotor is divided by the input wind energy. In
other words, the power coefficient is the relation between the kinetic energy in the rotor swept area
and the input power of the generator.
𝑃𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝐶𝑃 =
𝑃𝐴𝑖𝑟
Example:
We are given the following data:
Blade length, l = 52 m, Wind speed, v = 12 m/sec, Air density, ρ = 1.23 kg/m3, Power Coefficient, Cp = 0.4

Soln.: Inserting the value for blade length as the radius of the swept area into equation, we have:
l = r = 52m
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋 × 522 = 8495𝑚2
We can then calculate the power converted from the wind into rotational energy in the turbine using
equation
1 1
𝑷𝑨𝒗𝒂𝒊𝒍 = 𝜌. 𝐴. 𝑣 3 . 𝐶𝑝 = × 1.23 × 8495 × 123 × 0.4 = 𝟑. 𝟔𝑴𝑾
2 2
The electrical power output from the generator is less than the power captured by the rotor, due to
losses in both the gear train and generator:
𝟏
𝑷𝑻 = 𝑪𝒑 . 𝜼𝒈 𝜼𝒃 ( 𝝆. 𝑨. 𝒗𝟑 )
𝟐
Where, g and b are efficiencies (power output over power input) for the generator and the gearbox.
Gearbox efficiencies are typically 90- 95%, while generator efficiencies range from 50% (for a car
alternator) to better than 80% for a high quality, grid-connected model.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 181
 Fig. Representation of the power losses at different steps of electric wind energy generation

The power coefficient as none static, it varies with the tip speed ratio of the turbine. The Tip Speed Ratio
(TSR) is an extremely important factor in design for all lift-type wind turbines. TSR refers to the ratio
between the wind speed and the speed of the tips of the wind turbine blades. Tip speed ratio is defined
as:
𝑇𝑖𝑝 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒
𝜆=
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
If the rotor of the wind turbine spins too slowly, most of the wind will pass straight through the gap
between the blades, therefore giving it no power!
But if the rotor spins too fast, the blades will blur and act like a solid wall to the wind. Also, rotor blades
create turbulence as they spin through the air. If the next blade arrives too quickly, it will hit that
turbulent air. So, sometimes it is actually better to slow down blades!
Wind turbines must be designed with optimal tip speed ratios to get the maximum amount of power
from the wind.

Fig. The further away from the centre, the faster the blades spin and an example of scaled blade tangential velocity vectors in a
standard frame
The blade tip speed can be calculated from the rotational speed of the turbine and the length of the
blades used in the turbine using the following equation:
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑟𝑝𝑚) × 𝜋 × 𝐷
𝐵𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑝 =
60
Where D is the diameter of the turbine

Measuring Revolution Time (i.e. RPM): It is easy to find the distance travelled by the blade tip, but
finding how long it takes to go that distance can be tricky. There are several ways to find revolutions per
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 182
minute (RPM), but there is not a single simple way!
• Manually—try to count how many times the blades revolve in a certain time period. It helps to mark or
colour one blade differently so you can be sure of when the turbine makes a full revolution.
• Use a real tachometer—These are great, but can be pricy. Try the “Hangar 9 Tachometer” or the
“Extech Pocket Tachometer”
• If you’re crafty, you can use a bicycle computer. Attach the magnet to the rotor and the sensor to a
non-moving part of the turbine.
You need to know how many seconds it takes the rotor to spin around one time. If you found RPM, you
will need to convert this number. There are 60 seconds in one minute, so just divide 60 by your RPM
value. That will tell how many seconds it takes to make one revolution.
How To Find The Tip Speed: (1) Measure the rotor radius (length of one blade), (2) Speed = distance
divided by time. The distance travelled is the circumference (2𝜋𝑟).
3. Speed:
2𝜋𝑟
𝑉 =
𝑡
The blades travel one circumference (2Πr) in a rotation time of t (seconds).
If TSR is above 1, that means there is lift involved to make your blades spin faster than the wind speed. If
your TSR is below 1, there is a lot of drag going on. Old windmills used to lift weights, grind grain, or
pump water probably had TSRs around 1. Modern wind turbines have higher TSR values like 5.

Fig. Wind Turbine Tip Speed Visualization using smoke using downwind of the tower
Knowing the tip speed ratio of the turbine helps in maximizing the power output and efficiency of your
wind turbine. Remember if the rotation of the rotor is too slow, wind passes through the rotor swept
area without interacting with the turbine blades. If the rotation is too fast then the rotor swept area acts
as a barrier and deflects the wind, causing turbulence and loss of wind power. So, if you want to
maximize your turbine’s efficiency, you’ve got to calculate the perfect Tip Speed Ratio.
How do you know the perfect tip speed ratio?
If you want the optimum Tip Speed Ratio for maximum power output, this formula has been empirically
proven:

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 183
 4𝜋
𝜆𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑛
Where n = number of blades
Thus, # of Blades vs. Optimum TSR: 2 — Around 6, 3 — Around 4—5, 4 — Around 3, 6 — Around 2. The
optimal TSR for horizontal-axis, three blade turbines, which are predominantly used in onshore and
offshore wind farms, is approximately 5:1 to 6:1, as shown in Fig.

Fig. The optimal TSR for the popular horizontal-axis three blade turbines
To calculate the TSR for a VAWT you need to record the rotational speed of the rotor (ω), the radius of
the rotor, and the wind speed. With these three values the TSR can be calculated with the following
formula.
𝜆 = 𝜔𝑅⁄𝑣
Another method used to increase the efficiency of a wind turbine is the use of a variable pitch control
system. The variable pitch control system is used to adjust the pitch of the turbine blades so that the
power co-efficient (Cp) equals the maximum attainable power co-efficient (CPmax) for a range of wind
speeds. Or more simply put, it allows you to control the pitch of the blades so that CP = CPmax, by
maintaining a constant tip-speed ratio as illustrated by the following graph:

Twisted blades: Modern wind turbine blades have a twist along the length of the blade. The airfoil's
optimal angle of attack is affected by the apparent wind direction. The apparent wind direction changes
as the speed of blade increases, even when a uniform wind velocity exists across the rotor swept area.
As the tip of the blade travels much faster than segments of the blade closer to the hub of the rotor, the
blades have incorporated a twist as to achieve an optimal angle of attack along the full length of the
turbine blade. Straight blades are those that do not have a twist and are cheaper to manufacture.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 184
 Fig. Twisted blades
Sample calculation
What distance does a one meter blade travel to complete one revolution?
Answer: Distance = (2𝜋𝑟)(r) = (2)( 𝜋)(1 meter) = 6.28 meters
Now, let’s assume we measure an rpm of 450 at the tip of the blade using our digital tachometer. How
far does the tip of the blade travel in one hour?
Answer: 450 rpm = 450 r/min
(450 r/min) x (60 min/hour) = 27000 rotations per hour = 27000 r/hour
(27000 r/hour) x (1 hour) = 27000 rotations
(27000 rotations) x (6.28 meters/rotation) = 169,560 meters
Note: we know that the blade tip travels 6.28 meters in one rotation because this is the first calculation
we did!
So, now we know that the tip of the blade travels 169,560 meters in one hour. Now, let’s convert the
meters to miles:
169,560 meters x (1 mile)/(1609 meters) = 105 miles
Alright, we are almost finished. Now we have to calculate the speed at the tip of the blade. This is easy
because we know the tip of the blade travelled 105 miles in one hour. See calculation below:
Distance = (rate) x (time) and rate = (distance)/ (time)
Rate = (105 miles)/(1 hour) = 105 miles/hour = 105 mph
That’s it! The tip speed of this particular blade is 105 mph at 450 rpm. So what if the wind was blowing
at 20 mph when we measured 450 rpm. What is the TSR? That’s easy:
TSR = (Blade tip speed)/(wind speed) = (105 mph)/(20 mph) = 5.3

WIND FARMS
Wind power plants, or wind farms, are clusters of wind turbines used to produce electricity. A wind farm
usually has dozens of wind turbines scattered over a large area. Choosing the location of a wind farm is
known as siting a wind farm. The wind speed and direction must be studied to determine where to put
the turbines. As a rule, wind speed increases with height, as well as over open areas with no windbreaks.
Turbines are usually built in rows facing into the prevailing wind. Placing turbines too far apart wastes
space. If turbines are too close together, they block each other’s wind.
The site must have strong, steady winds. Scientists measure the winds in an area for several years before
choosing a site. The best sites for wind farms are on hilltops, on the open plains, through mountain
passes, and near the coasts of oceans or large lakes.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 185
The wind blows stronger and steadier over water than over land. There are no obstacles on the water to
block the wind. There is a lot of wind energy available offshore.
Offshore wind farms are built in the shallow waters off the coast of major lakes and oceans. Offshore
turbines produce more electricity than turbines on land, but they cost more to build and operate.

PROS AND CONS OF WIND ENERGY

Advantages
Peak oil and peak natural gas – the decline of oil and natural gas production in an ever-growing number
of nations – puts wind power on the forefront of competitiveness. But the reason for its success goes far
beyond pure cost considerations. It is a combination of more than one dozen specific attributes that give
wind power an advantage over other power technologies:
1. The primary energy (wind) is cost-free;
2. The primary energy is renewable and never runs out;
3. There is an abundant resource; nobody can cut access/supply;
4. Stable life-cycle-cost of its use can be guaranteed;
5. Wind power is competitive with other new power sources;
6. Wind is a clean; Operating wind turbines cause no carbon emissions, no air pollution and no
hazardous waste;
7. No water for cooling is needed;
8. Wind has a short energy payback of energy invested, normally less than one year;
9. There is a global, easy access to wind technology, compared to nuclear and others;
10. Time to market is very short, erection of entire wind farms within one year possible;
11. Fast innovation cycles prevail, based on maturing know-how;
12. Wind is still a young technology, allowing progress on the learning curve and cost reductions;
13. Wind is decentralized power; it allows small organizations or groups in various places to become a
part of the power generation business and to sell it for a profit – very different from the exclusive
structure of the oil, gas or nuclear business;
14. Distances from good wind sites to consumers in general are moderate (1-1000 miles) compared to
other energy sources (oil, gas, uranium, coal)
15. Wind energy has positive side benefits for various stakeholders such as job creation, taxes, income
options for farmers, infrastructure for remote areas, investment opportunities for local communities etc.
16. Wind energy replaces expenses for (often imported) fuels by technology, creating energy, know-how
and human labor in a decentralized way.
17. Can be installed in remote villages, thus reducing costly transmission lines
Disadvantages
1. Capital cost is very high
2. Large area of land is required
3. Maintenance cost is very high
4. They can only run when the wind is blowing at certain speeds, which affect their production.
Wind power is not the perfect answer to our electricity needs, but it is a valuable part of the
solution.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 186
 Student presentation reports
Air conditioning and refrigeration & automobile group

Table of content
Chap0: INTRODUCTION
Chap1: Wind Energy
1.1 Introduction to wind
1.2 Generation of wind energy
1.3 Different types of wind energy
1.4 History of wind energy and the application
Chap2: Design and implementation of wind energy
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Overview of wind energy design generation
2.2.1 Schematic
2.2.2. Blades
2.2.3 Stator
2.2.4 Rotor
2.2.5 Generator
Chap 3: Challenges in wind power generation
Chap 4: Integration of wind and another energy sources

CHAP0: INTRODUCTION
01 Definition
Energy is defined as ability or capacity to do the work and is broadly divided into two main classifications
that are Renewable energy and non-renewable energy. Renewable is the energy comes from natural

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 187
resources such as wind, water and cannot be exhausted at all because it is natural and Nonrenewable is
type of energy that will eventually run out such as fossil fuels like coal gas and oil
Wind Energy
Wind: usually wind Is the moving air and that movement is caused by uneven heating of earth surface
the warm air is less dense and has High pressure HP Because it is Lighter then cold air is higher denser
with low pressure LP . This will make the air to move from hot regions to cold regions from HP to LP
Wind power or wind energy is the use of wind to provide mechanical power through wind turbines to
turn electric generators for electrical power. Wind power is a popular sustainable, renewable
energy source that has a much smaller impact on the environment compared to burning fossil fuels.
Wind farms consist of many individual wind turbines, which are connected to the electric power
transmission network. Onshore wind is an inexpensive source of electric power, competitive with, or in
many places cheaper than, coal or gas plants. Onshore wind farms have a greater visual impact on the
landscape than other power stations, as they need to be spread over more land and need to be built in
rural areas, which can lead to "industrialization of the countryside" and habitat loss.[4] Offshore wind is
steadier and stronger than on land and offshore farms have less visual impact, but construction and
maintenance costs are significantly higher. Small onshore wind farms can feed some energy into the grid
or provide power to isolated off-grid locations.
2.4.2 Main parts of wind turbine
1. Anemometer: - Measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the controller.
2. Blades: - Most turbines have either two or three blades. Wind blowing over the blades causes the
blades to "lift" and rotate.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 188
 3.Controller: - The controller starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per hour
(mph) and shuts off the machine at about 65 mph. Turbines cannot operate at wind speeds above about
65 mph because their generators could overheat.
4. Gear box: - Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increase the rotational
speeds from about 30 to 60 rotations per minute (rpm) to about 1200 to 1500 rpm, the rotational speed
required by most generators to produce electricity.
5. Generator: Usually an off-the-shelf induction generator that produces 60-cycle AC electricity.

6. High-speed shaft: Drives the generator. The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 30 to 60
rotations per minute.
7. Nacelle: - The rotor attaches to the nacelle, which sits at the tower and includes the gear box, low-
and high-speed shafts, generator, controller, and brake. It is a cover protects the components inside the
nacelle.
8. Pitch: - Blades are turned, or pitched, out of the wind to keep the rotor from turning in wind that are
too high or too low to produce electricity.
9. Rotor: - The blades and the hub together are called the rotor.
10. Tower: - Towers are made from tubular steel (shown here) or steel lattice. Because wind speed
increases with height, taller towers enable turbines to capture more energy and generate more
electricity.
11. Wind direction: - This is an „upwind turbine, so-called because it operates facing into the wind.
Other turbines are designed to run downwind, facing away from the wind.
12. Wind vane: - Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to orient the turbine
properly with respect to the wind.
13. Yaw drive: - Upwind turbines face into the wind; the yaw drive is used to keep the rotor facing into
the wind as the wind direction changes. Downwind turbines don't require a yaw drive; the wind blows
the rotor downwind.
14. Yaw motor: - Powers the yaw drive

Fig. schematic diagram of conversion of wind energy to electrical

2.4.2. Classification of wind Energy

2.4 .2.1 According to axis of mills

(a) Horizontal Wind mills

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 189
 (i) Horizontal Axis single blade Wind mill
The relatively simple rotor hub consists of a universal joint between the rotor shaft and blade allowing
for blade. This type of hub design contains fewer parts and costs less.

Fig: Horizontal Axis single blade Wind mills

(ii) Horizontal axis – two bladed wind mills
In this arrangement rotor drives generator through a step-up gear box. The two blade rotor is usually
designed to be oriented downwind of the tower. When the machine is operating its rotor blades are
continuously flexed by unsteady aerodynamic, gravitational and inertial loads. If the blades are metal,
flexing reduces their fatigue life. The tower is also subjected to unsteady load and dynamic interactions
between the components of the machine-tower system can cause serious damage.

Fig. Horizontal axis – two bladed wind

iii) Horizontal Axis – Multi bladed Wind Mills
This type of wheel has narrow rims and Wire spokes. The wire spokes support lightweight aluminum
blades. The rotors of this design have high strength to weight ratios and have been known to survive
hours of freewheeling operation in 100kmph winds. They have good power Co-efficient, high starting
torque and added advantage of simplicity and low cost.

Fig. Multi bladed wind mill

The advantages of horizontal axis wind turbines
 High Power Output. ...
 High Efficiency. ...
 High Reliability. ...

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 190
 High Operational Wind Speed. ...
Disadvantages
 Difficult to Transport, Install, and Maintain. ...
 Create Negative Environmental Impact. ...
 Strict Regulations for Installation.

(b) Vertical Wind Mills

Wind turbines mounted with the axis of rotation in a vertical position; have advantage that they are
Omni-directional that is, they need not to be turned to face the wind. The vertical mounted wind
machines eliminate the need for some of the complex mechanical devices and control systems
necessary for horizontal mounted wind machines.
They are types of vertical axis wind turbine: Darrius and Savona’s wind turbine.
The Savona’s rotor consists of two or three convex metal blades with an air foil cross section, mounted
on a Central shaft which is supported by bearings at the top and bottom.

The Darrius rotor consists of a long solid’s- shaped surface mounted to turn at the central shaft. The
savories rotor has an efficiency of about 31% while the durries rotor has a slightly higher efficiency of
35%.

Advantages of vertical axis wind mills

 Cheaper to produce than horizontal axis turbines.
 More easily installed compared to other wind turbine types.
 Transportable from one location to another.
 Equipped with low-speed blades, lessening the risk to people and birds.
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 191
  Function in extreme weather, with variable winds and even mountain conditions.
 Permissible where taller structures are prohibited.
 Quieter to operate, so they don’t disturb people in residential neighborhoods.
2.4.2.2 According to power output
I. Very small wind turbines: 0.5-1Kw
ii. Small wind turbines: 1-15Kw
iii. Medium wind turbines: 15-200Kw
iv. Large wind turbines: 200-1000Kw
v. Very large wind turbines: 1000-6000Kw
2.4.3. WIND POWER
Following factors control the output of wind energy converter:
 The wind speed
 Cross-section of the wind swept by rotor
 High annual wind speed
 Conversion efficiently of rotor
 Generator
 Transmission system.
The benefits of wind energy
Wind energy is an ideal renewable energy because:
 It is a pollution-free, infinitely sustainable form of energy.
 It doesn’t require fuel.
 It doesn’t create greenhouse gasses.
 It doesn’t produce toxic or radioactive waste.
Wind Energy & the Environment
Wind is a clean fuel; wind power plants (also called wind farms) produce no air or water pollution
because no fuel is burned to generate electricity. Drawbacks of Wind Machines The most serious
environmental drawbacks to wind machines may be their negative effect on wild bird populations and
the visual impact on the landscape. To some, the glistening blades of windmills on the horizon are an
eyesore; to others, they're a beautiful alternative to conventional power plants.

6 Challenges in wind power generation

While wind power generation offers numerous benefits and advantages over conventional power
generation, there are also some challenges and problems need to be seriously addressed. The wide
range of challenges and problems, from long term environmental influences to thermal management of
wind turbines, must be carefully considered in response to the rapid growth of wind power generation.

6.1 Environmental impacts

Modern wind farms today may contain a large number of large-size wind turbines. Therefore, their
impacts on the environment cannot be ignored. One of the impacts is that poorly sited wind energy
facilities may block bird migration routes and hurt or kill birds. Though blade rotation speeds are rather
low for large wind turbines at their normal operation, the tangential speeds at the blade tips could be
higher than 70 m/s. At such high speeds, birds flying through the blade sweeping areas may be easily
hurt or killed by colliding with blades. It has been reported by the US National Academy of Science that
wind turbines may kill up to 40,000 birds per year in US. Though this number is much smaller than the
80 million birds killed by cars each year, it is important to evaluate the long-term influence on local
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 192
geography, seasonal bird abundance and the species at risk. To reduce the bird death, using bird scares
to drive birds away from wind farms has been considered. A more recent study has revealed that fossil-
fueled power stations appear to pose a much greater threat to avian wildlife than wind and nuclear
power technologies. Today, this problem becomes less important. Before building a wind farm, a series
of environmental assessments have to be completed to avoid bird migration routes and to minimize
other environmental impacts. Once the wind farm is built, further monitoring takes place to better
understand the ongoing relationship between birds and the wind farm. Building wind farms will change
the character of local landscape. Modern large wind turbines are more than 100 m tall and thus can be
seen at a far distance. In practice, the visual effect for local residents is a significant consideration and is
always scrutinized for wind projects. To minimize the visual effect, wind turbines usually use neutral
colors such as light grey or off-white. Strategies to minimize visual effects involve the spacing, design,
and uniformity of turbines, markings or lighting, roads and service buildings. There are a number of
analytical tools available to assist understanding and testing of the effect of wind farms on visual
amenity.

6.2 Wind turbine noise

With the extensive buildup of wind power plants and the population growth all over the world, the
influence of wind turbine noise to the nearby residents becomes www.witpress.com, ISSN 1755-8336
(on-line) WIT Transactions on State of the Art in Science and Engineering, Vol 44, © 2010 WIT Press
Fundamentals of Wind Energy 29 a problem not to be neglected. Wind turbine noise consists of
aerodynamic noise from rotating blades and mechanical vibration noise from gearboxes and generators.
For a modern large wind turbine, aerodynamic noise from the blades is considered to be the dominant
noise source. A detailed review of available wind turbine noise standards, regulations, and guidelines in
Europe, North America, and Australia was made by Ramakrishna. Though the noise limits vary
significantly country to country, the approximate noise level at night times in most European countries
and Canada ranges from 35 to 40 db. There are two components in aerodynamic noise: (1) airfoil self-
noise, that is, the noise produced by the blade in an undisturbed inflow and is caused by the interaction
in the boundary layer with the blade trailing edge; and (2) inflow turbulence noise which is caused by
the interaction of upstream atmospheric turbulence with the blade and depends on the atmospheric
conditions. Both airfoil self-noise and inflow turbulence noise mechanisms are dependent on a number
of parameters such as wind speed, angle of attack, radiation direction, and airfoil shape. There are a
number of techniques for reducing aerodynamic noise produced by wind turbine blades. One of them is
to use serrated blades at their trailing edges. It can improve blade aerodynamic characteristics and
reduce the noise induced by Karman vortex street. Another is to use turbulence generating means,
placed on the leeward surface side and at the outer section of the blade, to reduce noise. In a recent US
patent application, it has reported that with an anti-noise device at the blade trailing edge, it allows
altering the characteristics of the boundary layer and therefore modifies emitted noise. The field
measurements of GE wind turbines have shown that the use of the optimized blades and the serrated
blades can reduce average overall noise by 0.5 and 3.2 dB, respectively. In a field test of a 2.3 MW wind
turbine, the overall noise level reduction provided by blade serrations is over 6 dB for at least two
frequencies.

6.3 Wind turbine lifetime

Modern wind turbines are designed for the lifetime of 20–30 years. A critical challenge facing turbine
manufacturers and wind power plants is how to achieve the lifetime goals while at the same time
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 193
minimize the costs of maintenance and repair. However, improving the operational reliability and
extending the lifetime of wind turbines are very difficult tasks for a number of reasons:
• Wind turbines have to be exposed to various hostile conditions such as extreme temperatures, wind
speed fluctuations, humidity, dust, solar radiation, lightning, salinity and frequent onslaughts of rain,
hail, snow, ice, and sandstorms.
• A modern wind turbine consists of a large number of components and systems; each of them has its
own lifetime. According to the Cannikin law, failure must first occur in the component or system with
the shortest lifetime.

6.4 Cost of electricity from wind power

Although the wind power industry appears to be booming in recent years worldwide, achieving
continuous cost reduction in wind power generation continues to be a challenge and a key focus for the
wind industry. Wind power is characterized by low variable costs and relatively high fixed costs. The
main factors governing wind power economics are:
• Investment costs, including wind turbines, foundations, and grid connection
• Operation and maintenance (O&M) costs, including regular maintenance, repairs, insurance, spare
parts, and administration
• Wind turbine’s electricity production cost, which highly depends on the wind turbine capacity, wind
farm size, and average wind speed at the chosen site
• Wind turbine lifetime
• Discount rate

7. Integration of wind and other energy sources

One of the notable characteristics in the wind power generation is its uncertainty due to the sudden
change in both wind speed and direction, especially for off-grid wind power generation systems.
Therefore, the power output from wind turbines fluctuates from time to time. When wind turbines are
connected to a small or isolated grid, the power output from other generators must be varied in
response to these variations and fluctuation in order to keep system frequency and voltage within
predefined limits. For this purpose, it is beneficial to integrate wind and other complementary energy
sources to form hybrid power systems for assuring the stability and reliability of power supply and
reducing the requirement for the wind energy storage.

7.1 Wind–solar hybrid system

Both wind and solar energy are highly intermittent electricity generation sources. Time intervals within
which fluctuations occur span multiple temporal scales, from seconds to years. These fluctuations can
be subdivided into periodic fluctuations (diurnal or annual fluctuations) and non-periodic fluctuations
related to the weather change.
Wind and solar energy are complementary to each other in time sequence and regions. In the summer,
sunlight is intensive and the sunshine duration is long but there is less wind. In the winter, when less
sunlight is available, wind becomes strong. During a day, the sunshine is strong while wind is weak. After
sunset, the wind is strengthened due to large temperature changes near the earth’s surface. It has been
reported that the effects of complementarity are more dramatic in certain periods and locations at
Serbia.The analyses and test data of wind–solar hybrid power systems have shown that the optimum
combination of the wind– solar hybrid system lies between 0.70 and 0.75 of solar energy to load ratio
with the minimized life cycle cost.
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 194
 Fig. Wind-solar hybrid system for street lights
For all load demands, the leveled energy cost for the wind–solar hybrid system is always lower than that
of standalone solar or wind system. Because the major operating time for wind and solar systems occurs
at different periods of time, wind–solar hybrid power systems can ensure the reliability of electricity
supply. The applications of wind–solar hybrid systems range extensively from residential houses to
municipal and industrial facilities, either grid connected or standalone. For instance, as an independent
power supply source, wind–solar hybrid systems have been widely used in China for street lighting (see
Fig.16). The world’s largest wind–solar power test base, integrating wind power, photovoltaic power and
energy storage, is being constructed at Zhangbei, China. The project will have an installed capacity to
generate 300 MW of wind power, 100 MW of solar power and 75 MW of chemical energy storage.

8. APPLICATIONS OF WIND ENERGY

After discussing about operating principal of wind energy it has different applications in mechanical, electrical
domains.
1. The wind energy is used to propel the sailboats in river and seas to transport men and materials from
one place to another.
2. Wind energy is used to run pumps to draw water from the grounds through wind mills.
3. Wind energy has also been used to run flourmills to grind the grains like wheat and corn into flour.
4. Now-a-days wind energy is being used to generate electricity.
Wind energy may be considered as the world’s fastest growing energy source.
Advantages of wind energy:
• It is a renewable form of energy, which means it will never run out.
• Wind energy is clean. It causes no pollution.
• The land on which turbines are built can still be used for farming.
• It costs no more than coal energy and is cheaper than nuclear energy.
• Overall wind energy projects are simple, clean and cheap to maintain. Jobs are often created both in
the short and long term in the building and maintenance of the turbines
Disadvantages of wind energy:
• Some people are concerned about noise, although wind turbines are quieter than many people think.
• Wind turbines do not work in very weak or very strong winds.
• Some people think that wind farms spoil the look of the landscape, although not everyone agrees.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 195
 Student presentation reports
[Production technology group]
Fundamentals of wind energy
The rising concerns over global warming, environmental pollution, and energy security have increased
interest in developing renewable and environmentally friendly energy sources such as wind, solar,
hydropower, geothermal, hydrogen, and biomass as the replacements for fossil fuels. Wind energy can
provide suitable solutions to the global climate change and energy crisis. The utilization of wind power
essentially eliminates emissions of CO 2, SO 2, NOx and other harmful wastes as in traditional coal-fuel
power plants or radioactive wastes in nuclear power plants. By further diversifying the energy supply,
wind energy dramatically reduces the dependence on fossil fuels that are subject to price and supply
instability, thus strengthening global energy security. During the recent three decades, tremendous
growth in wind power has been seen all over the world. In 2009, the global annual installed wind
generation capacity reached a record-breaking 37 GW, bringing the world total wind capacity to 158
GW. As the most promising renewable, clean, and reliable energy source, wind power is highly expected
to take a much higher portion in power generation in the coming decades.

The purpose of this chapter is to acquaint the reader with the fundamentals of wind energy and modern
wind turbine design, as well as some insights concerning wind power generation.

1. WIND ENERGY
Wind are due to convection currents in the air caused by uneven heating of the earth’s surface by the
sun. The main winds over the earth arise from the Polar Regions forcing the warm air over the tropics to
rise the path they follow is affected by earth’s rotation.
Wind speeds and directions change with the seasons but at a given place, the pattern is fairly content
over the years. Speed increases with height, being greatest in hilly areas; it is also greater over the sea
and coastal areas where there is less surface drag.
Wind energy can provide suitable solution to global climate change and energy crisis .the utilization of
wind power essentially eliminate emission of co2,so2 and other harmful waste as in traditional coal fuel
power plant or radioactive waste in nuclear power plant .
The kinetic energy in the wind is a promising source of renewable energy with significant potential in
many parts of the world. The energy that can be captured by wind turbines is highly dependent on the
local average wind speed. Regions that normally present the most attractive potential are located near
coasts, inland areas with open terrain or on the edge of bodies of water. Some mountainous areas also
have good potential. In spite of these geographical limitations for wind energy project siting, there is
ample terrain in most areas of the world to provide a significant portion of the local electricity needs
with wind energy projects.
Compared with traditional energy sources, wind energy has a number of benefits and advantages.
Unlike fossil fuels that emit harmful gases and nuclear power that generates radioactive wastes, wind
power is a clean and environmentally friendly energy source. As an inexhaustible and free energy
source, it is available and plentiful in most regions of the earth. In addition, more extensive use of wind
power would help reduce the demands for fossil fuels, which may run out some time in this century,
according to their present consumptions. Furthermore, the cost per kWh of wind power is much lower

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 196
than that of solar power. Thus, as the most promising energy source, wind energy is believed to play a
critical role in global power supply in the 21st century.
1.1. Source of Wind
Winds are caused by uneven heating of the earth surface. There are two implied factors:
(1) The absorption of solar energy on the earth’s surface and in the atmosphere.
(2) The rotation of the earth about its axis and its motion around the sun. Because of these factors,
alternate heating and cooling cycles occur, differences in pressure are obtained, and the air is caused to
move.
The potential of Wind energy as a source of power is large. This can be judged from the fact that energy
available in the wind over the earth’s surface is estimated to be 1.6x10 7 K.W. Besides the energy
available is free and clean.
1.2 The problems associated with Utilizing wind energy are that:
(i) The energy is available in dilute form, because of this conversion machines have necessary to be
large
(ii) The availability of the energy varies considerably over a day and with the seasons. For this reason
some Means of storage have to be devised if a continuous supply of power is required. A wind mill
converts the kinetic energy of moving air into mechanical energy that can be either used directly to run
the machine or to run the generator to produce electricity.
2. Wind generation
Wind power generation means getting electrical energy by converting wind energy into rotating energy
of blades and converting that rotating energy into electrical energy by the generator .the wind
generating set absorbs wind energy with a specially designed blade and convert wind energy to
mechanical energy, which further drives the generator rotating and realize conversion of wind energy to
electric energy.
the commonly used wind power generation system include the direct driven wind power generating set
and double fed wind power generating set ;the direct driven wind power generating set connected to
grid through full power converter ,while the double fed wind power generating set connected to grid
through double fed converter.
2.1. Uneven solar heating: Among all factors affecting the wind generation, the uneven solar radiation
on sphere revolving around the sun in the same plane as its equator. Because the surface of the earth is
perpendicular to the path of the sunrays at the equator but parallel to the sunrays at the poles, the
equator receives the greatest amount of energy per unit area, with energy dropping off toward the
poles. Due to the spatial uneven heating on the earth, it forms a temperature gradient from the equator
to the poles and a pressure gradient from the poles to the equator.
2.2 Coriolis force: The earth’s self-rotation is another important factor to affect wind direction and
speed. The Coriolis force, which is generated from the earth's self-rotation, deflects the direction of
atmospheric movements. In the north atmosphere wind is deflected to the right and in the south
atmosphere to the left. The Coriolis force depends on the earth’s latitude; it is zero at the equator and
reaches maximum values at the poles.
2.3 Local geography: The roughness on the earth’s surface is a result of both natural geography and
manmade structures. Frictional drag and obstructions near the earth’s surface generally retard with
wind speed and induce a phenomenon known as wind shear. The rate at which wind speed increases
with height varies on the basis of local conditions of the topography, terrain, and climate, with the
greatest rates of increases observed over the roughest terrain. A reliable approximation is that wind

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 197
speed increases about 10% with each doubling of height. In addition, some special geographic structures
can strongly enhance the wind intensity. For instance, wind that blows through mountain passes can
form mountain jets with high speeds.

3. History of wind energy applications

The use of wind energy can be traced back thousands of years to many ancient civilizations. The ancient
human histories have revealed that wind energy was discovered and used independently at several sites
of the earth.
3.1 Sailing
As early as about 4000 B.C., the ancient Chinese were the first to attach sails to their primitive rafts [5].
From the oracle bone inscription, the ancient Chinese scripted on turtle shells in Shang Dynasty (1600
B.C.–1046 B.C.), the ancient Chinese character (i.e sail - in ancient Chinese) often appeared. In Han
Dynasty (220 B.C.–200 A.D.), Chinese junks were developed and used as ocean-going vessels. As
recorded in a book wrote in the third century [6], there were multi-mast, multi-sail junks sailing in the
South Sea, capable of carrying 700 people with 260 tons of cargo
3.2 Wind in metal smelting processes
A bout 300 BC, ancient Sinhalese had taken advantage of the strong monsoon winds to provide furnaces
with sufficient air for raising the temperatures inside furnaces in excess of 1100°C in iron smelting
processes. This technique was capable of producing high-carbon steel

3.3 Windmills
China has long history of using windmills. The unearthed mural paintings from the tombs of the late
Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 AD) at Sandaohao, Liaoyang City, have shown the exquisite images of
windmills, evidencing the use of windmills in China for at least approximately 1800 years

3.3.1 Classification Of Wind Mills

1. Horizontal windmills: a) single bladed
b) Double bladed
c) Multi bladed
2. Vertical windmills: a) Darrius rotor
b) savonius rotor
1. Horizontal Wind mills:
i. Horizontal Axis single blade Wind mills If extremely long blades are mounted on rigid hub. Large
blade root bending moments can occur due to tower shadow, gravity and sudden shifts in wind
directions on a 200ft long blade. Fatigue load may be enough to cause blade root failure. To reduce
rotor cost, use of single long blade centrifugally balanced by a low cost counter Weight as shown in

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 198
fig3.1. The relatively simple rotor hub consists of a Universal Joint between the rotor shaft and blade
allowing for blade. This type of hub design contains fewer parts and costs less.

Figure: single blade wind mill

(ii) Horizontal axis – two bladed wind mills: In this arrangement rotor drives generator through a step-
up gear box. The components are mounted on a bed plate which is mounted on a pinttle at the Top of
the tower. The two blade rotor is usually designed to be oriented downwind of the tower.

Fig. double-blade windmill

When the machine is operating its rotor blades are continuously flexed by Unsteady aerodynamic,
gravitational and inertial loads. If the blades are metal, flexing reduces their fatigue life. The tower is
also subjected to unsteady load and dynamic interactions between the components of the machine-
tower system can cause serious damage.

(iii) Horizontal Axis – Multi bladed Wind Mills This type of wheel have narrow rims and Wire spokes. The
wire spokes support lightweight aluminum blades. The rotors of this design have high strength to weight
ratios and have been known to survive hours of free wheeling operation in 100kmph winds. They have
good power Co-efficient, high starting torque and added advantage of simplicity and low cost.
Position have advantage that they are omni-directional that is, they need not to be turned to Force the
wind. The Vertical mounted Wind Machines eliminates the need for some of the complex mechanical
devices and control systems necessary for horizontal mounted wind Machines. Two types of vertical axis
Wind Machines have received attention. The Darrius rotor consists of two or three convex metal blades
with

Fig. Multi-bladed windmill

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 199
(b) Vertical Wind Mills Wind turbines mounted with the axis of rotation in a vertical an air foil cross
section, mounted on a Central shaft which is supported by bearings at the top and bottom. The rotor
assembly is held in position by guy wires running from the top of the rotor to the ground.

Fig. vertical windmill (Darius rotor)

The savonius rotor consists of a long solid’s- shaped surface mounted to turn at the center of ‘s’ the
savonius rotor is self-starting and has an efficiency of about 31% while the Darrius rotor has a slightly
higher efficiency of 35% but is not self-starting

3.4 Wind turbines

Unlike windmills, which are used directly to do work such as water pumping or grain grinding, wind
turbines are used to convert wind energy to electricity. The first automatically operated wind turbine in
the world was designed and built by Charles Brush in 1888.
Wind turbines operate on a simple principle. The energy in the wind turns two or three propeller-like
blades around a rotor. The rotor is connected to the main shaft, which spins a generator to
create electricity.
Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power. This
mechanical power can be used for specific tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping water), or can be
converted into electricity by a generator.

Wind turbines are systems that harness the kinetic energy of the wind for useful power. Wind flows over
the rotor of a wind turbine, causing it to rotate on a shaft. The resulting shaft power can be used for
mechanical work, like pumping water, or to turn a generator to produce electrical power. Wind turbines
span a wide range of sizes, from small rooftop turbines generating less than 100 kilowatts up to large
commercial wind turbines in the megawatt power range, many of which operate in large clusters called
wind farms (like the one in the picture above).
Wind farms: is a collection of wind turbines that act together as a single station

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 200
Wind farm: A wind farm (often also called a wind park) is a cluster of wind turbines that acts and is
connected to the power system as a single electricity-producing power station. Generally, it is expected
that a wind farm consist of more than three wind turbines. Modern wind farms may have capacities in
the order of hundreds of MW, and are installed offshore as well as on land. Modern wind farms
generally are connected to the high voltage transmission system, in contrast to the early application of
wind energy for electricity production with wind turbines individually connected to the low-voltage to
medium-voltage distribution system. Hence, modern wind farms are considered power plants with
responsibilities for control, stability, and power balance. Thus, wind farms are required to contribute to
the control of voltage, frequency.
Wind turbine technology has reached a mature status during the past 15 years as a result of
international commercial competition, mass production and continuing technical success in research
and development.
The earlier concerns that wind turbines were expensive and unreliable have largely been allayed. Wind
energy project costs have declined and wind turbine technical availability is now consistently above
97%. Wind energy project plant capacity factors have also improved from 15% to over 30% today, for
sites with a good wind regime.
Modern wind energy systems operate automatically. The wind turbines depend on the same
aerodynamic forces created by the wings of an airplane to cause rotation. An anemometer that
continuously measures wind speed is part of most wind turbine control systems. When the wind speed
is high enough to overcome friction in the wind turbine drivetrain, the controls allow the rotor to rotate,
thus producing a very small amount of power. This cut-in wind speed is usually a gentle breeze of about
4 m/s. Power output increases rapidly as the wind speed rises. When output reaches the maximum
power the machinery was designed for, the wind turbine controls govern the output to the rated power.
The wind speed at which rated power is reached is called the rated wind speed of the turbine, and is
usually a strong wind of about 15 m/s.
Eventually, if the wind speed increases further, the control system shuts the wind turbine down to
prevent damage to the machinery. This cutout wind speed is usually around 25 m/s. The major
components of modern wind energy systems typically consist of the following: Rotor,
With 2 or 3 blades, which converts the energy in the wind into mechanical energy onto the rotor shaft;
Gearbox to match the slowly turning rotor shaft to the electric generator;
Tall tower, which supports the rotor high above the ground to capture the higher wind, speeds;
Solid foundation to prevent the wind turbine from blowing over in high winds and/or icing conditions
and Control system to start and stop the wind turbine and to monitor proper operation of the
machinery.
3.5 Kites
Kites were invented in China as early as the fifth or fourth centuries BC. A famous Chinese ancient
legalist Han Fei-Zi (280–232 BC) mentioned in his book that an ancient philosopher MoZe (479–381 BC)
spent three years to make a kite with wood but failed after one-day flight

4. Wind energy characteristics

Wind energy is a special form of kinetic energy in air as it flows. Wind energy can be either converted
into electrical energy by power converting machines or directly used for pumping water, sailing ships, or
grinding gain.
4.1 Power of wind

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 201
Wind has kinetic energy due its motion. A device such as wind turbine (the modern version of a wind
mill), which is able to slow it down, can extract the part of the energy. Not all the energy can be
extracted otherwise the wind would stop and no more air can pass.in practice, a well-designed turbine
will transfer about 35% of the available energy in the wind.
Wind power or wind energy is the use of wind to provide mechanical power through wind turbines to
turn electric generators for electrical power. Wind power is a popular sustainable, renewable energy
source that has a much smaller impact on the environment compared to burning fossil fuels.
4.2 Blade swept area

Figure 3: Swept area of wind turbine blades

4.3 Air density
Another important parameter that directly affects the wind power generation is the density of air,
which can be calculated from the equation of state:
4.4 Wind power density
Wind power density is a comprehensive index in evaluating the wind resource at a particular site. It is
the available wind power in airflow through a perpendicular cross-sectional unit area in a unit time
period. The classes of wind power density at two standard wind measurement heights

5. WIND CHARACTERISTICS
5.1. Wind speed: Wind speed is one of the most critical characteristics in wind power generation. In
fact, wind speed varies in both time and space, determined by many factors such as geographic and
weather conditions. Because wind speed is a random parameter, measured wind speed data are usually
dealt with using statistical methods.
5.2. Wind turbulence Wind turbulence is the fluctuation in wind speed in short time scales, especially
for the horizontal velocity component. The wind speed u(t) at any instant time t can be considered as
having two components: the mean wind speed u – and the instantaneous speed fluctuation u′

Fig. Weibull distribution for various mean wind speeds (𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑢̅ + 𝑢′(𝑡)
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 202
5.3. Wind gust: Wind gust refers to a phenomenon that a wind blasts with a sudden increase in
wind speed in a relatively small interval of time. In case of sudden turbulent gusts, wind speed,
turbulence, and wind shear may change drastically. Reducing rotor imbalance while maintaining
the power output of wind turbine generator constant during such sudden turbulent gusts calls
for relatively rapid changes of the pitch angle of the blades. However, there is typically a time
lag between the occurrence of a turbulent gust and the actual pitching of the blades based
upon dynamics of the pitch control actuator and the large inertia of the mechanical
components.
As a result, load imbalances and generator speed, and hence oscillations in the turbine
components may increase considerably during such turbulent gusts, and may exceed the
maximum prescribed power output level.
Moreover, sudden turbulent gusts may also significantly increase tower fore-aft and side-to-
side bending moments due to increase in the effect of wind shear. To ensure safe operation of
wind farms, wind gust predictions are highly desired. Several different gust prediction methods
have been proposed.
Contrary to most techniques used in operational weather forecasting, Brasseur developed a
new wind gust prediction method based on physical consideration. In another study, it reported
that using a gust factor, which is defined as peak gust over the mean wind speed, could well
forecast wind gust speeds. These results are in agreement with previous work by other
investigators.
5.4. Wind direction: Wind direction is one of the wind characteristics. Statistical data of wind
directions over a long period is very important in the site selection of wind farm and the layout
of wind turbines in the wind farm. The wind rose diagram is a useful tool of analyzing wind data
that are related to wind directions at a particular location over a specific time period (year,
season, month, week, etc.). This circular diagram displays the relative frequency of wind
directions in 8 or 16 principal directions. As an example shown in Fig. , there are 16 radial lines
in the wind rose diagram, with 22.5° apart from each other. The length of each line is
proportional to the frequency of wind direction. The frequency of calm or near calm air is given
as a number in the central circle. Some wind rose diagrams may also contain the information of
wind speeds.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 203
5.5. Wind shear: Wind shear is a meteorological phenomenon in which wind increases with the
height above the ground. The effect of height on the wind speed is mainly due to roughness on
the earth’s surface.
6. Modern wind turbines

A modern wind turbine is an energy-converting machine to convert the kinetic energy of wind into
mechanical energy and in turn into electrical energy. In the recent three decades, remarkable advances
in wind turbine design have been achieved along with modern technological developments. It has been
estimated that advances in aerodynamics, structural dynamics, and micrometeorology may contribute
to a 5% annual increase in the energy yield of wind turbines. Various wind turbine concepts have been
developed and built for maximizing the wind energy output, minimizing the turbine cost, and increasing
the turbine efficiency and reliability.

6.1 Wind turbine classification

Wind turbines can be classified according to the turbine generator configuration, airflow path relatively
to the turbine rotor, turbine capacity, the generator-driving pattern, the power supply mode, and the
location of turbine installation.
6.1.1 Horizontal-axis and vertical-axis wind turbines
When considering the configuration of the rotating axis of rotor blades, modern wind turbines can be
classified into the horizontal-axis and vertical-axis turbines. Most commercial wind turbines today
belong to the horizontal-axis type, in which the rotating axis of blades is parallel to the wind stream. The
advantages of this type of wind turbines include the high turbine efficiency, high power density, low cut-
in wind speeds, and low cost per unit power output.
Several typical vertical-axis wind turbines are shown in Fig. 6. The blades of the vertical-axis wind
turbines rotate with respect to their vertical axes that are perpendicular to the ground. A significant
advantage of vertical-axis wind turbine is that the turbine can accept wind from any direction and thus
no yaw control is needed. Since the wind generator, gearbox, and other main turbine components can
be set up on the ground, it greatly simplifies the wind tower design and construction, and consequently
reduces the turbine cost. However, the vertical-axis wind turbines must use an external energy source to
rotate the blades during initialization. Because the axis of the wind turbine is supported only on one end
at the ground, its maximum practical height is thus limited. Due to the lower wind power efficiency,
vertical-axis wind turbines today make up only a small percentage of wind turbines.
6.1.2 Upwind and downwind wind turbines
Based on the configuration of the wind rotor with respect to the wind flowing direction, the horizontal-
axis wind turbines can be further classified as upwind and downwind wind turbines. The majority of
horizontal-axis wind turbines being used today are upwind turbines, in which the wind rotors face the
wind. The main advantage of upwind designs is to avoid the distortion of the flow field as the wind
passes though the wind tower and nacelle.
For a downwind turbine, wind blows first through the nacelle and tower and then the rotor blades. This
configuration enables the rotor blades to be made more flexible without considering tower strike.
However, because of the influence of the distorted unstable wakes behind the tower and nacelle, the
wind power output generated from a downwind turbine fluctuates greatly.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 204
Figure 6: Several typical types of vertical-axis wind turbines: (a) Darrius; (b) Savonius; (c) Solarwind™; (d)
Helical ; (e) Noguchi ; (f) Maglev; (g) Cochrane.
6.1.3 Wind turbine capacity
Wind turbines can be divided into a number of broad categories in view of their rated capacities: micro,
small, medium, large, and ultra-large wind turbines. Though a restricted definition of micro wind
turbines is not available, it is accepted that a turbine with the rated power less than several kilowatts
can be categorized as micro wind turbine. Micro wind turbines are especially suitable in locations where
the electrical grid is unavailable. They can be used on a per-structure basis, such as street lighting, water
pumping, and residents at remote areas, particularly in developing countries. Because micro wind
turbines need relatively low cut-in speeds at start-up and operate in moderate wind speeds, they can be
extensively installed in most areas around the world for fully utilizing wind resources and greatly
enhancing wind power generation availability.
Small wind turbines usually refer to the turbines with the output power less than 100 kW [. Small wind
turbines have been extensively used at residential houses, farms, and other individual remote
applications such as water pumping stations, telecom sites, etc., in rural regions. Distributed small wind
turbines can increase electricity supply in the regions while delaying or avoiding the need to increase the
capacity of transmission lines.
The most common wind turbines have medium sizes with power ratings from 100 kW to 1 MW. This
type of wind turbines can be used either on-grid or off-grid systems for village power, hybrid systems,
distributed power, wind power plants, etc.
Megawatt wind turbines up to 10 MW may be classified as large wind turbines. In recent years, multi-
megawatt wind turbines have become the mainstream of the international wind power market. Most
wind farms presently use megawatt wind turbines, especially in offshore wind farms.
Ultra-large wind turbines are referred to wind turbines with the capacity more than 10 MW. This type of
wind turbine is still in the earlier stages of research and development.
6.1.4 Direct drive and geared drive wind turbines
According to the drivetrain condition in a wind generator system, wind turbines can be classified as
either direct drive or geared drive groups. To increase the generator rotor rotating speed to gain a
higher power output, a regular geared drive wind turbine typically uses a multi-stage gearbox to take
the rotational speed from the low-speed shaft of the blade rotor and transform it into a fast rotation on
the high-speed shaft of the generator rotor. The advantages of geared generator systems include lower

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 205
cost and smaller size and weight. However, utilization of a gearbox can significantly lower wind turbine
reliability and increase turbine noise level and mechanical losses.
By eliminating the multi-stage gearbox from a generator system, the generator shaft is directly
connected to the blade rotor. Therefore, the direct-drive concept is more superior in terms of energy
efficiency, reliability, and design simplicity.
6.1.5 On-grid and off-grid wind turbines
Wind turbines can be used for either on-grid or off-grid applications. Most medium-size and almost all
large-size wind turbines are used in grid tied applications. One of the obvious advantages for on-grid
wind turbine systems is that there is no energy storage problem.
As the contrast, most of small wind turbines are off-grid for residential homes, farms,
telecommunications, and other applications. However, as an intermittent power source, wind power
produced from off-grid wind turbines may change dramatically over a short period of time with little
warning. Consequently, off-grid wind turbines are usually used in connection with batteries, diesel
generators, and photovoltaic systems for improving the stability of wind power supply.
6.1.6 Onshore and offshore wind turbines
Onshore wind turbines have a long history on its development. There are a number of advantages of
onshore turbines, including lower cost of foundations, easier integration with the electrical-grid
network, lower cost in tower building and turbine installation, and more convenient access for
operation and maintenance.
Offshore wind turbines have developed faster than onshore since the 1990s due to the excellent
offshore wind resource, in terms of wind power intensity and continuity. A wind turbine installed
offshore can make higher power output and operate more hours each year compared with the same
turbine installed onshore. In addition, environmental restrictions are more lax at offshore sites than at
onshore sites. For instance, turbine noise is no long an issue for offshore wind turbines.
6.1.7 Wind turbine configuration
Most of the modern large wind turbines are horizontal-axis turbines with typically three blades. As
shown in Fig. 7, a wind turbine is comprised of a nacelle, which

Tower
A horizontal-axis wind turbine configuration. Courtesy of the US Patent & Trademark Office.
is positioned on the top of a wind tower, housing the most turbine components inside. Three blades
(not shown) mounted on the rotor hub, which is connected via the main shaft to the gearbox. The rotor

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 206
of the wind generator is connected to the output shaft of the gearbox. Thus, the slow rotating speed of
the rotor hub is increased to a desired high rotating speed of the generator rotor.
U sing the pitch control system, each blade is pitched individually to optimize the angle of attack of the
blade for allowing a higher energy capture in normal operation and for protecting the turbine
components (blade, tower, etc.) from damaging in emergency situations. With the feedback information
such as measured instantaneous wind direction and speed from the wind vane, the yaw control system
provides the yaw orientation control for ensuring the turbine constantly against the wind.
6.2 Wind turbine controls
Wind turbine control systems continue to play important roles for ensuring wind turbine reliable and
safe operation and to optimize wind energy capture. The main control systems in a modern wind turbine
include pitch control, stall control (passive and active), yaw control, and others.
Under high wind speed conditions, the power output from a wind turbine may exceed its rated value.
Thus, power control is required to control the power output within allowable fluctuations for avoiding
turbine damage and stabilizing the power output. There are two primary control strategies in the power
control: pitch control and stall control. The wind turbine power control system is used to control the
power output within allowable fluctuations.

6.2.1 Pitch control

The pitch control system is a vital part of the modern wind turbine. This is because the pitch control
system not only continually regulates the wind turbine's blade pitch angle to enhance the efficiency of
wind energy conversion and power generation stability, but also serves as the security system in case of
high wind speeds or emergency situations. It requires that even in the event of grid power failure, the
rotor blades can be still driven into their feathered positions by using either the power of backup
batteries or capacitors or mechanical energy storage devices.

Early techniques of active blade pitch control applied hydraulic actuators to control all blades together.
However, these collective pitch control techniques could not completely satisfy all requirements of
blade pitch angle regulation, especially for MW wind turbines with the increase in blade length and hub
height. This is because wind is highly turbulent flow and the wind speed is proportional to the height
from the ground. Therefore, each blade experiences different loads at different rotation positions. As a
result, more superior individual blade pitch control techniques have been developed and implemented,
allowing control of asymmetric aerodynamic loads on the blades, as well as structural loads in the non-
rotating frame such as tower side-side bending. In such a control system, each blade is equipped with its
own pitch actuator, sensors and controller.

In today’s wind power industry, there are primarily two types of blade pitch control systems: hydraulic
controlled and electric controlled systems. The hydraulic pitch control system uses a hydraulic actuator
to drive the blade rotating with respect to its axial centerline. The most significant advantages of
hydraulic pitch control system include its large driving power, lack of a gearbox, and robust backup
power. Due to these advantages, hydraulic pitch control systems historically dominate wind turbine
control in Europe and North America for many years.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 207
 Blade

Hydraulic Actuato
r

Control Oil
Pump Tank
System

Fig. Hydraulic pitch control system

Internal ring gear
Fan
Bearing

Electric
Gearbox Motor

Brake
Pinion gear
Fig. Electric pitch control system
The electric pitch control systems have been developed alternatively with the hydraulic systems. This
type of control system has a higher efficiency than that of hydraulic controlled systems (which is usually
less than 55%) and avoids the risk of environmental pollution due to hydraulic fluid being split or leaked.

In an electric pitch control system as shown in Fig. 12, the motor connects to a gearbox to lower the
motor speed to a desired control speed. A drive pinion gear engages with an internal ring gear, which is
rigidly attached to the roof of the rotor blade. Alternatively, some wind turbine manufacturers use the
belt-drive structure adjusting the pitch angle. The use of electric motors can raise the responsiveness
rate and sensitivity of blade pitch control. To enhance operation reliability, the use of redundant pitch
control systems was proposed to be equipped in large wind turbines.

6.2.2 Stall control

Besides pitch control, stall control is another approach for controlling and protecting wind turbines. The
concept of stall control is that the power is regulated through stalling the blades after rated speed is
achieved.
Stall control can be further divided into passive and active control approaches. Passive stall control is
basically used in wind turbines in which the blades are bolted to the hub at a fixed installing angle. In a
passive stall-regulated wind turbine, the power regulation relies on the aerodynamic features of blades.
In low and moderate wind speeds, the turbine operates near maximum efficiency. At high wind speeds,
the turbine is automatically controlled by means of stalled blades to limit the rotational speed and
power output, protecting the turbine from excessive wind speeds.
Compared with pitch control, a passive stall control system has a simple structure and avoids using a
complex control system, leading to high reliability of the control system. In addition, the power
fluctuations are lower for stall-regulated turbines. However, this control method has some
disadvantages, such as lower efficiency, the requirement of external equipment at the turbine start,
larger dynamic loads acting on the blades, nacelle, and tower, dependence on reliable brakes for the
operation safety. Therefore, this control technique has been primarily used for small and medium wind

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 208
 turbines. Since the capacity of wind turbines has entered the multi-megawatt power range in recent
years, pitch control has become dominant in the wind power market.

The active stall control technique has been developed for large wind turbines. An active stall wind
turbine has stalling blades together with a blade pitch system. Since the blades at high wind speeds are
turned towards stall, in the opposite direction as with pitch-control systems, this control method is also
referred to as negative pitch control. Compared with passive stall control, active control provides more
accurate control on the power output and maintains the rated power at high wind speeds. However,
with the addition of the pitch-control mechanism, the active stall control mode increases the turbine
cost and decreases operation reliability.
With megawatt wind turbines becoming the mainstream in the wind power industry from the late
1990s, pitch control is more favorable than stall control. It has been reported that the number of pitch-
regulated turbines is four times higher than that of stall-regulated turbines and the trend is going to
continue in coming decades.
6.2.3 Yaw control
In order to maximize the wind power output and minimize the asymmetric loads acting on the rotor
blades and the tower, a horizontal-axis wind turbine must be oriented with rotor against the wind by
using an active yaw control system. Like wind pitch systems, yaw systems can be driven either
electrically or hydraulically. Generally, hydraulic yaw systems were used in the earlier time of the wind
turbine development. In modern wind turbines, yaw control is done by electric motors. The yaw control
system usually consists of an electrical motor with a speed reducing gearbox, a bull gear which is fixed to
the tower, a wind vane to gain the information about wind direction, a yaw deck, and a brake to lock the
turbine securely in yaw when the required position is reached. For a large wind turbine with high driving
loads, the yaw control system may use two or more yaw motors to work together for driving a heavy
nacelle (see Figure 7).
In practice, the yaw error signals obtained from the wind vane are used to calculate the average yaw
angle in a short interval. When this average yaw angle exceeds the preset threshold, the yaw motor is
activated to align the turbine with the wind direction. Thus, with heavily filtered wind direction
measurements, the actions of yaw control are rather limited and slow.
Other control approaches
In the early time of wind turbine design, ailerons were once used to control the power output. This
method involves placing moveable flaps on the trailing edge of rotor blades. The ailerons change the lift
and drag characteristics of the blades and eventually change the rotor torque, which enable to regulate
rotor speed and rotor power output. However, this method was less successful and was soon
abandoned. Another possibility is to yaw the rotor partly out of the wind to decrease power. This
technique of yaw control is in practice used only for tiny wind turbines
Integration of wind and other energy sources
One of the notable characteristics in the wind power generation is its uncertainty due to the sudden
change in both wind speed and direction, especially for off-grid wind power generation systems.
Therefore, the power output from wind turbines fluctuates from time to time. When wind turbines are
connected to a small or isolated grid, the power output from other generators must be varied in
response to these variations and fluctuation in order to keep system frequency and voltage within
predefined limits. For this purpose, it is beneficial to integrate wind and other complementary energy

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 209
sources to form hybrid power systems for assuring the stability and reliability of power supply and
reducing the requirement for the wind energy storage.
7.1 Wind–solar hybrid system

Both wind and solar energy are highly intermittent electricity generation sources. Time intervals within
which fluctuations occur span multiple temporal scales, from seconds to years. These fluctuations can
be subdivided into periodic fluctuations (diurnal or annual fluctuations) and non-periodic fluctuations
related to the weather change.

Wind turbine
Solar panel

Street light

Fig. Wind–solar hybrid system for street lights

Wind and solar energy are complementary to each other in time sequence and regions. In the summer,
sunlight is intensive and the sunshine duration is long but there is less wind. In the winter, when less
sunlight is available, wind becomes strong. During a day, the sunshine is strong while wind is weak. After
sunset, the wind is strengthened due to large temperature changes near the earth’s surface. It has been
reported that the effects of complementarity are more dramatic in certain periods and locations at
Serbia. The analyses and test data of wind–solar hybrid power systems have shown that the optimum
combination of the wind– solar hybrid system lies between 0.70 and 0.75 of solar energy to load ratio
with the minimized life cycle cost. For all load demands, the leveled energy cost for the wind–solar
hybrid system is always lower than that of standalone solar or wind system.

Because the major operating time for wind and solar systems occurs at different periods of time, wind–
solar hybrid power systems can ensure the reliability of electricity supply. The applications of wind–solar
hybrid systems ranges extensively from residential houses to municipal and industrial facilities, either
grid connected or standalone. For instance, as an independent power supply source, wind–solar hybrid
systems have been widely used in China for street lighting. The world’s largest wind–solar power test
base, integrating wind power, photovoltaic power and energy storage, is being constructed at Zhangbei,
China. The project will have an installed capacity to generate 300 MW of wind power, 100 MW of solar
power and 75 MW of chemical energy storage.
7.2 Wind–hydro hybrid system
Hydropower generation is to convert potential energy in water into electrical energy by means of
hydropower generators. As a renewable and clean energy source, hydropower accounts for the
dominant portion of electricity generated from all renewable sources.
In many locations of the world, hydropower is complementary with wind power, while the seasonal
wind power distribution is higher in winter and spring but lower in summer and fall, hydropower is
lower in the dry seasons (winter and spring) but higher in the wet seasons (summer and fall). Thus, the
integration of wind and hydropower systems can provide significant technical, economic, and systematic

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 210
 benefits for both systems. Taking a reservoir as a means of energy regulation, “green” electricity can be
produced with wind–hydro hybrid systems.
7.3 Wind–hydrogen system
Hydrogen is an energy carrier and can be produced from a variety of resources such as water, fossil
fuels, and biomass. As a fuel with a high energy density, hydrogen can be stored, transported and then
converted into electricity by means of fuel cells at end users. It is widely recognized that wind power,
solar power and other renewable energy power generation systems can be integrated with the
electrolysis hydrogen production system to produce hydrogen fuel. The largest wind to-hydrogen power
system in the UK has been applied to a building that is fuelled solely by wind and “green” hydrogen
power with the developed hydrogen minigrid system technology. In this system, electricity generated
from a wind turbine is mainly used to provide to the building and excess electricity is used to produce
hydrogen using a state-of-the-art high-pressure alkaline electrolyser.
7.4 Wind–diesel power generation system
Wind power can be combined with power produced by diesel engine-generator systems to provide a
stable supply of electricity. In response to the variations in wind power generation and electricity
consumption, diesel generator sets may operate intermittently to reduce the consumption of the fuel. It
was reported that a viable wind–diesel stand-alone system can operate with an estimated 50–80% fuel
saving compared to power supply from diesel generation alone.
Wind–diesel hybrid power systems have been studied since 1995 in the US. Till now, many new
techniques have been developed and a large number of wind– diesel power generation systems have
been installed all over the world. According to the proportion of wind use in the system, three different
types of wind–diesel systems can be distinguished: low, medium, and high penetration wind–diesel
systems. Presently, low penetration systems are used at the commercial level, whereas solutions for
high penetration wind–diesel systems are at the demonstration level. The technology trends include the
development of robust and proven control strategies
8. Principles of wind energy conversion
 Drag is in the direction of airflow.
 Lift is perpendicular to the direction of airflow.
 Generation of lift always causes a certain amount of drag to be developed.
 With a good airfoil, the lift produced can be more than thirty times greater than the drag.

9. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WIND ENERGY

What is wind energy? Wind, that is moving air, possesses some kinetic energy due to its high speed.
Wind is a result of the solar energy, as heating of land results in movement of air. The most common
application of wind could probably be kite flying! Or even paragliding, sail boats etc. Well these
activities are definitely not possible without wind.
Ever wondered what else it could be useful for? Wind energy can be harnessed and used for generating
electricity or for other smaller purposes by a windmill. In olden times, windmills were used to draw
water out of wells or to grind flour etc. It is the rotatory motion of the shaft in a windmill that is used to
rotate the turbine and convert it to the form of energy we need it in.
The main advantage of wind energy is that harnessing it doesn’t disrupt natural processes or harm the
environment, unlike a lot of other energy sources. To generate electricity on a large scale, a number of
windmills are set up over a large area, called a wind energy farm. Such areas need a wind speed of
15kmph
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 211
Advantages of Wind Energy
1) Wind Energy is an inexhaustible source of energy and is virtually a limitless resource.
2) Energy is generated without polluting environment.
3) This source of energy has tremendous potential to generate energy on large scale.
4) Like solar energy and hydropower, wind power taps a natural physical resource.
5) Windmill generators do not emit any emissions that can lead to acid rain or greenhouse effect.
6) Wind Energy can be used directly as mechanical energy.
7) In remote areas, wind turbines can be used as great resource to generate energy.
8) In combination with Solar Energy they can be used to provide reliable as well as steady supply of
electricity.
9) Land around wind turbines can be used for other uses, e.g. Farming

Disadvantages of Wind Energy

1) Wind energy requires expensive storage during peak production time.
2) It is unreliable energy source as winds are uncertain and unpredictable.
3) There is visual and aesthetic impact on region.
4) Requires large open areas for setting up wind farms.
5) Noise pollution problem is usually associated with windmills.
6) Wind energy can be harnessed only in those areas where wind is strong enough and weather is windy
for most parts of the year.
7) Usually places, where wind power set-up is situated, are away from the places where demand of
electricity is there. Transmission from such places increases cost of electricity.
8) The average efficiency of wind turbine is very less as compared to fossil fuel power plants. We might
require many wind turbines to produce similar impact.
9) It can be a threat to wildlife. Birds do get killed or injured when they fly into turbines.
10) Maintenance cost of wind turbines is high as they have mechanical parts which undergo wear and
tear over the time. Even though there are advantages of wind energy, the limitations make it extremely
difficult for it to be harnessed and prove to be a setback.
11) Special and costly designs and controls of wind energy are always required
12) Wind energy facilities may block bird migration routes and hurt or kill birds.
From offshore China to onshore Spain, wind power capacity is growing rapidly around the world as
the clean energy transition accelerates

Along with solar, wind power has become the dominant technology of the low-carbon energy shift as
the world attempts to reduce emissions (Credit: m h /Unsplash)

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 212
Wind energy capacity is growing rapidly around the world as countries transition away from fossil fuels
in favor of low-carbon alternatives, in an effort to reduce emissions and limit global warming.
The technology can be deployed either onshore – which is by far the largest market – or offshore, using
either fixed-bottom turbines anchored to the sea floor or, on a much smaller scale, floating structures
that can be based in deeper waters.
According to the Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) in its Global Wind Report 2021, the entire global
wind power fleet, both onshore and offshore, totaled 743Gigawatts (GW) at the end of 2020. That is
enough to avoid more than 1.1 billion tons of CO2 globally – roughly equivalent to the annual carbon
emissions of Japan, the world’s fifth-highest emitting country.
But wind markets are continuing to grow as the industry matures and costs of deployment come down,
and GWEC says current growth rates will need to triple worldwide by 2030 in order to set the right
course to meet mid-century climate targets.

Here, we profile the top five countries that have installed the most wind energy capacity, as of 2020.

Top five countries with the highest wind energy capacity in 2020
1. China – 288.32 GW
China boasts the world’s largest capacity for wind energy, totaling just over 288 GW at the end of 2020 –
having added 52 GW of new power during that year, far more than any other country.
Just over 278 GW of China’s fleet is onshore wind, with the remaining 10GW based offshore.
The size of this offshore wind sector puts China second only to the UK in terms of the global offshore
market.
Despite having the world’s largest wind (and solar) power capacity, the vastness of the Chinese economy
means it also produces 53% of the world’s coal-fired electricity. As the country targets carbon neutrality
by 2060, wind as well as other renewable sources are likely to grow even further as coal plants are
gradually retired to meet decarbonization goals.

2. United States – 122.32 GW

Second on the list is the US, which has around 122 GW of installed wind capacity – almost all of which is
based onshore. In 2020, the country added 17 GW of new wind capacity, second behind China and an
85% year-on-year increase. Texas leads the pack among US states for wind power generation, while
Wyoming, Oklahoma, Iowa and Missouri have also been active in developing the technology.

Wind turbines in a rural West Texas cotton field (Credit: Sarah Fields Photography/Shutterstock)
Onshore has to date been the primary source of wind power in the US, but there are growing
expectations for a surge in offshore projects over the coming years.
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 213
US President has announced a target of 30 GW offshore wind capacity to be installed by 2030, and has
mobilized several government departments to oversee the rapid expansion of this industry as part of a
broader effort to fully decarbonize the US power system by 2035.

3. Germany – 62.85 GW
Germany is Europe’s top destination for wind power deployment, with a national fleet totaling just
under 63 GW of installed capacity – split between 55 GW onshore and 7.7 GW offshore. Wind power
supplied 27% of Germany’s electricity in 2020, according to trade group Wind Europe, with onshore
delivering 103 terawatt hours (TWh) during the year and offshore providing 27 TWh. The country aims
to supply 65% of all its electricity consumption from renewable sources by 2030, and in order to meet
this ambition policymakers plan to have 71 GW of onshore wind capacity by 2030, as well as 20 GW
installed offshore. In 2020, the country added 1.67 GW of new wind capacity. Offshore installations
slowed considerably compared to 2019.

4. India – 38.63 GW
India is fourth on the list of countries with the highest wind energy capacity, with all of its near 39 GW
located onshore. The country currently has no installed offshore capacity, although has outlined targets
to deploy 5 GW by 2022 and 30 GW by 2030.
The two top states in India for wind power generation are Tamil Nadu, home to the country’s largest
wind farm Muppandal, and Gujarat. New capacity additions more than halved during 2020 compared to
a year earlier, largely as a result of supply chain disruptions and lockdown restrictions caused by the
Covid-19 pandemic. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), a strong rebound is expected in
2021.

5. Spain – 27.24 GW
Spain is home to just over 27 GW of installed wind energy capacity – and like the US and India, the
country’s industry is characterised by onshore infrastructure. Wind is the leading source of renewable
power generation in the country, and in 2020 it installed 1.4 GW of new capacity. The regions of Castilla
y León, Castilla La Mancha, Galicia, Andalusia and Aragon are among the most active in Spain in terms of
wind power development. Spanish energy company Iberdrola recently announced ambitions to develop
the country’s first commercial-scale floating offshore wind project, which is intended to act as a
springboard to a further 2 GW of offshore developments along the Spanish coasts of Galicia, Andalusia
and the Canary Islands.

REFERENCES
[1] Zervos, A., Wind power as a mainstream energy source. Proc. of the 2009 European Wind Energy
Conf. , Marseille, March 2009
[2] Nelson, V., Wind Energy – Renewable Energy and the Environment, CRC Press, 2009.
[3] El-Ali, A., Moubayed, N. & Outbib, R., Comparison between solar and wind energy in Lebanon. Proc.
of 9th Int. Conf. on Electrical Power Quality and Utilisation , Barcelona, 2007.
[4] Gipe, P., Wind Energy Comes of Age , John Wiley & Sons, 1995.
[5] Vestas, Discover the unique power of the wind, http://www.vestas.com/en/ modern-
energy/experience-the-wind/wind-power-through-the-ages.aspx.
[6] Wan, Zhen, Strange Things of the South (), wrote in Wu of Three Kingdoms period (220–280).
[7] Weibull, W., A statistical distribution function of wide applicability. ASME Journal of Applied
Mechanics, 18(3) , pp. 239–297, 1951.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 214
 Useful self-evaluation
1. Explain the mechanism behind the formation of local and geostrophic (global) winds including the
Coriolis force influence for the later?
2. Describe the processes (Lift-based and Drag-based airfoil concepts) involved into wind energy to
mechanical energy conversion?
3. Classify and differentiate wind turbines as to the rotor axis position relatively to the swept area?
4. With help of a sketch illustrate components of HAWT and explain the interacting parts in the control
for the wind direction and speed?
5. What are the advantages of downwind over upwind machines and why the later are more preferred?
6. Classify wind turbines as to their power output?
7. Deriver the expression of the wind power and provide factors controlling its conversion and provide
factors controlling the efficiency or output of wind energy converter?
8. What do state the “Beltz” law?
9. Why the tip speed ratio is a crucial design parameter of wind turbines?
10. For a wind turbine with rotor diameter 43 meters (a typical size for a 600 kW turbine), calculate the
volume and mass of a 1 meter thick parcel of air passing through the plane of the turbine blades (for this
exercise, assume a value for the air density of 1.225 kg/m3).
11. Assume there is a wind blowing with a constant velocity V of 10.0 m/s through the blades of the
turbine described in no. 1. What is the wind power density? (Again, assume ρ = 1.225 kg/m3)
12. A smaller wind turbine which produces about 50kW has a blade rotor radius of 7m. (14m, diameter).
Calculate WPD for this wind turbine, assuming the same conditions as given in Exercises 8 and 9.
13. We are given the following data: Blade length, l = 52 m, Wind speed, v = 12 m/sec, Air density, ρ =
1.23 kg/m3, Power Coefficient, Cp = 0.4. What is the available power converted from the wind into
rotational energy in the turbine?
14. Explain the phenomenon known as “roughness of the wind”?
15. What are pros and cons of wind turbines?

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 215
 “Skills for a Better Destiny”
Integrated Polytechnic Regional College – Kigali Campus
vI. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

Prepared by
Alexis MUHIRWA, PhD.
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 216
INTRODUCTION
The word geothermal comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and therme (heat). Heat is a form of
energy and geothermal energy is, literally, the heat contained within the solid Earth and its internal
fluids; that generates geological phenomena on a planetary scale. This sets it apart from other terrestrial
energy sources such as
(a) Fossil or fissional fuels in the subsurface;
(b) Biomass, solar energy, and hydropower on the surface of the solid Earth and in its rivers and
seas;
(c) Wind energy in the atmosphere
Geothermal energy, the natural heat within the earth, arises from the ancient heat remaining in the
Earth's core, from friction where continental plates slide beneath each other, and from the decay of
radioactive elements that occur naturally in small amounts in all rocks.
For thousands of years, people have benefited from hot springs and steam vents, using them for bathing,
cooking, and heating. During this century, technological advances have made it possible and economic
to locate and drill into hydrothermal reservoirs, pipe the steam or hot water to the surface, and use the
heat directly (for space heating, aquaculture, and industrial processes) or to convert the heat into
electricity.
The amount of geothermal energy is enormous. Scientists estimate that just 1 percent of the heat
contained in just the uppermost 10 kilometers of the earth's crust is equivalent to 500 times the energy
contained in all of the earth's oil and gas resources
The presence of volcanoes, hot springs, and other thermal phenomena must have led our ancestors to
surmise that parts of the interior of the Earth were hot. However, it was not until a period between the
sixteenth and seventeenth century, when the first mines were excavated to a few hundred meters
below ground level that man deduced, from simple physical sensations that the Earth's temperature
increased with depth.
The first measurements by thermometer were probably performed in 1740 by De Gensanne, in a mine
near Belfort, in France. By 1870, modern scientific methods were being used to study the thermal
regime of the Earth, but it was not until the twentieth century, and the discovery of the role played by
radiogenic heat, that we could fully comprehend such phenomena as heat balance and the Earth's
thermal history.
All modern thermal models of the Earth, in fact, must take into account the heat continually generated
by the decay of the long-lived radioactive isotopes of uranium (U238, U235), thorium (Th232) and potassium
(K40), which are present in the Earth.

The Structure of the Earth

Internal structure of the Earth and the variation of its physical properties (pressure, temperature,
density, and seismic velocities) and chemical composition are derived from seismology, i.e. the
interpretation of travel time curves of earthquakes which passed through the Earth. The variation with
depth of the observed seismic velocities and elastic constants combined with Maxwell’s four
thermodynamic relations between pressure P, volume V, entropy S (S=Q/T; Q: heat), and
temperature T yield the predominantly radial structure of the Earth.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 217
From Maxwell’s relation (𝜕𝑇⁄𝜕𝑃)𝑆 = (𝜕𝑉⁄𝜕𝑆)𝑃 one obtains an expression for the adiabatic
temperature gradient in terms of temperature, the volume coefficient of thermal expansion 𝛼 =
(𝜕𝑉⁄𝜕𝑇)𝑃 ⁄𝑉, and the isobaric specific heat capacity cP (at constant pressure): (𝜕𝑇⁄𝜕𝑍)𝑆 = 𝑇 × 𝛼𝑔⁄𝐶𝑝 ;
Where g is gravity and subscripts P and S refer to isobaric and adiabatic conditions, respectively, i.e.
constant pressure and constant entropy. Approximate estimates for the adiabatic temperature inside
the Earth can be obtained with the aid of the dimensionless thermodynamic Grüneisen parameter
𝛾 = 𝛼 𝐾𝑆 ⁄(𝜌𝐶𝑃 ). Where KS is the adiabatic incompressibility or bulk modulus and ρ is density.
𝜕𝑇 𝑑𝜌 𝜌 𝛾
=𝛾 𝑜𝑟 𝑇 = 𝑇0 ( )
𝑇 𝜌 𝜌0
From a known temperature T0 and density ρ0 at a given depth, allows computing the adiabatic
temperature from the density profile in a region where the Grüneisen parameter is known. Fortunately,
the Grüneisen parameter does not vary too much within large regions of the Earth’s interior.

It has been estimated that the total heat content of the Earth,
reckoned above an assumed average surface temperature of
15 °C, is of the order of 12.6 x 1024 MJ, and that of the crust is of
the order of 5.4 x 1021 MJ. The thermal energy of the Earth is
therefore immense, but only a fraction could be utilized by
mankind. So far our utilization of this energy has been limited to
areas in which geological conditions permit a carrier (water in
the liquid phase or steam) to ‘transfer’ the heat from deep hot
zones to or near the surface, thus giving rise to geothermal
resources; innovative techniques in the near future, however,
may offer new perspectives in this sector.
Our planet consists of a crust, which reaches a thickness of
about 20-65km in continental areas and about 5-6km in oceanic
areas, a mantle, which is roughly 2900km thick made up of
magma and rock.

Fig. The Earth's crust, mantle, and core. Top right: a section through the crust and the uppermost mantle.
and a core, about 3470km in radius. The core itself has two layers: a solid iron core and an outer core
made of very hot melted rock, called magma. The earth's crust is broken into pieces called plates.
Magma comes close to the earth's surface near the edges of these plates. This is where volcanoes occur.
The lava that erupts from volcanoes is partly magma. Deep underground, the rocks and water absorb
the heat from this magma. The temperature of the rocks and water get hotter and hotter as you go
deeper underground.
The physical and chemical characteristics of the crust, mantle and core vary from the surface of the
Earth to its centre. The outermost shell of the Earth, known as the lithosphere, is made up of the crust
and the upper layer of the mantle. Ranging in thickness from less than 80km in oceanic zones to over
200km in continental areas, the lithosphere behaves as a rigid body. Below the lithosphere is the zone
known as the asthenosphere, 200-300km in thickness, and of a ‘less rigid’ or ‘more plastic’ behavior.

Heat Income
The largest external energy source of the Earth is the solar irradiation. The incident energy of the Sun’s
rays falling on the Earth for just one day, 1.5×1022J, with solar constant S=1373 Wm-2 (i.e. the solar
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 218
irradiance (or incident solar radiation flux) on a plane normal to the Sun’s rays, just outside the Earth’s
atmosphere, when the Earth is at a distance of one astronomical unit (1 AU=1.496×108 km) from the
Sun). In other terms, 4–12 days of solar irradiation corresponds to the expected cumulative primary
energy requirements for the entire current century. However, only regrettably small amounts of the
irradiated solar energy are converted into forms of energy which can be stored relatively permanently
by the Earth, mainly as fossil fuels.
Another external energy of the earth is gravitational energy, that is Exchange of gravitational energy
between the Earth and the Moon and Sun is the source of tidal energy both in the oceans and the body
of the solid Earth. Among the Earth’s celestial neighbors only the Sun and the Moon are sufficiently
massive or close to cause significant tides on the Earth. This is owing to the fact that tidal accelerations
and the associated torques are linearly and inversely proportional to the mass and the cube of the
distance between the two bodies, respectively.
Tidal deceleration of the Earth results in a decrease of rotational kinetic energy at a rate of about 3×1012
W – 6×1012 W. This energy is dissipated by tidal friction and finally converted into heat. Most of this heat,
at least 80 %, is dissipated in the oceans, and only a fraction of less than 20 % in the Earth’s mantle. Thus,
heat derived from gravitational energy is accumulated in the solid Earth at a rate of about 6×1011 W –
12×1011 W. the heat delivered to the Earth by conversion of gravitational energy into heat is 1–2 orders of
magnitude less than that which is produced by the decay of radioactive isotopes in the rocks of the Earth.

The interior of the Earth is gaining heat from four main sources: radiogenic heat from the decay of
unstable, radioactive isotopes; original heat, i.e. the heat content of the infant Earth immediately after
formation; potential energy released as heat during the creation of new crust, the enrichment of heavy
metals in the Earth’s mantle or the formation iron core of the Earth; frictional heat from elastic energy
released in earthquakes. The largest internal energy source of the Earth is provided by the decay of
radiogenic isotopes in the rocks of the Earth’s crust. The heat produced within one year, 8.6×1020 J. If it
could be harnessed, it would suffice alone to satisfy the primary energy demand of the entire 21st
century.
Radiogenic Heat: When radioactive isotopes decay, they emit energetic particles (α- and β-particles;
neutrinos and antineutrinos without mass or charge) and γ-rays. Matter is almost transparent to
neutrinos and antineutrinos and most of the energy carried by them is transmitted into space. In
contrast, α- and β- particles (helium nuclei and electrons) do interact with the surrounding rock which
absorbs their kinetic energy thus generating heat. In order to be a significant source of heat to the Earth,
a radioactive isotope must be sufficiently abundant, have a half-life comparable to the age of the Earth,
and most of its decay energy must be converted into heat. Mainly uranium (238U and 235U), thorium
(232Th), and potassium (40K) isotopes fulfill these conditions.
Original Heat: It is generally accepted that the cooling of the Earth since its early history, when internal
temperatures were much higher than they are now, contributes a significant amount to the present
terrestrial heat flow comparable to that from radiogenic heat. Assuming an average specific heat
capacity of 1088 J kg-1 K-1 and a temperature drop of 650 K over a cooling time of 4.6×109 years yields
2.9×1013 W as the average rate for the loss of original heat
Potential Energy: Potential energy is liberated by the formation of

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 219
 - The iron core of the Earth at an average rate of:  3.2×1011 W– 4.5×1013 W over the past 4.6×109
years;
- New crust or the enrichment of heavy metals in the Earth’s mantle at rates of ~3.2×10 10 –
3.2×1012W.
In summary, 3.5×1010 W – 4.8×1013 W is released by the conversion of potential energy into heat.
Frictional Heat: Heat due to release of elastic energy in earthquakes (for 10–40 earthquakes per year of
surface wave magnitudes Ms > 7) is dissipated at a rate of 1.6×1010 W – 1.3×1012 W
Thus the maximum estimate for the non-radiogenic heat generation rate from original heat, potential
energy, and frictional heat amounts to 7.8×1013 W.

The Earth's thermal engine

The geothermal gradient expresses the increase in temperature with depth in the Earth's crust. Down to
the depths accessible by drilling with modern technology, i.e. over 10,000m, the average geothermal
gradient is about 2.5-3 °C/100m. If the average temperature within the first few meters below ground-
level corresponds to the mean annual temperature of the external air, is 15 °C, then we can reasonably
assume that the temperature will be about 65°-75 °C at 2000m depth, 90°- 105 °C at 3000 m and so on
for a further few thousand meters. However, vast areas in which the geothermal gradient is far from the
average value: areas in which the deep rock basement has undergone rapid sinking, and the basin is
filled with geologically ‘very young’ sediments, the geothermal gradient may be lower than 1°C/100 m.
On the other hand, in some ‘geothermal areas’ the gradient is more than ten times the average value.
The difference in temperature between deep hotter zones and shallow colder zones generates a
conductive flow of heat from the former towards the latter, with a tendency to create uniform
conditions, although, as often happens with natural phenomena, this situation is never actually attained.
The mean terrestrial heat flow of continents and oceans is 65 and 101mWm-2, respectively, which, when
areally weighted, yield a global mean of 87mWm-2.
The temperature increase with depth, as well as volcanoes, geysers, hot springs, etc., are in a sense the
visible or tangible expression of the heat in the interior of the Earth, but this heat also engenders other
phenomena that are less discernible by man, but of such magnitude that the Earth has been compared
to an immense ‘thermal engine’.
Lithosphere behaves as a rigid body, the asthenosphere is of a ‘less rigid’ or ‘more plastic’ behavior.
In other words, on a geological scale in which time is measured in millions of years, this part of the Earth
behaves in much the same way as a fluid in certain processes.
Because of the difference in temperature between the different parts of the asthenosphere, convective
movements and, possibly, convective cells were formed some tens of millions of years ago. Their
extremely slow movement (a few centimeters per year) is maintained by the heat produced continually
by the decay of the radioactive elements and the heat coming from the deepest parts of the Earth.
Immense volumes of deep hotter rocks, less dense and lighter than the surrounding material, rise with
these movements towards the surface, while the colder, denser and heavier rocks near the surface tend
to sink, re-heat and rise to the surface once again; very similar to what happens to water boiling in a pot
or kettle. In zones where the lithosphere is thinner, and especially in oceanic areas, the lithosphere is
pushed upwards and broken by the very hot, partly molten material ascending from the asthenosphere,

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 220
in correspondence to the ascending branch of convective cells. It is this mechanism that created and still
creates the spreading ridges that extend for more than 60,000km beneath the oceans.
A relatively tiny fraction of the molten rocks upwelling from the asthenosphere emerges from the crests
of these ridges and, in contact with the seawater, solidifies to form a new oceanic crust. Most of the
material rising from the asthenosphere, however, divides into two branches that flow in opposite
directions beneath the lithosphere.
The continual generation of new crust and the pull of these two branches in opposite directions has
caused the ocean beds on either side of the ridges to drift apart at a rate of a few centimeters per year.
Consequently, the area of the ocean beds (the oceanic lithosphere) tends to increase. The ridges are cut
perpendicularly by enormous fractures, in some cases a few thousand kilometers in length, called
transform faults.
These phenomena lead to a simple observation: since there is apparently no increase in the Earth's
surface with time, the formation of new lithosphere along the ridges and the spreading of the ocean
beds must be accompanied by a comparable shrinkage of the lithosphere in other parts of the globe.
This is indeed what happens in subduction zones, the largest of which are indicated by huge ocean
trenches, such as those extending along the western margin of the Pacific Ocean and the western coast
of South America. In the subduction zones the lithosphere folds downwards, plunges under the adjacent
lithosphere and re-descends to the very hot deep zones, where it is "digested" by the mantle and the
cycle begins all over again. Part of the lithospheric material returns to a molten state and may rise to the
surface again through fractures in the crust. As a consequence, magmatic arcs with numerous volcanoes
are formed parallel to the trenches, on the opposite side to that of the ridges. Where the trenches are
located in the ocean, as in the Western Pacific, these magmatic arcs consist of chains of volcanic islands;
where the trenches run along the margins of continents the arcs consist of chains of mountains with
numerous volcanoes, such as the Andes. Figure below illustrates the phenomena we have just described.

Fig. Schematic diagram showing the configuration of the main elements that compose plate tectonic
structures. The arrows indicate local motion of convecting mantle material and the schematic cross-section showing plate
tectonic processes

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 221
Spreading ridges, transform faults and subduction zones form a vast network that divides our planet into
six immense and several other smaller lithospheric areas or plates. Because of the huge tensions
generated by the Earth's thermal engine and the asymmetry of the zones producing and consuming
lithospheric material, these plates drift slowly up against one another, shifting position continually.

The margins of the plates correspond to weak, densely fractured zones of the crust, characterized by an
intense seismicity, by a large number of volcanoes and, because of the ascent of very hot materials
towards the surface, by a high terrestrial heat flow. As shown in Figure below, the most important
geothermal areas are located around plate margins.

Fig. World pattern of plates, oceanic ridges, oceanic trenches, subduction zones, and geothermal fields. Arrows show the
direction of movement of the plates towards the subduction zones. (1) Geothermal fields producing electricity; (2) mid-oceanic
ridges crossed by transform faults (long transversal fractures); (3) subduction zones, where the subducting plate bends
downwards and melts in the asthenosphere.
Geothermal systems
Geothermal systems can therefore be found in regions with a normal or slightly above normal
geothermal gradient, and especially in regions around plate margins where the geothermal gradients
may be significantly higher than the average value. In the first case the systems will be characterized by
low temperatures, usually no higher than 100 °C at economic depths; in the second case the
temperatures could cover a wide range from low to very high, and even above 400 °C.
A geothermal system can be described schematically as ‘convecting water in the upper crust of the Earth,
which, in a confined space, transfers heat from a heat source to a heat sink, usually the free surface’.
A geothermal system is made up of three main elements: a heat source, a reservoir and a fluid, which is
the carrier that transfers the heat.
 The heat source can be either a very high temperature (>600°C) magmatic intrusion that has
reached relatively shallow depths (5-10km) or, as in certain low-temperature systems, the
Earth's normal temperature, which, as we explained earlier, increases with depth.
 The reservoir is a volume of hot permeable rocks from which the circulating fluids extract heat.
The reservoir is generally overlain by a cover of impermeable rocks and connected to a surficial

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 222
 recharge area through which the meteoric waters can replace or partly replace the fluids that
escape from the reservoir through springs or are extracted by boreholes.
 The geothermal fluid is water, in the majority of cases meteoric water, in the liquid or vapor
phase, depending on its temperature and pressure. This water often carries with it chemicals
and gases such as CO2, H2S, etc.
The mechanism underlying geothermal systems is by and large governed by fluid convection. Figure
below describes schematically the mechanism in the case of an intermediate-temperature hydrothermal
system.

Fig. Schematic representation of an ideal geothermal system

Convection occurs because of the heating and consequent thermal expansion of fluids in a gravity field;
heat, which is supplied at the base of the circulation system, is the energy that drives the system.
Heated fluid of lower density tends to rise and to be replaced by colder fluid of high density, coming
from the margins of the system.

Fig. Model of a geothermal system; Curve 1 is the reference curve for the boiling point of pure water. Curve 2 shows the
temperature profile along a typical circulation route from recharge at point A to discharge at point E
Convection, by its nature, tends to increase temperatures in the upper part of a system as temperatures
in the lower part decrease.
Of all the elements of a geothermal system, the heat source is the only one that need be natural.
Providing conditions are favorable, the other two elements could be ‘artificial’. For example, to reducing

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 223
the impact on the environment and replenish or maintain ‘old’ or ‘exhausted’ geothermal fields, the
geothermal fluids extracted from the reservoir to drive the turbine in a geothermal power-plant could,
after their utilization, be injected back into the reservoir through specific injection wells.
In the so-called Hot Dry Rock (HDR) projects, both the fluid and the reservoir are artificial.

High-pressure water is pumped through a specially drilled well into a deep body of
hot, compact rock, causing its hydraulic fracturing. The water permeates these
artificial fractures, extracting heat from the surrounding rock, which acts as a
natural reservoir. This 'reservoir' is later penetrated by a second well, which is
used to extract the heated water. The system therefore consists of (i) the borehole
used for hydraulic fracturing, through which cold water is injected into (ii) the
artificial reservoir, and (iii) the borehole used to extract the hot water.
Fig. Schematic of a commercial-scale Hot Dry Rock
The most common criterion for classifying geothermal resources (i.e. accessible resource base) is,
however, that based on the enthalpy of the geothermal fluids that act as the carrier transporting heat
from the deep hot rocks to the surface. Enthalpy, which can be considered more or less proportional to
temperature, is used to express the heat (thermal energy) content of the fluids, and gives a rough idea
of their 'value'. The resources are divided into low, medium and high enthalpy (or temperature)
resources.
Frequently a distinction is made between water- or liquid-dominated geothermal systems and vapor-
dominated (or dry steam) geothermal systems.
 In water-dominated systems liquid water is the continuous, pressure-controlling fluid phase.
Some vapor may be present, generally as discrete bubbles. These geothermal systems, whose
temperatures may range from < 125 to > 225 °C, are the most widely distributed in the world.
Depending on temperature and pressure conditions, they can produce hot water, water and
steam mixtures, wet steam and, in some cases, dry steam.
 In vapor-dominated systems liquid water and vapor normally co-exist in the reservoir, with
vapor as the continuous, pressure-controlling phase.
The terms wet, dry and superheated steam, which are used frequently by geothermists, need some
explanation: let us take the example of a pot filled with liquid water in which pressure can be kept
constant at 1atm (101.3kPa). If we then heat the water, it will begin boiling once it reaches a
temperature of 100 °C (boiling temperature at a pressure of 1atm) and will pass from the liquid to the
gas (vapor) phase. After a certain time, the pot will contain both liquid and vapor. The vapor coexisting
with the liquid, and in thermodynamic equilibrium with it, is wet steam. If we continue to heat the pot
and maintain the pressure at 1atm, the liquid will evaporate entirely and the pot will contain steam only.
This is what we call dry steam. Both wet and dry steam are called “saturated steam”. Finally, increasing
the temperature to, say, 120°C, and keeping the pressure at 1atm, we will obtain superheated steam
with a superheating of 20°C, i.e. 20°C above the vaporization temperature at that pressure.
At other temperatures and pressures, of course, these phenomena also take place in the underground,
in what one author many years ago called “nature's tea-kettle”.
Another division between geothermal systems is that based on the reservoir equilibrium state
considering the circulation of the reservoir fluid and the mechanism of heat transfer.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 224
  In the dynamic systems the reservoir is continually recharged by water that is heated and then
discharged from the reservoir either to the surface or into underground permeable formations.
Heat is transferred through the system by convection and circulation of the fluid. This category
includes high temperature (>150 °C) and low-temperature (<150 °C) systems.
 In the static systems (also known as stagnant or storage systems) there is only minor or no
recharge to the reservoir and heat is transferred only by conduction. This category includes low
temperature and geopressured systems. The geopressured systems are characteristically found
in large sedimentary basins at depths of 3 - 7 km. The geopressured reservoirs consist of
permeable sedimentary rocks, included within impermeable low-conductivity strata, containing
pressurized hot water that remained trapped at the moment of deposition of the sediments.
The hot water pressure approaches lithostatic pressure, greatly exceeding the hydrostatic
pressure. The geopressured reservoirs can also contain significant amounts of methane. The
geopressured systems could produce thermal and hydraulic energy (pressurized hot water) and
methane gas.
Geothermal field is a geographical definition, usually indicating an area of geothermal activity at the
earth’s surface. In cases without surface activity this term may be used to indicate the area at the
surface corresponding to the geothermal reservoir below.
As geothermal energy is usually described as renewable and sustainable. Renewable describes a
property of the energy source, whereas sustainable describes how the resource is utilized.
 The most critical factor for the classification of geothermal energy as a renewable energy source
is the rate of energy recharge. In the exploitation of natural geothermal systems, energy
recharge takes place by advection of thermal water on the same time scale as production from
the resource. This justifies our classification of geothermal energy as a renewable energy
resource. In the case of hot, dry rocks, and some of the hot water aquifers in sedimentary basins,
energy recharge is only by thermal conduction; due to the slow rate of the latter process,
however, hot dry rocks and some sedimentary reservoirs should be considered as finite energy
resources.
 The sustainability in consumption of a resource is dependent on its original quantity, its rate of
generation and its rate of consumption. Consumption can obviously be sustained over any
period of time in which a resource is being created faster than it is being depleted. The term
sustainable development indicate development that ‘….meets the needs of the present
generation without compromising the needs of future generations’. In this context, sustainable
development does not imply that any given energy resource needs to be used in a totally
sustainable fashion, but merely that a replacement for the resource can be found that will allow
future generations to provide for themselves despite the fact that the particular resource has
been depleted.

GEOTHERMAL TECHNOLOGIES
Electricity generation is the most important form of utilization of high-temperature geothermal
resources (> 150 °C). The medium-to-low temperature resources (< 150 °C) are suited to many different
types of application as portrayed by the classical Lindal diagram which shows the possible uses of

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 225
geothermal fluids at different temperatures, still holds valid. Fluids at temperatures below 20 °C are
rarely used and in very particular conditions or in heat pump applications.
Two important aspects of the utilization: (a) with cascading and combined uses it is possible to enhance
the feasibility of geothermal projects and (b) the resource temperature may limit the possible uses.

Fig. Diagram showing the utilization of geothermal fluids

A geothermal hydrothermal system consists of a geothermal reservoir, wells, and a power plant.
"Hydrothermal" means that the geothermal reservoir contains copious amounts of steam or hot water
that can be brought to the surface. Hydrothermal resources are the "here-and-now" resources for
commercial geothermal electricity production. They are relatively shallow (from a few hundred to about
3,000 meters). They contain hot water, steam, or a combination of the two. They are inherently
permeable, which means that fluids can flow from one part of the reservoir to other parts of the
reservoir, and into and from wells that penetrate the reservoir. In hydrothermal reservoirs, water
descends to considerable depth in the crust, becomes heated and then rises buoyantly until it either
becomes trapped beneath impermeable strata, forming a bounded reservoir, or reaches the surface as
hot springs or steam vents. The water convects substantial amounts of heat from depths to relatively
near the surface.
Hot Dry Rock (HDR) resources, on the other hand, are relatively deep masses of rock that contain little
or no steam or water, and are not very permeable. They exist where geothermal gradients (the vertical
profile of changing temperature) are well above average (>500C/km). The rock temperature reaches
commercial usefulness at depths of about 4,000 meters or more. To exploit hot dry rock, a permeable
reservoir must be created by hydraulic fracturing, and water from the surface must be pumped through
the fractures to extract heat from the rock.
Flash (Flashed-Steam) Power Plants

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 226
 Fig. Geothermal hydrothermal electric system with flashed steam power plant schematic
The system includes technical processes to find reservoirs (exploration), to measure and manage
reservoirs, and to match power plant designs to the characteristics of reservoirs. The geothermal
reservoir contains hot aqueous fluids. The fluids are produced through wells similar to oil wells, and
piped to the power plant. Geothermal steam or vaporized secondary working fluids drive a turbine-
generator to make electricity. Waste heat is ejected to the atmosphere through condensers and cooling
towers. Remnant geothermal liquids, including any excess condensate, are pumped back into the
reservoir through injection wells. If present, non-condensable gases are removed from the system by
gas ejection equipment and released to the atmosphere after any treatment mandated by emission
regulations.
Binary Power Plants
All the geothermal fluid passes through the tube side of the primary heat exchanger and then is pumped
back into the reservoir through injection wells. A hydrocarbon working fluid (e.g., isopentane) on the
shell side of the primary heat exchanger is vaporized to a high pressure (HP) to drive the turbine-
generator. Low pressure vapor from the turbine is liquefied in the condenser and re-pressurized by the
hydrocarbon pump. Waste heat is ejected to the atmosphere through a condenser and a cooling tower.
Makeup water is required for the heat rejection system if wet cooling towers are used, but not if dry
cooling towers are used. The binary system characterized here uses dry cooling, but wet cooling could
be less expensive where cooling water is available.
Equipment present in most binary systems includes:
a. Downhole production pumps in the production wells. These keep the geothermal fluid from
vaporizing in the wells or in the power plant, and enhance the production well flow rate.
b. A working fluid pump, the "main cycle pump", that pressurizes the low-boiling-temperature liquid
working fluid to drive it around the power-conversion loop.
c. A turbine converts energy in the high-temperature high-pressure working fluid vapor to shaft energy.
It exhausts low-temperature low-pressure vapor to a condenser.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 227
 Fig. Geothermal hydrothermal electric system with binary power plant schematic
The Hot Dry Rock (HDR) concept uses heat recovered from subsurface rocks to generate electricity. The
system proposed for extracting heat from the rock and converting it to electricity is comprised of two
distinct subsystems (see Figure) at very different stages of their technological evolution. The two
subsystems are the power plant (on the surface) and the HDR reservoir (deep beneath the surface),
which are connected by deep wells. The wells and reservoir are thought of as a single system, often
referred to as the well field system or reservoir system. The power plant system is largely identical to
commercial binary hydrothermal electric plants. The technology for the reservoir system is much less
mature.
The reservoir subsystem is developed by drilling wells into hot rock about 4 kilometers deep, and
connecting the wells through hydraulic fracturing. Water, from a nearby fresh water well or other
source, is pumped through one or more injection wells into the reservoir, where it is heated by contact
with the hot rock, and then recovered through two or more production wells.
At the surface, the power plant subsystem converts the extracted heat to electricity using commercial
binary power plant technology. First, the produced hot water passes through a heat exchanger,
transferring heat to a working fluid in the power plant. The working fluid is characterized by a low
boiling temperature; hydrocarbons such as iso-pentane, isobutane, etc. are typically used. The vaporized
working fluid is expanded across a turbine to drive a generator and produce electricity. The vaporized
working fluid is then condensed in a cooling system and recirculated to the heat exchanger. The hot
water, upon exiting the heat exchanger, is injected back into the reservoir to collect additional heat.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 228
 Fig. Hot dry rock electric power generation schematic
Power generation
Vapor is required to drive turbines for generating electric power. In general, this is natural dry or wet,
medium to high enthalpy steam at temperatures above 150 °C. Electricity generation mainly takes place
in conventional steam turbines and binary plants, depending on the characteristics of the geothermal
resource.
Conventional steam turbines require fluids at temperatures of at least 150 °C and are available with
either atmospheric (back-pressure) or condensing exhausts. Atmospheric exhaust turbines are simpler
and cheaper. The steam, direct from dry steam wells or, after separation, from wet wells, is passed
through a turbine and exhausted to the atmosphere.

Fig. Sketch of an atmospheric exhaust geothermal power-plant and the flow of geothermal fluid is indicated in red & Back-
pressure power plant: after separation of the vapor phase, the vapor obtained expands in a turbine and released into the
atmosphere.
With this type of unit, steam consumption (from the same inlet pressure) per kilowatt-hour produced is
almost double that of a condensing unit. However, the atmospheric exhaust turbines are extremely
useful as pilot plants, stand-by plants, in the case of small supplies from isolated wells, and for
generating electricity from test wells during field development. They are also used when the steam has a
high non-condensable gas content (>12% in weight). The atmospheric exhaust units can be constructed
and installed very quickly and put into operation in little more than 13-14 months from their order date.
This type of machine is usually available in small sizes (2.5 - 5 MWe).

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 229
The condensing units, having more auxiliary equipment, are more complex than the atmospheric
exhaust units and the bigger sizes can take twice as long to construct and install. The specific steam
consumption of the condensing units is, however, about half that of the atmospheric exhaust units.
Condensing plants of 55 - 60 MWe capacity are very common, but recently plants of 110 MWe have also
been constructed and installed.

Fig. Sketch of a condensing geothermal power-plant and the flow of high-temperature fluid is indicated in red, and the cooling
water in blue & Condensation power plant: the vapor obtained at the head of the production borehole powers the turbine. It is
then condensed at the turbine outlet.
Generating electricity from low-to-medium temperature geothermal fluids and from the waste hot
waters coming from the separators in water - dominated geothermal fields has made considerable
progress since improvements were made in binary fluid technology. The binary plants utilize a
secondary working fluid, usually an organic fluid (typically n-pentane), that has a low boiling point and
high vapour pressure at low temperatures when compared to steam. The secondary fluid is operated
through a conventional Rankine cycle (ORC): the geothermal fluid yields heat to the secondary fluid
through heat exchangers, in which this fluid is heated and vaporises; the vapour produced drives a
normal axial flow turbine, is then cooled and condensed, and the cycle begins again

Fig. Sketch of a geothermal binary power plant. The flow of geothermal fluid is in red, the secondary fluid in green, and the
cooling water in blue & binary fluid geothermal power plant: the geothermal fluid transfers its heat inside an
exchanger using an organic fluid which is vaporized at low temperature and expands in the turbine.
By selecting suitable secondary fluids, binary systems can be designed to utilize geothermal fluids in the
temperature range 85-170 °C. The upper limit depends on the thermal stability of the organic binary
fluid, and the lower limit on technical-economic factors: below this temperature the size of the heat
exchangers required would render the project uneconomical. Apart from low-to-medium temperature

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 230
geothermal fluids and waste fluids, binary systems can also be utilized where flashing of the geothermal
fluids should preferably be avoided (for example, to prevent well sealing). In this case, downhole pumps
can be used to keep the fluids in a pressurized liquid state, and the energy can be extracted from the
circulating fluid by means of binary units.
Binary plants are usually constructed in small modular units of a few hundred kWe to a few MWe
capacities. These units can then be linked up to create power-plants of a few tens of megawatts. Their
cost depends on a number of factors, but particularly on the temperature of the geothermal fluid
produced, which influences the size of the turbine, heat exchangers and cooling system. The total size of
the plant has little effect on the specific cost, as a series of standard modular units is joined together to
obtain larger capacities. Binary plant technology is a very cost-effective and reliable means of converting
into electricity the energy available from water-dominated geothermal fields (below 170 °C).

Fig. Direct-intake, condensing power plant for heat production from dry steam fields

Fig. Double flash, condensing power plant for heat production from wet steam fields

Fig. Binary power plant (water-cooled) for heat production from hot water or low enthalpy wet steam fields

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 231
 Fig. Diagram of a doublet for hydrothermal exploitation and steam turbine blades
Direct heat uses
Direct heat use is one of the oldest, most versatile and also the most common form of utilization of
geothermal energy. Bathing, space and district heating, agricultural applications, aquaculture and some
industrial uses are the best known forms of utilization, but heat pumps are the most widespread. There
are many other types of utilization, on a much smaller scale, some of which are unusual.

Fig. Direct uses of geothermal heat worldwide in 2010 (Lund et al., WGC 2010)
Space heating: Geothermal district heating systems are capital intensive. The main costs are initial
investment costs, for production and injection wells, down-hole and transmission pumps, pipelines and
distribution networks, monitoring and control equipment, peaking stations and storage tanks.

Fig. Typical simplified flow diagram of the geothermal district heating system.
Operating expenses, however, are comparatively lower than in conventional systems, and consist of
pumping power, system maintenance, control and management. A crucial factor in estimating the initial
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 232
cost of the system is the thermal load density, or the heat demand divided by the ground area of the
district. A high heat density determines the economic feasibility of a district heating project, since the
distribution network is expensive. Some economic benefit can be achieved by combining heating and
cooling in areas where the climate permits. The load factor in a system with combined heating and
cooling would be higher than the factor for heating alone, and the unit energy price would consequently
improve.
Space cooling is a feasible option where absorption machines can be adapted to geothermal use. The
absorption cycle is a process that utilizes heat instead of electricity as the energy source. The
refrigeration effect is obtained by utilizing two fluids: a refrigerant, which circulates, evaporates and
condenses, and a secondary fluid or absorbent. For applications above 0 °C (primarily in space and
process conditioning); the cycle uses lithium bromide as the absorbent and water as the refrigerant.
For applications below 0 °C an ammonia/water cycle is adopted, with
ammonia as the refrigerant and water as the absorbent. Geothermal fluids
provide the thermal energy to drive these machines, although their
efficiency decreases with temperatures lower than 105 °C. Geothermal
space conditioning (heating and cooling) has expanded considerably since
the 1980s, following on the introduction and widespread use of heat
pumps. The various systems of heat pumps available permit us to
economically extract and utilize the heat content of low-temperature
bodies, such as the ground and shallow aquifers, ponds, etc.
Fig. Typical application of ground-coupled heat pump system
As engineers already know, heat pumps are machines that move heat in a direction opposite to that in
which it would tend to go naturally, i.e. from a cold space or body to a warmer one. A heat pump is
effectively nothing more than a refrigeration unit. Any refrigeration device (window air conditioner,
refrigerator, freezer, etc.) moves heat from a space (to keep it cool) and discharges that heat at higher
temperatures. The only difference between a heat pump and a refrigeration unit is the desired effect,
cooling for the refrigeration unit and heating for the heat pump.
A second distinguishing factor of many heat pumps is that they are reversible and can provide either
heating or cooling in the space. The heat pumps, of course, need energy to operate, but in suitable
climatic conditions and with a good design, the energy balance will be a positive one.

Fig. Sketch of a heat pump in heating mode

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 233
The agricultural applications of geothermal fluids consist of open-field agriculture and greenhouse
heating. Thermal water can be used in open-field agriculture to irrigate and/or heat the soil. The
greatest drawback in irrigating with warm waters is that, to obtain any worthwhile variation in soil
temperature, such large quantities of water are required at temperatures low enough to prevent
damage to the plants that the fields would be flooded. One possible solution to this problem is to adopt
a subsurface irrigation system coupled to a buried-pipeline soil-heating device. Heating the soil in buried
pipelines without the irrigation system could decrease the heat conductivity of the soil, because of the
drop in humidity around the pipes, and consequent thermal insulation. The best solution seems to be
that of combining soil heating and irrigation.
The chemical composition of the geothermal waters used in irrigation must be monitored carefully to
avoid adverse effects on the plants.
The main advantages of temperature control in open-field agriculture are: (a) it prevents any damage
ensuing from low environmental temperatures, (b) it extends the growing season, increases plant
growth, and boosts production, and (c) it sterilizes the soil.
The most common application of geothermal energy in agriculture is, however, in greenhouse heating,
which has been developed on a large scale in many countries.

The cultivation of vegetables and flowers out-of-season, or in an

unnatural climate, can now draw on a widely experimented technology.
Various solutions are available for achieving optimum growth
conditions, based on the optimum growth temperature of each plant,
and on the quantity of light, on the CO2 concentration in the
greenhouse environment, on the humidity of the soil and air, and on air
movement.
Fig. Growth curves for some crops.
The walls of the greenhouse can be made of glass, fiberglass, rigid plastic panels or plastic film. Glass
panels are more transparent than plastic and will let in far more light, but will provide less thermal
insulation, are less resistant to shocks, and are heavier and more expensive than the plastic panels. The
simplest greenhouses are made of single plastic films, but recently some greenhouses have been
constructed with a double layer of film separated by an air space.
This system reduces the heat loss through the walls by 30 - 40%, and thus greatly enhances the overall
efficiency of the greenhouse. Greenhouse heating can be accomplished by forced circulation of air in
heat exchangers, hot-water circulating pipes or ducts located in or on the floor, finned units located
along the walls and under benches, or a combination of these methods.
Exploitation of geothermal heat in greenhouse heating can considerably reduce their operating costs,
which in some cases account for 35% of the product costs (vegetables, flowers, house-plants and tree
seedlings). Farm animals and aquatic species, as well as vegetables and plants, can benefit in quality and
quantity from optimum conditioning of their environmental temperature. In many cases geothermal
waters could be used profitably in a combination of animal husbandry and geothermal greenhouses.
The energy required to heat a breeding installation is about 50% of that required for a greenhouse of
the same surface area, so a cascade utilization could be adopted. Breeding in a temperature-controlled
environment improves animal health, and the hot fluids can also be utilized to clean, sanitize and dry
the animal shelters and waste products.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 234
 Fig. Heating systems in geothermal greenhouses: Heating installations with natural air movement ((natural convection)
Appreciable savings can be achieved by adopting integrated systems that offer a higher utilization factor
(for example, combining space-heating and cooling) or cascade systems, where the plants are connected
in series, each utilizing the waste water from the preceding plant (for example, electricity generation +
greenhouse heating + animal husbandry)

Fig. Cascade uses of geothermal energy

Advantages and disadvantages of geothermal energy

Pros of geothermal energy
1. Environmentally friendly: Geothermal energy is, for the most part, thought about harmless to the
ecosystem. The carbon impression of a geothermal power plant is negligible. A typical geothermal
power plant discharges 99% less carbon dioxide (CO2) for each megawatt-hour (MWh) of power it

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 235
produces, as indicated by the EIA. While there are many polluting features of tackling geothermal
energy, these are minor when linked with the pollution related to conventional fossils fuel product
sources like coal and flammable gas. Further improvement of our geothermal resources is viewed as
supportive in the battle against dangerous global warming.
2. Renewable and maintainable geothermal energy: Geothermal repositories come from natural
resources and usually are replenished. Geothermal energy is, in this way, an environmentally friendly
power source. “Supportable” is another name utilized for renewable sources of energy. In other words,
geothermal energy is an energy that can support its consumption rate – dissimilar to traditional fuel
sources like coal and fossil fuels.
3. Considerable potential of geothermal energy: Worldwide energy utilization is presently around 17
terawatts (TW) of power from all sources, both fossil and inexhaustible. While that may seem like a lot,
there’s commonly more energy than that stored inside the Earth! Most geothermal energy is
troublesome or potentially unbeneficial to access. Realistic evaluations for the capability of geothermal
power plants differ between 0.035 to 2 TW. Geothermal power plants across the world at present
deliver simply 12.7 gigawatts (GW) of electricity, with the installed geothermal heating limit somewhat
higher at 28 GW. This implies there is a lot of scope for different geothermal energy generation.
4. Stable geothermal energy: Geothermal energy is a consistent source of energy. We can foresee the
power output of a geothermal power plant with fantastic precision. This isn’t the situation with sun-
based and wind, where climate has an enormous influence on power creation. Geothermal power plants
are in this manner brilliant for satisfying the baseload energy need. Geothermal power plants have a
high limit factor —actual power output is highly close to total installed capacity. The worldwide average
power output was more than 80% (limit factor) of the absolute introduced limit in 2017, yet however
much 96% has been figured out.
5. Incredible for warming and cooling: Generating electricity with geothermal energy requires high water
temperatures — of more than 150°C (about 300°F) or more prominent — to turn the power-generating
turbines viably. The other, more straightforward approach to use geothermal energy is to utilize it for
warming and cooling. This methodology utilizes the (generally minor) temperature distinction between
the surface and a ground source. Earth is generally more impervious to occasional temperature changes
than air. Therefore, the ground a couple of feet underneath the surface can go about as a warmth
sink/source with a geothermal warmth siphon — much similarly, an electrical heat pump utilizes the
heat present noticeable all around. We’ve seen tremendous development in the number of property
holders who use geothermal warming/cooling over recent years.
Cons of geothermal energy
1. Natural issues of geothermal energy: There is plenty of greenhouse substances underneath the
surface of the earth. When geothermal energy is utilized, a portion of these gases escapes towards the
surface and into the air. These releases will, in general, be higher close to geothermal power plants.
Geothermal power plants produce limited quantities of sulfur dioxide and silica emissions. The
repositories can likewise contain traces of harmful weighty metals, including mercury, arsenic, and
boron.
2. Surface unpredictability (earthquakes): The development of geothermal force plants can influence the
solidness of the land. Indeed, geothermal power plants have prompted subsidence (sinking of the

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 236
Earth’s surface) in Germany and New Zealand. Earthquakes can be started due to hydraulic cracking, an
essential part of developing enhanced geothermal system (EGS) power plants.
3. Costly: Business geothermal power projects are costly. Complete establishment costs ordinarily end
up somewhere close to $2.5–5 million for a geothermal power plant with a limit of 1 megawatt (MW).
The investigation and boring new repositories assume a significant part in driving up costs and
commonly represent half of the complete expenses.
4. Area-specific: Great geothermal repositories are challenging to find. A few nations have been honored
with incredible resources – Iceland and the Philippines, for example, meet almost 33% of their power
interest with geothermal energy. If geothermal energy is shipped significant distances using heated
water (not power), critical energy losses must be considered.
5. Maintainability issues: Rainwater leaks through the earth’s surface and into the geothermal pools for
more than millennia. Studies show that the pools can be exhausted if the liquid is eliminated quicker
than supplanted. Activities can be made to infuse liquid back into the geothermal reservoir after the
nuclear power has been used (the turbine has produced power).

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 237
 Student presentation reports
[Production technology group]
INTRODUCTION
 Geothermal energy is heat from within the earth.
 We can recover this heat as steam or as hot water and use it to heat buildings or to generate
electricity
 The word geothermal comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and thermal (heat).
 Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source because the heat is continuously produced
inside the earth
 Geothermal energy is a type of renewable energy taken from the Earth’s core. It comes from
heat generated during the original formation of the planet and the radioactive decay of
materials. This thermal energy is stored in rocks and fluids in the centre of the earth.

How is Geothermal Energy Generated?

 Temperatures hotter than the sun’s surface are continuously produced inside the earth by a
slow decay of radioactive particles
 The most common method that scientists use to find geothermal reservoirs is drilling a deep
well and testing the temperature deep underground.
 Steam or very hot water from deep within the earth is piped to the surface and used as a heat
source or to produce electricity.
 Earth’s kinetic energy is converted into electricity.
 Temperatures hotter than the sun’s surface are continuously produced inside the earth by a
slow decay of radioactive particles
 People around the world use geothermal energy to produce electricity and heat their homes by
digging deep wells and pumping the heated water or steam to the surface

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 238
 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY POWER GENERATION
Magma heats nearby rocks and underground aquifers. Hot water can be released through geysers, hot
springs, steam vents, underwater hydrothermal vents, and mud pots. These are all sources of
geothermal energy.
Their heat can be captured and used directly for heat, or their steam can be used to generate electricity.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 239
Extraction and uses
The heat energy can be brought to the earth surface by the following ways:
 Directly from hot springs/ geysers
 Geothermal heat pump
Uses are broadly classified as;
 Direct use
 Indirect use

USES OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

Geothermal Energy for Houses
The use of geothermal energy enables you to cool down the temperature in your house during hot
periods. The technology takes the hot air from your house and transfers it down to the ground, where
the air naturally cools down. After that, the chilled air will be sent back to your house through the pipes.
The reverse geothermal heating process will take place during the cold winter months when warmer
temperatures are generated in your house by tapping into an underground heat exchange.
Geothermal Energy for Farms
Geothermal energy is widely used among farmers to heat their greenhouses. Thanks to this technology,
it is even possible to grow tropical plants such as citrus trees in the middle of the winter. Countries such
as Hungary and Italy have been using geothermal energy for many decades to grow vegetables
regardless of the weather conditions.
Another field where geothermal energy is necessary is in fish farms. Tropical fish and other aquatic
animals need warm water to survive and geothermal energy system is a suitable way to provide it.
Geothermal Energy for Industries
Geothermal energy is used for drying different kinds of foods – mostly fruits and vegetables. It can also
be used in the process of extracting precious metals from ore.
Geothermal Energy for Infrastructure
Interestingly, countries such as the Netherlands have started to use geothermal energy to keep bike
roads from icing in the colder seasons. Therefore, geothermal energy is a great source for preventing
sidewalks and roads from freezing in winter.
Geothermal heat pumps require professional installation and implementation. If you are considering to
use geothermal heating, we can provide you with a free service without any obligations:
By filling out our form with your needs and requirements, we will match you with up to four suppliers of
geothermal heat pumps. They will then contact you directly with individual offers and quotes - you only
have to pick the best one for your plans!

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 240
DRY STEAM PLANTS

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 241
  Use steam piped directly from a geothermal reservoir to turn the turbogenerator

Flash Steam Plants

 Takes high pressure hot water from deep inside the earth and converts it to steam to drive the
generator turbines
 When the steam cools it condenses into water and is injected into the earth to be used over and
over again.
 Most geothermal plants are flash steam plantsFlash Steam Power Plants are the most common
form of geothermal power plant. The hot water is pumped under great pressure to the surface.
When it reaches the surface the pressure is reduced and as a result some of the water changes
to steam. This produces a ‘blast’ of steam. The cooled water is returned to the reservoir to be
heated by geothermal rocks again.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 242
Binary Cycle Power Plants
 Transfers the heat from geothermal hot water to another liquid.
 The heat causes the second liquid to turn to steam which is used to drive a generator turbine.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

OTHER ADVANTAGES OF USING GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
1. Environmentally Friendly
Geothermal energy is more environmentally friendly than conventional fuel sources such as coal and
other fossil fuels. In addition, the carbon footprint of a geothermal power plant is low. While there is
some pollution associated with geothermal energy, this is relatively minimal when compared to fossil
fuels.
2. Renewable

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 243
Geothermal energy is a source of renewable energy that will last until the Earth is destroyed by the sun
in around 5 billion years. The hot reservoirs within the Earth are naturally replenished, making it both
renewable and sustainable.
3. Huge Potential
Worldwide energy consumption is currently around 15 terawatts, which is far from the total potential
energy available from geothermal sources. While we can’t currently use most reservoirs there is a hope
that the number of exploitable geothermal resources will increase with ongoing research and
development in the industry. It is currently estimated that geothermal power plants could provide
between 0.0035 and 2 terawatts of power.
4. Sustainable / Stable
Geothermal provides a reliable source of energy as compared to other renewable resources such as
wind and solar power. This is because the resource is always available to be tapped into, unlike with
wind or solar energy.
5. Heating and Cooling
Effective use of geothermal for electricity generation requires water temperatures of over 150°C to
drive turbines. Alternatively, the temperature difference between the surface and a ground source can
be used. Due to the ground being more resistant to seasonal heat changes than the air, it can act as a
heat sink/ source with a geothermal heat pump just two meters below the surface.
6. Reliable
Energy generated from this resource is easy to calculate since it does not fluctuate in the same way as
other energy sources, such as solar and wind. This means we can predict the power output from a
geothermal plant with a high degree of accuracy.
7. No Fuel Required
Since geothermal energy is a naturally occurring resource there is no fuel required, such as with fossil
fuels that are a finite resource which needs mining or otherwise extracting from the earth.
8. Rapid Evolution
There is a great deal of exploration into geothermal energy at the moment, meaning that new
technologies are being created to improve the energy process. There are an increasing number of
projects to improve and grow this area of industry. With this rapid evolution many of the current cons of
geothermal energy will be mitigated against.

OTHER DISADVANTAGES OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

1. Location Restricted
The largest single disadvantage of geothermal energy is that it is location specific. Geothermal plants
need to be built in places where the energy is accessible, which means that some areas are not able to
exploit this resource. Of course, this is not a problem if you live in a place where geothermal energy is
readily accessible, such as Iceland.
2. Environmental Side Effects
Although geothermal energy does not typically release greenhouse gases, there are many of these gases
stored under the Earth’s surface which are released into the atmosphere during digging. While these

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 244
gases are also released into the atmosphere naturally, the rate increases near geothermal plants.
However, these gas emissions are still far lower than those associated with fossil fuels.
3. Earthquakes
Geothermal energy also runs the risk of triggering earthquakes. This is due to alterations in the Earth’s
structure as a result of digging. This problem is more prevalent with enhanced geothermal power plants,
which force water into the Earth’s crust to open up fissures to greater exploitation of the resource.
However, since most geothermal plants are away from population centers, the implications of these
earthquakes are relatively minor.
4. High Costs
Geothermal energy is an expensive resource to tap into, with price tags ranging from around $2-$7
million for a plant with a 1 megawatt capacity. However, where the upfront costs are high, the outlay
can be recouped as part of a long-term investment.
5. Sustainability
In order to maintain the sustainability of geothermal energy fluid needs to be pumped back into the
underground reservoirs faster than it is depleted. This means that geothermal energy needs to be
properly managed to maintain its sustainability.
It is important for industry to assess the geothermal energy pros and cons in order to take account of
the advantages while mitigating against any potential problems.

Application of geothermal energy

1.HEATING OF GREENHOUSES
Heating of greenhouses is one of the most common direct applications of geothermal energy which also
controls the climate, predominantly relative humidity and temperature.
The optimum temperature needed for growing different vegetables and plants are different. Therefore
depending upon the heating demand of greenhouses the temperature of water supplied ranges from
40- 1000C The water is spread by the means of steel pipes which are placed under the soil, on the soil
or on benches, between the plant rows or suspended in the greenhouse space. All over the world more
than 1.000 glasshouses and soft plastic covered greenhouses use geothermal energy as the heat source.

2.BALNEOLOGY
From centuries bathing is one of major known uses of geothermal energy. In countries like China,
Iceland, Japan, New Zealand, North America, Turks and other areas geothermal water has been used for
bathing and cooking purpose for over 1000 of years.
The Romans believed that geothermal water has therapeutic effect on human body. They have used
geothermal water for treatment of high blood pressure, skin diseases, and diseases of the nervous
system and for rheumatism symptoms relieving.
In cold countries like Iceland and Kenya uses geothermal water to heat swimming pools. In these
countries almost all the outdoor swimming pools are heated by geothermal
water from there nearby hot springs.
The systems like steam bathing and spas are also utilizing the geothermal energy for providing heat and
steam. These types of system also lead to some of the health benefits like improvement in blood

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 245
circulation, in cleaning and skin rejuvenation, relief in muscle tension and enhancing detoxification
processes.
3.HONEY PROCESSING
After the honey is removed from the honey comb the raw honey is immediately needed to process.
Once the raw honey comes in contact with air it starts crystallizing. To prevent it from crystallizing honey
processing is needed immediately. One of the best methods for honey purification is through heating
under the controlled and low temperature. After extraction, heat treatment reduces the moisture level
and destroys all yeast cells present in it.
The process of honey extraction cannot be done at higher temperature because the combs will become
softer and may breaks therefore low temperature is kept for extraction.
At the time of heat treatment of honey, for purifying it, the honey is subjected to double heat treatment.
4.ACQUACULTURE
Different species of fish have different rate of growing production with a quite small difference in water
temperature. The geothermal water can be used rather than the water depended on sun for heat either
for growing and production or to abbreviate the time needed for growing fish, shrimp, abalone and
alligators to stage of maturity,
depending upon the surrounding local climate.

5. GROUND SOURCE HEAT PUMPS SYSTEM

One of the world’s fastest growing application of renewable energy is GHP or GSHP i.e. Ground Source
Heat Pump (Lund and Freestone, 2000, Lund et. al, 2004). In countries like USA and Europe this systems
have an annual increase of about 10%. The number of GSHP systems installed around the world has
exceeded by one million. The advantage of GSHP is that it uses the ground temperature as a heat source.
Extensive literature surveys have been found on the GSHP systems, mainly on the U- tube ground type
system (Deerman and Kavanaugh, 1991, YAVUZTURK et al, 1999) or on the general closed loop GSHP
System.
6.DAIRY PROCESSING
Once the milk is expressed from the cow it starts to go bad within some hours. Therefore, it is
important to start processing as soon as it is possible to preserve it longer.
Depending up on the kind of treatment the processed milk can be preserved for days or even months.
The processes like chilling, heat treatment and evaporation are most common treatments (Lund 1995).
These are all thermal processes that entail the addition or removal of heat by using the geothermal
energy.
7.CROP DRYING
The Geothermal energy has been also used to dry vegetables, fruits crops and other cereals (Lund et.
al., 2005). For avoiding wastage and ensuring the availability of nutritious food all around the year the
drying of agricultural products play most important role. The highest potential of geothermal resources
for the purpose of agricultural drying applications (OGOLA, 2013) includes low- to – medium enthalpy
geothermal resources having temperature less than 150 °C.

8. SNOW MELTING

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 246
All over the world in northern countries the footpath and street snow melting is a major issue. In several
countries like Japan, United States and particularly in Ice land this technology is installed along sidewalks,
roadways, bridges and runways for snow melting. Most commonly by the help of glycol solution the
geothermal water or steam is pumped in the pipes within or below the footpaths. At
some instances this hot water is sprinkled directly on the
surface of footpaths. The major advantage of this technique is that it banishes the need of snow
removal and provides safety to vehicles and pedestrians, and it also reduces the labour of slush removal.
GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
 Geothermal power plants do not burn fuel to generate electricity so their emission levels are
very low
 Release less than 1% of carbon dioxide emissions of a fossil fuel plant
 Use scrubber systems to clean the air of hydrogen sulfide
 Emits 97% less acid rain causing sulfur compounds than fossil fuel plants

GEOTHERMAL EXPROLATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN RWANDA

Geothermal investigations in Rwanda started in the 1980’s.
 The first zone found is (Gisenyi, Karisimbi, and KINIGI) in the north-western region, which is
associated with volcanoes.
 The second zone (BUGARAMA) in the southern region associated with faults in the East African
Rift
Rwanda has very positive indicators of geothermal prospects, which can be exploited commercially for
electricity generation and industrial uses. Four potential geothermal areas, Karisimbi, Gisenyi, KINIGI and
BUGARAMA have been identified and exploration drilling is underway in Karisimbi

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 247
 1. KARISIMBI PROSPECT
The Karisimbi area is located near the Karisimbi volcano within the National volcano park in NYABIHU
district.
2. KINIGI PROSPECT
The KINIGI geothermal area is located in MUSANZE district, east of Karisimbi The drilling of three
exploratory wells in KINIGI is to be financed by the Government of Belgium through Belgium Technical
Corporation (BTC) for an amount contribution up to 27 million Euros.
3. GISENYI PROSPECT
The Gisenyi geothermal prospect is located in RUBAVU district, south of Karisimbi and is defined by a
NW trending resistivity anomaly aligned with NYIRAGONGO and Nyamuragira active volcanoes in the
Democratic Republic of Congo.
4. BUGARAMA PROSPECT
The BUGARAMA geothermal prospect is located in the southern province of Rwanda. The geothermal
manifestations in this area are hot and warm springs and travertine deposits, which is being mined as
feedstock for a nearby cement factory. This prospect probably extends into Burundi and the Democratic
Republic of Congo
REFERENCE
 UWERA RUTAGARAMA; Geothermal Development Unit Energy, Water and Sanitation
Authority
P.O. Box: 537, Kigali RWANDA
 urutagarama@ewsa.rw
 RUTAGARAMA, U. and UHORAKEYE, T., 2010, Geothermal Development in Rwanda: An
Alternative to the Energy Crisis, Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2010. Bali,
Indonesia, 25-29 April 201

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 248
 “Skills for a Better Destiny”
Integrated Polytechnic Regional College – Kigali Campus
V. BIOMASS ENERGY

Prepared by
Alexis MUHIRWA, PhD.
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 249
The word “Biomass” consists of “bio” + “mass’, and originally used in the field of ecology simply
referring to amount of animal and plant. Biomass is defined as the biological degradable fraction of
products, wastes and residues from agriculture (including animal and vegetable materials), forestry and
the biological degradable fraction of industrial and household wastes. It is a term used to describe all
organic matter produced by photosynthesis, existing on the earth’s surface.

In the process of photosynthesis, plants convert radiant energy from the

sun into chemical energy in the form of glucose or sugar:
𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 (𝟔𝑯𝟐 𝑶) + 𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒆 (𝟔𝑪𝑶𝟐 )
+ 𝒔𝒖𝒏𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 (𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚)
→ 𝑮𝒍𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆(𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟏𝟐 𝑶𝟔 ) + 𝑶𝒙𝒚𝒈𝒆𝒏(𝟔𝑶𝟐 )
Biomass contains stored energy from the sun. Plants absorb the sun's
energy in a process called photosynthesis. The chemical energy in plants
gets passed on to animals and people that eat them.

Fig. Solar-driven photosynthesis in plants

Therefore, Biomass is a collective term used for all materials that are biogenic in origin that is, derived
from the product of photosynthesis. Biomass materials are used since millennia for meeting myriad
human needs including energy.
Biomass is a renewable energy source because we can always grow more trees and crops, and waste will
always exist. That is, it is CO2 neutral within its entire life cycle. During their growth, plants absorb CO2
from the air and convert it by photosynthesis into complex biochemical compounds, like cellulose and
lignin. Sunlight provides the energy for this process.

Fig. The carbon cycle and Life Cycle of Biomass Energy

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 250
 Fig. Biodiesel cycle
In fact, solar energy is stored by means of biomass. At a later stage this energy can be released and used.
During this conversion process the same amount of CO2 is released. In this way there is no net increase
of CO2 and therefore we can speak of a closed cycle in which the total amount of CO2 is conserved.
Biomass fuels include all water- and land-based vegetation and trees, and all waste biomass such as
municipal solid waste (MSW), municipal biosolids (sewage), and animal wastes (manures), forestry and
agricultural residues, and certain types of industrial wastes.
Biomass energy resources

Plant-derived Animal-derived

Fuelwood Wastes
Forestry Oil
Residues Municipal wastes
Energy Fuelwood
plantations Oil Industrial wastes

Field-based residues Sewage sludge/excreta

Agricultural
residues Process-based residues
Emergent
Aquatic and Free floating
marine Submerged
Floating
Fig.: Classification of biomass resources on the basis of their origin
Biomass in the form of fuelwood was perhaps the first energy source used by human beings and was the
main fuel till the industrial revolution, after which fossil fuels like coal and oil replaced biomass as the
main fuels. Biomass is still an important fuel in developing countries.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 251
Wood and wood waste: The most common form of biomass is wood. For thousands of years people
have burned wood for heating and cooking. Biomass continues to be a major source of energy in much
of the developing world.
Many manufacturing plants in the wood and paper products industry use wood waste to produce their
own steam and electricity. This saves these companies money because they don't have to dispose of
their waste products and they don't have to buy as much electricity.

Biofuels: ethanol and biodiesel: "Biofuels" are transportation fuels like ethanol and biodiesel that are
made from biomass materials. These fuels are usually blended with the petroleum fuels - gasoline and
diesel fuel, but they can also be used on their own. Using ethanol or biodiesel means we don't burn
quite as much fossil fuel. Ethanol and biodiesel are usually more expensive than the fossil fuels that they
replace but they are also cleaner burning fuels, producing fewer air pollutants.
Ethanol is an alcohol fuel made from the sugars found in grains, such as corn, sorghum, and wheat, as
well as potato skins, rice, sugar cane, sugar beets, and yard clippings. Scientists are working on cheaper
ways to make ethanol by using all parts of plants and trees. Farmers are experimenting with "woody
crops", mostly small poplar trees and switchgrass, to see if they can grow them cheaply and abundantly.
Biodiesel is a fuel made with vegetable oils, fats, or greases - such as recycled restaurant grease.
Biodiesel fuels can be used in diesel engines without changing them. It is the fastest growing alternative
fuel. Biodiesel, a renewable fuel, is safe, biodegradable, and reduces the emissions of most air pollutants.
Tab: Chemical properties of biomass fuel
Element Properties
Carbon C Heating value
Hydrogen H Heating value
Oxygen O Heating value
Nitrogen N NOx, N2O emissions
Chlorine C HCl, PCDD/F emissions, corrosion
Sulfur S SOx emissions, corrosion
Fluorine F HF emissions, corrosion
Potassium K Corrosion, ash melting
Sodium Na Corrosion, ash melting
Magnesium Mg Ash melting, utilization
Calcium Ca Ash melting, utilization
Phosphor P Ash utilization
Heavy metals Emission, ash melting

METHODS OF EXTRACTING BIOMASS ENERGY

Biomass can be converted to thermal energy, liquid, solid or gaseous fuels and other chemical products
through a variety of conversion processes. Generally, the prominent biopower technologies are
comprised of direct combustion, co-firing, gasification, pyrolysis, anaerobic digestion, and fermentation.
Conversion Technologies
Various conversion technologies for biomass resources are shown below:

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 252
 Fig. Biomass-to-electricity conversion
Various thermo-chemical conversion technologies are used mainly to generate electricity and heat. Also,
biochemical process digestion is used to produce electricity from wet organic wastes.
Various thermo-chemical processes are described below.
1. Drying
2. Torrefaction
3. Pyrolysis
4. Gasification
5. Combustion
6. Liquefaction
First three processes are considered as pretreatment of biomass fuels. Pyrolysis is the main pre-
treatment which is used for any type of biomass fuel conversion technology.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 253
 Fig. Thermochemical Conversion Process for Biomass
1. Direct Combustion
This is perhaps the simplest method of extracting energy from biomass. Since prehistorical inhabitants
of this planet learnt how to make fire, they converted biomass to useful energy by burning wood in a
fireplace or woodstove. Ever since the earliest inhabitants of this planet burned wood in their fireplaces,
direct biomass burning has been a source of energy for meeting human needs until the present time.
Industrial biomass combustion facilities can burn many types of biomass fuel, including wood,
agricultural residues, wood pulping liquor, municipal solid waste (MSW) and refuse-derived fuel.
Biomass is burned to produce heat and steam, the steam turns a turbine and the turbine drives a
generator, producing electricity. Because of potential ash build-up (which fouls boilers, reduces
efficiency and increases costs), only certain types of biomass materials are used for direct combustion.

Despite its apparent simplicity, direct combustion is a complex process from a technological point of
view. High reaction rates and high heat release and many reactants and reaction schemes are involved.
In order to analyze the combustion process a division is made between the place where the biomass fuel
is burned (the furnace) and the place where the heat from the flue gas is exchanged for a process
medium or energy carrier (the heat exchanger).

Fig. Principal scheme of direct combustion system

In combustion process, volatile hydrocarbons (CxHy) are formed and burned in a hot combustion zone.
Combustion technologies convert biomass fuels into several forms of useful energy for commercial
and/or industrial uses. In a furnace, the biomass fuel converted via combustion process into heat energy.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 254
The heat energy is released in form of hot gases to heat exchanger that switches thermal energy from
the hot gases to the process medium (steam, hot water or hot air).
The efficiency of the furnace is defined as follows:
𝑪𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒂𝒗𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒇𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒉𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒈𝒂𝒔
𝜼𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝑪𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒃𝒊𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
Depending on the wet Low Heating Value (LHV) of received biomass fuel, typical combustion efficiencies
varies in the range of 65% in poorly designed furnaces up to 99% in high sophisticated, well maintained
and perfectly insulated combustion systems.
In single statement, the combustion efficiency is mainly determined by the completeness of the
combustion process (i.e. the extent to which the combustible biomass particles are burned) and the
heat losses from the furnace. Direct combustion systems are of either fixed-bed or fluidized-bed systems.
Fixed-bed systems are basically distinguished by types of grates and the way the biomass fuel is supplied
to or transported through the furnace.
In stationary or travelling grate combustor, a manual or automatic feeder distributes the fuel onto a
grate, where the fuel burns. Combustion air enters from below the grate. In the stationary grate design,
ashes fall into a pit for collection. In contrast, a travelling grate system has a moving grate that drops the
ash into a hopper. Very important factor is also acceptable maximum moisture content in supplied
biomass fuel.
Fluidized-Bed Combustors (FBC) burn biomass fuel in a hot bed of granular, noncombustible material,
such as sand, limestone, or other
Injection of air into the bed creates turbulence resembling a boiling liquid. The turbulence distributes
and suspends the fuel. This design increases heat transfer and allows for operating temperatures below
970°C, reducing NOx emissions. Depending on the air velocity, a bubbling fluidized bed or circulating
fluidized bed is created. The most important advantages (comparing to fixed bed systems) of fluidized-
bed combustion system are:
 Flexibility to changes in biomass fuel properties, sizes and shapes;
 Acceptance of biomass fuel moisture content up to 60%;
 Can handle high-ash fuels and agricultural biomass residue (>50%);
 Compact construction with high heat exchange and reaction rates;
 Low NOx emissions;
 Low excess air factor, below 1.2 to 1.4, resulting in low heat losses from flue gas.
Additional factor that determines the system efficiency is the efficiency of the heat exchanger, which is
defined as follows:
𝑨𝒗𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
𝜼𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓 =
𝑪𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒂𝒗𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒇𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒉𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒈𝒂𝒔
Typical heat exchanger efficiencies based on biomass LHV range between 60% and 95%, mainly
depending on design and kind of operation and maintenance. The main losses are in the hot flue gas
exiting from the stack.
In the industrial practice, the furnace and heat exchanger form together biomass-fired boiler unit. The
boiler is a more adaptable direct combustion technology because the boiler transfers the heat of
combustion directly into the process medium. Overall boiler efficiency is defined as follows:

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 255
 𝜼𝑩𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒓 = 𝜼𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 × 𝜼𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓
Overall boiler efficiency varies between 50% and 95%. Very common and most efficient are biomass
systems with direct combustion for electrical power generation and co-generation. Such system can
achieve an overall efficiency between 30% (power generation systems) and 85% (co-generation systems).

2. Pyrolysis
In its simplest form, pyrolysis represents heating the biomass to drive off the volatile matter and leaving
behind the charcoal.

This process has doubled the energy density of the original

material because charcoal, which is half the weight of the
original biomass, contains the same amount of energy,
making the fuel more transportable. The charcoal also
burns at a much higher temperature than the original
biomass, making it more useful for manufacturing
processes. More sophisticated pyrolysis techniques are
developed recently to collect volatiles that are otherwise
lost to the system. The collected volatiles produce a gas
which is rich in hydrogen (a potential fuel) and carbon
monoxide. These compounds are synthesized into methane,
methanol, and other hydrocarbons. The steps involved in
this process are illustrated in Figure

Fig. Pyrolysis Process

Flash pyrolysis is used to produce bio-crude, a combustible fuel. Heat is used to chemically convert
biomass into pyrolysis oil. The oil, which is easier to store and transport than solid biomass material, is
then burned like petroleum to generate electricity. Pyrolysis can also convert biomass into phenol oil, a
chemical used to make wood adhesives, molded plastics, and foam insulation.

Main features of pyrolysis are described below:

 Breaking down of a material by heat
 First step in combustion process
 Devolatilization in absence of oxidizer
 Temperature range 250 - 500 °C
 Biomass + heat  charcoal, gases, bio-oil
 Char or liquid yield is optimized

3. Gasification is one of the most important energy conversion processes for biomass fuel that exposes
a solid fuel to high temperatures and limited oxygen, to produce a gaseous fuel.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 256
 It is a thermo-chemical conversion process in which a solid biomass
fuel e.g. wood is converted into a combustible gas. In a biomass
gasifier, biomass is burned in a limited amount of air.The amount of
air supplied is less than the amount of air required for complete
burning. This converts the biomass (which consists of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, etc) into an inflammable mixture of gases known
as producer gas/ wood gas. The producer gas consists of carbon
monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), and methane (CH4), along with
carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen (N2).

Fig. Gasification Process

Gasification has several advantages over burning solid fuel. One is convenience – one of the resultant
gases, methane, can be treated in a similar way as natural gas, and used for the same purposes. Another
advantage of gasification is that it produces a fuel that has had many impurities removed and could
therefore cause fewer pollution problems when burnt. Under suitable circumstances, it can also
produce synthesis gas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen which can be used to make
hydrocarbon (e.g., methane and methanol) for replacing fossil fuels. Hydrogen itself is a potential fuel
without much pollution which can conceivably substitute oil and petroleum in a foreseeable future
Gasification Reactions:
In a gasifier biomass is progressively heated from the ambient temperature to a temperature of around
11000C. The main reactions which take place in a gasifier are:
Drying: Biomass fuels usually contain up to 35% moisture. When the biomass is heated to around 100 0C,
the moisture gets converted into steam.
Pyrolysis: After drying as the biomass is heated it undergoes pyrolysis; that is the thermal decomposition
of biomass fuels in the absence of oxygen. Biomass decomposes into solid charcoal, liquid tars and gases.
Oxidation: Air is introduced in a gasifier in the oxidation zone. The oxidation takes place at about 700-
14000C, in which the solid carbonized fuel reacts with oxygen in the air producing carbon dioxide and
releasing heat.
C+02 = CO2 + 406kJ/g.mol
Reduction: At higher temperatures and under reducing conditions several reactions take place which
results in formation of CO, H2 and CH4.
CO2 + C  2CO – 172.6kJ/g.mol
C + H2O  CO + H2 – 131.4kJ/g.mol
CO2 + H2  CO + H2O – 41.2kJ/g.mol
C + 2H2  CH4 + 75kJ/g.mol
The producer gas so obtained is a low calorific value gas with typical higher heating value (HHV) in the
range of 5.4-5.7 MJ/m3. The producer gas can be directly burned in a burner to provide thermal energy
or it can be used as a fuel in an engine to provide mechanical power or electricity.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 257
Table: Three main successive stages of biomass gasification
Gasification Reaction Formula Reaction number/reaction Reaction heat
stage type [kJ/kmol]
Stage I C + 1/2O2 → CO (1) Partial oxidation +110,700
Oxidation CO + 1/2O2 → CO2 (2) CO oxidation +283,000
and other C + O2 → CO2 (3) Total oxydation +393,790
exothermic C6H10O5 → xCO2 + yCH2O (4) Total oxidation ˃˃0
reactions H2 + 1/2O2 → H2O (5) Hydrogen oxidation +241,820
CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 (6) Water-gas shift +41,170
CO + 3H2 → CH4 + H2O (7) Methanation +206,300
Stage II C6H10O5 → CxHz + CO (8) Pyrolysis <0
Pyrolysis C6H10O5 → CnHmOy (9) Pyrolysis <0
Stage III C + H2O → CO + H2 (10) Steam gasification -131,400
Gasification C + H2O → 2CO (11) Boudouard reaction -172,580
(Reduction) CO2 + H2 → CO + H2O (12) Reverse water shift -41,170
C + 2H2 → CH4 (13) Hydrogenation +74,900

Main features of gasification are as follows:

 Thermal degradation in presence of oxidizer
 Char oxidation with CO2 or H2O
 Temperature 800 -1100 °C
 Biomass + limited oxygen  fuel gas
 Ideally optimized gas yield CO, H2. In practice extra O2 added for energy
CH1.4O0.6 + 0.4O2  0.7CO + 0.6H2 + 0.3CO2 + 0.1H2O
 Ratio CO/CO2 is measure for quality
HEAT/STEAM
FUEL BOILER/FURNACE
GAS DISTRIBUTION

GAS
DRYER GASIFIER CONDENSING
CLEANING

GAS TURBINE OR ENGINE

DRYER ASH CONDENSATE
EXHAUST FLYASH
GAS HEATING POWER

Main process layout for gasification technology is shown in the schematics below:
Combustion of biomass is used mainly for energy production and the most matured technology. Main
characteristics of combustion process are listed below:
 Complete oxidation of fuel
 Pyrolysis and gasification precede
 Global reaction rate: CH1.4O0.6 + 1.05O2  CO2 + 0.7H2O
 Hot gases used for heating
– Direct
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 258
– Water in central heating systems
– Boilers (electricity)
– Process conditions

4. Fermentation
For centuries, people have used yeasts and other microorganisms to ferment the sugar of various plants
into ethanol. Producing fuel from biomass by fermentation is just an extension of this process, although
a wider range of plant material from sugar cane to wood fiber can be used. For instance, the waste from
a wheat mill is used to produce ethanol through fermentation. Ethanol is then mixed with diesel to
produce diesehol, a product used by trucks and buses.
Technological advances will inevitably improve the method. For example, scientists in Australia and the
U.S. have substituted a genetically engineered bacterium for yeast in the fermentation process. The
process has vastly increased the efficiency by which waste paper and other forms of wood fiber is
fermented into ethanol.
Biofuels: Biomass is converted into transportation fuels such as ethanol, methanol, biodiesel and
additives for reformulated gasoline. Biofuels are used in pure form or blended with gasoline.
Ethanol: Ethanol, the most widely used biofuel, is made by fermenting biomass in a process similar to
brewing beer.
Methanol: Biomass-derived methanol is produced through gasification. The biomass is converted into a
synthesis gas (syngas) that is processed into methanol.
Biodiesel: Biodiesel fuel, made from oils and fats found in micro-algae and other plants, is substituted
for or blended with diesel fuel.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 259
 Fig. Algae Bioreactor
5. Digestion
Biomass digestion works by utilizing anaerobic bacteria. These microorganisms usually live at the
bottom of swamps or in other places where there is no air, consuming dead organic matter to produce
methane and hydrogen. We put these bacteria to work for us. By feeding organic matter such as animal
dung or human sewage into tanks, called digesters, and adding bacteria, we collect the emitted gas to
use as an energy source. This process is a very efficient means of extracting usable energy from such
biomass. Usually, up to two thirds of the fuel energy of the animal dung could be recovered.
Another related technique is to collect methane gas from landfill sites. A large proportion of household
biomass waste, such as kitchen scraps, lawn clipping and pruning, ends up at the local tip. Over a period
of several decades, anaerobic bacteria at the bottom of such tips could steadily decompose the organic
matter and emit methane. The gas can be extracted and used by capping a landfill site with an
impervious layer of clay and then inserting perforated pipes that would collect the gas and bring it to the
surface

Fig. Anaerobic digestion

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 260
Biogas
Biogas is a fuel gas consisting of a mixture of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2), produced
through microbial processes under anaerobic conditions from a variety of organic material like animal,
agricultural, industrial and domestic wastes. Production of biogas from cattle dung, piggery waste,
human excreta, etc using simple anaerobic digesters has been in use in several developing countries
now for over half century. In recent years biogas digesters have been developed to operate on canteen
waste, kitchen waste, vegetable market waste, sugar cane press mud, leafy biomass.

Fig. Typical daily steps required to feed the biodigester

The common biomass feedstock for biogas production include animal residues such as cattle dung;
poultry litter; piggery waste; human waste; MSW (municipal solid waste), including food and vegetable
market waste; and industrial organic waste such as that from food-processing industries, sugar industry,
plantation industries, such as coffee-processing industry, leather, distilleries, pulp and paper, etc .

TYPES OF BIOGAS PLANTS

Floating Gas-holder Type: A floating-drum biogas plant consists of a cylindrical digester and a movable,
floating gasholder (drum). A digester tank or a well is made out of concrete and it called the digester
tank T, which has two parts: the inlet and the outlet. The inlet is from where slurry is transported to the
tank, which has a cylindrical dome H made of stainless steel. This dome floats on the slurry and collects
the gas generated. That is why such a biogas plant is known as floating gas holder type. Fermentation of
the slurry takes for about 50 days. The pressure inside H increases when more gas is formed by bacterial
fermentation. The gas is then transported out through outlet pipe V. The decomposed matter moves
into the next chamber in tank T. By using the outlet pipe this is then removed to the overflow tank,
which is used as manure for cultivation purposes.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 261
 Fig. Floating Gas Holder type Plant and Scheme of floating-drum digester
The digester is generally constructed underground whereas the floating gasholder is above ground.
Smaller household-scale systems may also be fully above ground. The digester section of the reactor is
usually constructed with bricks, concrete or quarry-stone masonry and then plastered. The gas-holder is
typically made of metal and is coated with oil paints, synthetic paints or bitumen paints to protect it
against corrosion. Regular de-rusting is however essential to ensure sustained use and the cover coating
should be applied annually. A well-maintained metal gas-holder can be expected to last between 3–5
years in humid areas, or 8–12 years in a dry climate. A suitable alternative to standard grades of steel
are fibreglass reinforced plastic or galvanized sheet metal. The produced gas collects in the gas drum,
which rises or falls again, depending on the amount of gas produced and used. The drum level thus
provides a useful visual indicator of the quantity of gas available.
The gas is provided at a relatively constant pressure, which depends on the weight of the drum. To
increase gas pressure, additional weights can be added on top of the gasholder. Braces can be welded
onto the inside of the drum which then help to break up the scum layer when the drum is rotated.
The gasholder floats either directly on the fermenting slurry or in a specifically constructed separate
water jacket which reduces methane leakage as shown in upper RHS Figure. A guiding frame
constructed inside of the gas drum is an additional measure to avoid tilting of the drum when it rises.
The design size of floating-drum plants is flexible, with digester sizes typically ranging between 1– 50 m3.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 262
 Picture: Floating-drum digester for market waste in India and above ground floating-drum digester for households in India,
made of fiberglass reinforced plastic
Tab: Advantages and disadvantages of floating-drum plants
Advantages Disadvantages
• Simple and easy operation • High material costs for steel drum
• The volume of stored gas is directly visible • Susceptibility of steel parts to corrosion
• Constant gas pressure (because of this, floating-drum plants have
• Relatively easy construction a shorter life span than fixed-dome plants)
• Construction errors do not lead to major • Regular maintenance costs for the
problems in operation and gas yield painting of the drum (if made of steel)
• If fibrous substrates are used, the gasholder
shows a tendency to get “stuck” in the
scum layer (if gasholder floats on slurry)
Fixed Dome Type Here also, a well and a dome are made out of concrete, which is called the digester
tank T. Since the dome is fixed, this gas plant is known as fixed dome type. The manufacturing process is
similar to the floating holder type bio gas plant; where the slurry expands and overflows into the
overflow tank F. Fixed dome plants produce just as much gas as floating-drum plants, if they are gas-
tight. However, utilization of the gas is less effective as the gas pressure fluctuates substantially. Burners
and other simple appliances cannot be set in an optimal way. If the gas is required at constant pressure
(e.g., for engines), a gas pressure regulator or a floating gas-holder is necessary.

Fig. Fixed Dome Type Biogas Plant

Fixed-dome plants must be covered with earth up to the top of the gas-filled space to counteract the
internal pressure (up to 0, 15 bars). The earth cover insulation and the option for internal heating make

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 263
them suitable for colder climates. Due to economic parameters, the recommended minimum size of a
fixed-dome plant is 5 m3. Digester volumes up to 200m3 are known and possible
In fixed dome digester, the gas holder and the digester are combined. Gas is stored in the upper part of
the digester. Upper portion of digester pit itself acts as a gas holder. Displaced level of slurry provides
requisite pressure for release of gas for its subsequent use. The pressure inside the digester varies as the
gas is collected. Fixed dome digester is usually built below the ground level and is suitable for cold
regions. As the plant does not involves any steel parts, it can be built with local materials and hence its
construction costs are low.

Fig. Fixed Dome with Expansion Chamber type Biogas Plant

Fixed Dome with Expansion Chamber type Biogas Plant has a curved bottom and hemispherical top
which are joined at their bases with no cylindrical portion in between. Displaced slurry following
digestion moves to the outlet displacement chamber as there is no displacement space on the inlet side.
An inlet pipe connects mixing tank with the digester. This type of biogas plant is very cheaper as
compared with the other two types of Biogas plants.
Fixed-dome plants are only recommended for situations where experienced biogas technicians with
specific technical skills in construction are available to ensure a gastight construction. Generally fixed-
dome plants are characterized by modest initial cost and a long operational life (about 15 – 20 years),
since no moving or corroding parts are required. However with time, the masonry structure may
become porous and prone to cracking resulting in gas leakages. Porosity may be counteracted with the
use of special sealants; however cracking often causes irreparable leaks. The fluctuating gas pressure in
this digester type might complicate gas utilization. A summary of the advantages and disadvantages of
this design type is provided in Table.
Table: Advantages and disadvantages of fixed-dome digesters
Advantages Disadvantages
• Relative low construction costs • Certain specific technical skills are required to
• Long life span if well-constructed ensure a gas-tight construction
• Absence of moving parts or corroding • Fluctuating gas pressure depending on
metal parts volume of stored gas

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 264
• Underground construction saves space • Special sealant is required for the inside
and protects the digester from temperature plastering of the gasholder (e.g. bee wax–
fluctuations engine oil mixture, acrylic emulsion)
• Local construction provides opportunities • Gas leaks may occur when not constructed by
for skilled local employment experienced masons
• Difficult to construct in bedrock
• Difficult to repair once constructed as the
reactor is located under soil
Bag Type, tubular or ballon digester: The bag-type biogas plant is a portable unit. Made of rubberized
nylon fabric, such a plant can be easily placed at any location. The appropriate type is selected on the
basis of technical requirements like distance between kitchen and cattle shed, location, availability of
dung and water, preferences of the beneficiaries etc.
A tubular biogas plant consists of a longitudinal shaped heat-sealed, weather resistant plastic or rubber
bag (balloon) that serves as digester and gas holder in one. The gas is stored in the upper part of the
balloon. The inlet and outlet are attached directly to the skin of the balloon. As a result of the
longitudinal shape, no short-circuiting occurs, but since tubular digesters typically have no stirring device,
active mixing is limited and digestate flows through the reactor in a plug-flow manner. Gas pressure can
be increased by placing weights on the balloon while taking care not to damage it.

Fig. Scheme of balloon digester

The benefit of these digesters is that they can be constructed at low cost by standardized prefabrication.
Additionally, the shallow below ground installation makes them suitable for use in areas with a high
groundwater table. However, the plastic balloon is quite fragile and susceptible to mechanical damage
and has a relatively short life span of 2–5 years (Nzila et al., 2012).
To avoid damage to and deterioration of the balloon, it is also important to protect the bag from direct
solar radiation with a roof. Additionally wire-mesh fence protects against damage by animals. Table
blow highlights the advantages and disadvantages of this design type.
Table: the advantages and disadvantages of balloon digesters
Advantages Disadvantages
• Low construction cost • Relative short lifespan
• Ease of transportation • Susceptibility to mechanical damage
• Easy to construct • Material usually not available locally
• High digester temperatures in warm climates • Low gas pressure requires extra weights
• Uncomplicated emptying and maintenance • Scum cannot be removed from digester
• Shallow installation depth suitable for use • Local craftsmen are rarely in a position
in areas with a high groundwater table or to repair a damaged balloon
hard bedrock

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 265
Fig. PVC balloon developed in South Africa by DIY, Polyethylene balloon developed in Belize and Flexi biogas system developed in
Kenya by IFAD
Garage-type digester
In contrast to the three digester types described previously, the garage-type digester is operated in
batch-mode and in a dry digestion process. The entire organic waste stream is filled batch-wise into a
simple garage-like digester with an airtight door. Once the door is closed, the material does not need to
be transported or turned during the process.

Fig. Scheme of a garage-type dry digestion plant

The term “dry digestion” can be misleading as in every biological process, water plays a crucial role. All
bacteria involved in the AD process require a wet environment as they are only active in the liquid phase
of the substrate. The term dry digestion therefore refers to a high total solids content above 15%
compared to wet systems. However the main criterion is the feedstock stackability.

As a general rule, the fresh feedstock material is inoculated with old digestate material or with fresh
cow dung in order to initiate and accelerate decomposition by anaerobic bacteria. After closing the
digester doors, the percolation system – a shower like installation at the roof of the digester, is put into
operation.

Picture: Percolation system made of PVC-pipes and Picture: Dry digestion pilot plant at KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 266
It sprinkles percolate over the biomass and disperses the AD bacteria evenly in the system. This
percolate trickles down through the feedstock material, drains at the bottom of the reactor and is
collected in an external storage tank. The percolate is then recirculated with a pump to sprinkle the
biomass regularly. An appropriate filter at the percolate outlet prevents coarse particles from entering
and blocking the pump and recirculation pipes.
Percolation can be operated continuously or periodically. A few days before the process is terminated,
the percolation is stopped to allow dewatering of the digestate material. Before opening the digester
doors, the reactor is flushed with exhaust gas (CO2) from an engine to avoid the formation of an
explosive gas/air mixture (6–12% biogas in air) which can result during the opening and emptying
process.
Advantages Disadvantages
• Simple design • Gas-tightness of opening difficult
• Only little water addition is needed • Inoculation is needed for every new batch,
• Easy treatment of digestate thus reducing capacity for fresh feedstock

Types of fixed-dome plants

1. Chinese fixed-dome plant is the archetype of all fixed dome plants. Several million have been
constructed in China. The digester consists of a cylinder with round bottom and top.

Fig. Diagram of Chinese fixed dome biogas plant model

Tab: Typical Inventory of materials for 3.2 m3 Anaerobic Digestion plant (IDCOL, 2008)

2. Janata model was the first fixed-dome design in India, as a response to the Chinese fixed dome plant.
It is not constructed anymore. The mode of construction leads to cracks in the gasholder - very few of
this plant had been gas-tight.
3. Deenbandhu, the successor of the Janata plant in India, with improved design, was more crack-proof
and consumed less building material than the Janata plant with a hemisphere digester. A fixed dome
biogas plant developed in 1984 by Action for Food Production (AFPRO), New Delhi. Due to the cost
effectiveness (low cost), it is very popular in rural areas. The cost reduction has been achieved by

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 267
minimizing the surface area through joining the segments of two spheres of different diameters at their
bases.

Fig. Deenbandhu Biogas Plant model

The foundation of the plant is constructed in the segment of spherical shape. On the outer periphery of
this foundation, the dome shaped digester is constructed with same base diameter. Therefore the
digester, gas portion and dome look as a single unit. The surface area of the biogas plant is reduced with
same digester volume reducing the earth work and cost of construction without scarifying the efficiency.

This type of plant has a hemispherical fixed-dome type of gas holder, unlike the floating dome of the
KVIC-design. The dome is made from pre-fabricated Ferro-cement or reinforced concrete and attached
to the digester, which has a curved bottom. The slurry is fed from a mixing tank through an inlet pipe
connected to the digester. After fermentation the biogas collects in the space under the dome. It is
taken out for use through a pipe connected to the top of the dome while the sludge, which is a by-
product comes out through an opening in the side of the digester. About 90 percent of the biogas plants
in India are of the Deenbandhu type.

4. CAMARTEC model has a simplified structure of a hemispherical dome shell based on a rigid
foundation ring only and a calculated joint of fraction, the so-called weak / strong ring. It was developed
in the late 80s in Tanzania. In full words, CAMARTEC is the Centre for Agricultural Mechanization and
Rural Technologies. And is a Parastatal Organization established by parliamentary Act No.19 of United
Republic of Tanzania of 1981 and started its functions in July, 1982 with the aim of promoting
appropriate agricultural and rural technologies for improvement of the standard of living and alleviation
of rural poverty. It has also received an award in recognition of its efforts in promoting the
dissemination of Domestic Biogas in Tanzania.

Fig. Fixed dome plant CAMARTEC design

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 268
Tab: Potential biogas production from various substrates, source: Somayaji (2005)
Substrate HRT* Solid Temperature Biogas yield added Methane
(Days) Concentration (%) (0C) (m3/kg #VS) (%)
Sewage sludge 25 6.0 35 0.52 68
Domestic 30 5.0 35 0.47 -
garbage
Piggery waste 20 6.5 35 0.43 69
Poultry waste 15 6.0 35 0.50 69
Cattle waste 30 10.0 30 0.30 58
Canteen waste 20 10.0 30 0.60 50
Food-market 20 4.0 35 0.75 32
waste
Mango- 20 10.0 35 0.45 52
processing waste
Tomato- 24 4.5 35 0.63 65
processing waste
Lemon waste 30 4.0 37 0.72 53
Citrus waste 32 4.0 37 0.63 62
Banana peel 25 10.0 37 0.20 55
Pineapple waste 30 4.0 37 0.37 60
Mixed feed of 20 4.0 37 0.62 50
fruit waste
*HRT: Hydraulic retention time
#VS: Volatile solids

Operation of biogas
The anaerobic microbial conversion of organic substrates to methane is a complex biogenic process
involving a number of microbial populations, controlled by various environmental factors like pH,
temperature, ionic strength or salinity, nutrients and toxic or inhibitory substrates.
Sizing calculations
For a given size of plant (rated gas production capacity per day) the amount of feed required can be
estimated using the biogas yield data. The specific biogas consumption in biogas engines is 0.6-0.8
m3/kWh. This specific fuel consumption value can be used to calculate the requirement for biogas for
power generation purposes. Biogas consumption in other devices is as follows:
Household burner: 200-450 lit/hr
Gas lamp (light output equivalent to a 60W lamp): 120 -150 lit/hr

Example:
A dairy has 100 cattle. The fresh dung production per cattle is 10 kg/day. If all the cattle dung is used for
biogas production; a) Calculate the capacity of biogas plant needed (in m3/day) and b) the electricity
generation potential in kWh/day.
Solution:
i) Total daily fresh dung production = 100 x 10 = 1000 kg/day

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 269
ii) As per table shown, the biogas yield is 0.3 m3/kg VS. To calculate the total biogas yield, we would first
have to calculate the Volatile Solid (VS) content in fresh dung.
iii) Generally fresh dung has 20% Total Solid (TS) content, out of which 70% is VS.
Thus VS content in the fresh dung = 1000 kg/day x 0.2 x 0.7 = 140 kg VS/day
iv) Gas production per day and capacity of biogas plant = 140 kg VS/day x 0.3 m3/kg VS = 42 m3/day.
v) Assuming a biogas consumption of 0.7m3/kWh, the daily electricity generation potential = 42
(m3/day)/0.7 (m3/kWh) = 60 kWh/day

Sizing a Biogas Plant

DGP: Daily gas production (l/day)
DFM: Daily feeding materials (l/day)
RT: Retention time (days)
VD: Volume of the digester (m3)
Cg: Capacity of the gasometer (%)
Vg: Volume of the gasometer (l or m3)
𝑽𝑫
𝑽𝑫 = 𝑫𝑭𝑴 × 𝑹𝑻 [𝐿] 𝑜𝑟 [𝑚3 ] ⟺ 𝑹𝑻 = [𝐷𝑎𝑦𝑠]
𝑫𝑭𝑴
𝑽𝒈
𝑪𝒈 = [%] ⟺ 𝑽𝒈 = 𝑪𝒈 × 𝑫𝑮𝑷[𝐿] 𝑜𝑟 [𝑚3 ]
𝑫𝑮𝑷
Exercise
A biogas plant is fed with 50kg of cowdung every day, ratio organic materials and water is 1:1. The
retention time is 60days. Specific gas production 35𝑚3⁄𝑘𝑔; capacity of the gas holder/gasometer 55%
Calculate:
a) Daily feeding materials
b) Daily gas production
c) Volume of the gasometer
d) Volume of the digester

Scaling Biogas Plant

D: Diameter of the digester; Hb: Height of the bottom; HD: Height of the digester; Hd: height of the dome;
Hes:Height of the empty space; Rd: Radius of the dome; Rb: Radius of the bottom; VD: Volume of the
digester; Vd: volume of the dome; Vb: Volume of the bottom; VT: Total volume; Ves: Volume of the empty
space; Vef: Effective volume.
𝝅 × 𝑫𝟐 × 𝑯 𝑫
𝑽𝑫 = = 𝝅𝑹𝟐 𝑯𝑫 [𝒎𝟑 ]
𝟒
𝑯𝑫
𝑽𝒅 = 𝝅𝑯𝑫 𝟐 (𝑹𝑫 − ) [𝒎𝟑 ]
𝟑
𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝑫 + 𝑽𝒅 + 𝑽 𝒃
𝑯𝒆𝒔
𝑽𝒆𝒔 = 𝝅𝑯𝒆𝒔 𝟐 (𝑹𝒅 − ) [𝒎𝟑 ]
𝟑
𝑽𝒆𝒇 = 𝑽𝑻 − 𝑽𝒆𝒔
Determination of Performance and Efficiency of Energy Saving Cook Stoves

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 270
1. Parameters
Cv : Calorific value of the fuel
Cpw: Specific heat capacity of water
Lvw: Latent heat of vaporization for water
Mwi : Mass of initial water
ti: initial time
tf: Final time
Ti : Initial temperature of water
Tf : Final temperature
Mwe : Mass of water evaporated
Mfu : Mass of fuel used
2. Useful heat energy (Uhe)
𝑼𝒉𝒆 = 𝑴𝒘𝒊 (𝑻𝒇 − 𝑻𝒊 ) × 𝑪𝒑𝒘 + 𝑳𝒗𝒘 × 𝑴𝒘𝒆 [𝐽]
3. Input heat energy (𝐼ℎ𝑒 )
𝑰𝒉𝒆 = 𝑪𝒗 × 𝑴𝒇𝒖 [𝐽]
4. Efficiency of Cook stoves
𝑼𝒉𝒆
𝜂= × 100%
𝑰𝒉𝒆
5. Fire power of biomass used
𝑪𝒗 × 𝑴𝒇𝒖 𝑰𝒉𝒆
𝑭𝑷 = = [𝑊]
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒐𝒊𝒍 × 𝟔𝟎𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒐𝒊𝒍 × 𝟔𝟎𝒔𝒆𝒄

Pros and cons of Biomass Energy

Advantages
Biomass energy is inherently flexible. The variety of technological options available means that it can be
applied at a small, localized scale primarily for heat, or it can be used in much larger base-load power
generation capacity whilst also producing heat. Biomass energy generation can thus be tailored to rural
or urban environments, and utilized in domestic, commercial or industrial applications. or urban
environments, and utilized in domestic, commercial or industrial applications.
Biomass conversion reduces greenhouse gas emissions in two ways. Heat and electrical energy is
generated which reduces the dependence on power plants based on fossil fuels. The greenhouse gas
emissions are significantly reduced by preventing methane emissions from landfills. Moreover, biomass
energy plants are highly efficient in harnessing the untapped sources of energy from biomass wastes.

 It is Renewable: replenished/regrown after use. The key difference between this and other
renewable energy sources, such as the sun and water, is that need for maintenance. While plant
life is abundant, using it without making efforts to replenish stocks can lead to large amounts of
it still being wasted, as we see with deforestation.
 Carbon Neutrality: The amount of carbon that is released into the atmosphere is a major
contributor to climate change. Biomass reduces this because the fuel is a natural part of the
carbon cycle, unlike oil and other fossil fuels.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 271
In other words, the only carbon that is released into the atmosphere from biomass fuels is what was
absorbed by the plants during their lifecycles. As these plants are replenished, the new ones then absorb
the same amount of carbon again, creating a neutrality that sees no new carbon created. This makes
biomass fuels exceptionally clean.
 Less Dependency on Fossil Fuels: The more we use biomass energy, the less we need to depend
on the fossil fuels that are major contributors to climate change and other environmental issues.
The abundance of biomass materials available also far outweighs that of fossil fuels, making it a more
readily available fuel source. Better yet, if non-renewable materials, such as oil, aren’t being used for
fuel, the limited supplies that we have can be used elsewhere.
 It Is Versatile: can be converted into many different fuel sources, each of which has varied
applications such as biodiesel for vehicle, methane gas and a range of other biofuels. Wood to
generate heat, the steam powers turbines to create energy
 Availability: Biomass fuels are abundant, much like the sun and water found practically
anywhere. This abundance means that we will not run into the issues that we currently have
with fossil fuels when it comes to availability. However, it is also crucial that this abundance is
maintained. While biomass fuels will always be available because they are part of the natural
lifecycle of the planet, this should not lead to irresponsibility in their use.
 Low Cost In Comparison To Fossil Fuels: In comparison to drilling for oil or creating gas pipelines,
the costs involved in collecting biomass fuels is extremely low. This low cost can also be passed
onto consumers, whose energy bills can then no longer be dependent on issues like availability
and the decisions of the companies who supply energy. These low costs also make biomass
more attractive to producers, as they can enjoy higher profits for less output.
 It Reduces Waste: A lot of the waste that we produce is biodegradable and plant matter, which
could be put to more efficient use elsewhere. Biomass energy is often able to make use of the
waste that would often sit and fester in landfills. This reduces the effects that such sites have on
the natural environment, which are particularly pronounced in regards to contaminating local
habitats and damaging wildlife. This reduction in waste also opens up more areas for humans to
live in, as less space is needed to create landfills.
 Domestic Production: This means that people no longer need to be beholden to power
companies and their charges. The nature of biomass means that practically anybody could
produce and use it on a domestic level. While this does take some work, even something as
simple as burning wood instead of using a central heating system can save money and have a
more beneficial effect on the environment.

Disadvantages
 It’s Not Completely Clean: While biomass is a carbon neutral fuel source, it is not completely
clean. Burning wood and other plant life does create other emissions in addition to carbon.
These can pollute the local environment, even if the effects are not as drastic as they may be
from fossil fuels.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 272
  Some organizations, such as the Partnership for Policy Integration, point to biomass fuels as air
polluters. When compared to other renewables, such as water, this lack of clean emissions is a
major disadvantage.
 High Costs In Comparison To Other Alternatives: While the cost of extracting biomass fuels is
lower than most types of fossil fuels, they still generally exceed those of many other forms of
renewable energy. In some cases, biomass projects are considered not to be worth the price of
completion, especially when solar, water and wind alternatives are available. This cost comes
from the need of biomass resources to be maintained, and for extracted biomass to be
replanted. Furthermore, the cost of the machinery used in extraction is also a factor, as it
transportation of the biomass.
 Possible Deforestation: Though biomass fuels are renewable, they also need to be maintained.
Failure to do this can lead to widespread deforestation. This is a major environmental issue. It
massively cuts down on the habitable areas available to scores of species of wildlife, leading to
extinctions. This is a major factor that holds back the use of biomass fuels on a large scale, as
replanting efforts may not be able to keep up with the amount of fuel needed.
 Space: A large amount of space is needed to grow the materials that are used in biomass energy.
This space is not always going to be available, particularly in built-up areas, like cities. This also
limits the areas where biomass energy power plants can be built, as they need to be close to the
sources of the fuel to cut down on transportation and other costs. This makes them less
favorable when compared to solar power, which requires less space and is installable in cities
and other populated areas. Finally, the land used could also have been used to grow crops,
which is particularly important given the large population of the planet.
 It Requires Water: An often unseen disadvantage of biomass energy is the amount of water
needed in production. All plants need water to live, which means sources must be available at
all times. Not only does this lead to increased costs in terms of irrigation, but it may result in
water sources becoming less available to people and wildlife. Furthermore, with water itself
being an alternative form of energy, which is also far cleaner than biomass energy, it raises the
question of why the water isn’t used for that purpose instead.
 It has inefficiencies: While biomass fuels are natural, they are also not as efficient as processed
fossil fuels, like petroleum and gasoline. In fact, biodiesel and comparable biofuels are often
combined with small amounts of fossil fuels to make them more effective. This, in turn, reduces
these biofuels’ effectiveness as a means to cut down on use of fossil fuel resources.
 It’s Under Development: More needs to be done to harness the potential that biomass energy
has. However, it is held back as an alternative fuel source by many of the disadvantages
mentioned here. When compared to the likes of solar and water sources, biomass is inefficient
and under-researched. In fact, scientists are still working on ways to make it more efficient. Until
that barrier is crossed, it is unlikely that biomass energy will be adopted as a viable alternative
fuel source on a wide scale.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 273
 Student presentation reports
[Air con & auto group]
TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAP 1. Introduction
CHAP 2. TYPES OF BIOMASS
2.1 wood
2.2 solid wastes
2.3 landfill and biogas
2.4 ethanol
2.5 biodiesel
CHAP 3. USES OF BIOMASS
CHAP4. SOURSES OF BIOMASS
4.1.1. agriculture crop (energy crop)
4.1.2. agriculture wastes (crop residues)
4.1.3. forest residues
4.1.4. Municipal Solid waste(MSW)
4.2. COMPOSITION OF BIOMASS
CHAP 5. CLASSIFICATION OF BIOMASS ENERGY
5.1. Bio-fuel
5.2. Bio-power
CHAP 6. How do we use biomass energy to generate electricity?
6.1. direct combustion
6.1 broken down of bacteria (aerobic digestion)
6.3 converted to a gas (small-scale gasification)
CHAP 7. HOW MUCH POWER CAN BIOMASS GENERATE?
7.1 Advantages of biomass electricity generation
7.2 disadvantages of biomass electricity generation
CHAP 8. BIOMASS AND THE ENVIRONMENTS
8.1. Environmental impacts of biomass energy resources in Rwanda
8.2 Rwanda energy sector structure
8.3. current status of biomass in Rwanda
CHAP 9. IMPACTS OF BIOMASS ENERGY IN RWANDA
9.0. Environmental impacts assessment results
9.1. Environmental impacts
9.2 Economic impacts
9.3. Social impacts
CHAP 10. SOLUTIONS TO THE IMPACTS OF BIOMASS ENERGY RESOURCES IN RWANDA
10.1. Improving cooking technologies in Rwanda
10.2. The transition from cooking with charcoals to LPG Gas in Kigali
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 274
CHAP 11. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BIOMASS ENERGY
11.1. Advantages of biomass energy
11.2. Disadvantages of biomass energy
CHAP 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 What Is Biomass?
Biomass is any organic matter (wood, crops, seaweed, animal wastes) that can be used as an energy
source or biomass energy or” bioenergy” is energy produced from recently living organisms. Biomass is
probably our oldest source of energy after the sun. For thousands of years, people have burned wood to
heat their homes and cook their food.
Biomass gets its energy from the sun. All organic matter contains stored energy from the sun. During a
process called photosynthesis, sunlight gives plants the energy they need to convert water and carbon
dioxide into oxygen and sugars. These sugars called carbohydrates, supply plants and the animals that
eat plants with energy. Foods rich in carbohydrates are a good source of energy for the human body.
Biomass is a renewable energy source because its supplies are not limited. We can always grow trees
and crops, and waste will always exist.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 275
Solid waste is that it reduces the volume of garbage dumped in landfills by up to 90 percent, which in
turn reduces the cost of landfill disposal. It also makes use of the energy in the garbage, rather than
burying it in a landfill, where it remains unused. There are three forms of bioenergy available with
today’s technology: heat, fuels, and electrical power.
Bioenergy, primarily in the form of heat, has been produced for thousands of years, providing a good
precedent to build upon in planning for its use in agriculture. This burning of the biomass or products
from it is known as direct combustion. Direct combustion is a comparatively efficient means of using
bioenergy, due to its minimal processing needs, the diversity of feedstock that can be used, relatively
simple equipment needs, and a relatively high rate of energy recovery. For most operations, direct
combustion is the only practical means of harnessing bioenergy.
CHAP2. Types of Biomass
We use several types of biomass today, including wood, agricultural products, solid waste, landfill gas
and biogas, and bio-fuels. The uses for alcohol fuels, like ethanol, will be discussed below.
2.1. Wood
Most biomass used today is home grown energy. Wood (logs, chips, bark, and sawdust) accounts for
about 42 percent of biomass energy. But any organic matter can produce biomass energy. Other
biomass sources can include agricultural waste products like fruit pits and corncobs.
Wood and wood waste are used to generate electricity. Much of the electricity is used by the industries
making the waste; it is not distributed by utilities, it is a process called cogeneration. Paper mills and
saw mills use much of their waste products to generate steam and electricity for their use. However,
since they use so much energy, they need to buy additional electricity from utilities.
Increasingly, timber companies and companies involved with wood products are seeing the benefits of
using their lumber scrap and sawdust for power generation. This saves disposal costs and, in some areas,
may reduce the companies’ utility bills. In fact, the pulp and paper industries rely on biomass for well
over half of their energy needs. Other industries that use biomass include lumber producers, furniture
manufacturers, agricultural businesses like nut and rice growers, and liquor producers.

2.2. Solid Waste

Burning trash turns waste into a usable form of energy. One ton (2,000 pounds) of garbage contains
about as much heat energy as 500 pounds of coal. Garbage is not all biomass; perhaps half of its energy
content comes from plastics, which are made from petroleum and natural gas.
Power plants that burn garbage for energy are called waste-to-energy plants. These plants generate
electricity just as coal-fired plants do, except that combustible garbage (not coal) is the fuel used to fire
their boilers. Making electricity from garbage costs more than making it from coal and others energy
sources. The main advantage of burning
2.3. Landfill Gas and Biogas
Bacteria and fungi are not picky eaters. They eat dead plants and animals, causing them to rot or decay.
A fungus on a rotting log is converting cellulose to sugars to feed itself. Although this process is slowed
in a landfill, a substance called methane gas is still produced as the waste decays.
Regulations require landfills to collect methane gas for safety and environmental reasons. Methane gas
is colorless and odorless, but it is not harmless. The gas can cause fires or explosions if it seeps into

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 276
nearby homes and is ignited. Landfills can collect the methane gas, purify it, and use it as fuel to
generate electricity
Methane, the main ingredient in natural gas, is a good energy source. Most gas stoves and furnaces use
methane supplied by utility companies
Still, today a small portion of landfill gas is used to provide energy. Most is burned off at the landfill.
With today’s low natural gas prices, this higher-priced biogas is less economical to collect. Methane,
however, is a more powerful greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. It is better for the environment to
burn landfill methane and change it into carbon dioxide through combustion than to release it into the
atmosphere.
Methane can also be produced using energy from agricultural and human wastes. Biogas digesters are
airtight containers or pits lined with steel or bricks. Waste put into the containers is fermented without
oxygen present to produce a methane-rich gas. This gas can be used to produce electricity, or for
cooking and lighting. It is a safe and clean burning gas, producing little carbon monoxide and no smoke.
Biogas digesters are inexpensive to build and maintain. They can be built as family-sized or community-
sized units. They need moderate temperatures and moisture for the fermentation process to occur. For
developing countries, biogas digesters can be one of the best answers to many of their energy needs.
They can help reverse the rampant deforestation caused by wood-burning, reduce air pollution, fertilize
over-used fields, and produce clean, safe energy for rural communities.
2.4. Ethanol
Ethanol is an alcohol fuel (ethyl alcohol) made by fermenting the sugars and starches found in plants and
then distilling them. Any organic material containing cellulose, starch, or sugar can be made into ethanol.
The majority of the ethanol produced in the United States comes from corn. New technologies are
producing ethanol from cellulose in woody fibers from trees, grasses, and crop residues. Today nearly all
of the gasoline sold in the U.S. contains around 10 percent ethanol and is known as E10. In 2011, the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) approved the introduction of E15 (15 percent ethanol, 85
percent gasoline) for use in passenger vehicles from model year 2001 and newer. Fuel containing 85
percent ethanol and 15 percent gasoline (E85) qualifies as an alternative fuel. There are more than 10
million flexible fuel
vehicles (FFV) on the road that can run efficiently on E85 or E10. However, just under 10 percent of
these vehicles use E85 regularly.

2.5. Biodiesel
Biodiesel is a fuel made by chemically reacting alcohol with vegetable oils, animal fats, or greases, such
as recycled restaurant grease. Most biodiesel today is made from soybean oil.
Biodiesel is most often blended with petroleum diesel in ratios of two percent (B2), five percent (B5), or
20 percent (B20). It can also be used as neat (pure) biodiesel (B100). Biodiesel fuels are compatible with
and can be used in un modified diesel engines with the existing fueling infrastructure. It is one of the
fastest growing transportation fuels in the U.S. Biodiesel contains virtually no sulfur, so it can reduce
sulfur levels in the nation’s diesel fuel supply, even compared with today’s low sulfur fuels. While
removing sulfur from petroleum-based diesel results in poor lubrication, biodiesel is a superior lubricant
and can reduce the friction of diesel fuel in blends of only one or two percent. This is an important

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 277
characteristic because the Environmental Protection Agency now requires that sulfur levels in diesel fuel
be 97 percent lower than they were prior to 2006.

CHAP3. Use of Biomass

Until the mid-1800s, wood gave Americans 90 percent of the energy used in the country. In 2016,
biomass provided 4.89 percent of the total energy we consumed. Biomass has largely been replaced by
coal, natural gas, and petroleum.
A little less than 42 percent of the biomass used today comes from burning wood and wood scraps such
as saw dust. About 48 percent is from biofuels, principally ethanol, that are used as a gasoline additive.
The rest comes from crops, garbage, and landfill gas.
Industry is the biggest user of biomass. Over 48 percent of biomass is used by industry. Electric utilities
use almost 11 percent of biomass for power generation. In turn, biomass produces 1.55 percent of the
electricity we use.
Transportation is the next biggest user of biomass; about 30 percent of biomass is used by the
transportation sector to produce bio-fuels like ethanol and biodiesel.
The residential sector uses almost 8 percent of the biomass supply. The most recently reported data
showed about three percent of American homes use wood as the only source of heat. Most of these
homes burn woods in fireplaces and wood stoves for heat.

Usually we burn wood and use its energy for heating. Burning, however, is not the only way to convert
biomass energy into a usable energy source. There are four ways:
Fermentation: There are several types of processes that can produce an alcohol (ethanol) from various
plants, especially corn. The two most commonly used processes involve using yeast to ferment the
starch in the plant to produce ethanol. One of the newest processes involves using enzymes to break
down the cellulose in the plant fibbers, allowing more ethanol to be made from each plant, because all
of the plant tissue is utilized, not just the starch.
Burning: We can burn biomass in waste-to-energy plants to produce steam for making electricity, or we
can burn it to provide heat for industries and homes.
Bacterial Decay: Bacteria feed on dead plants and animals, producing methane. Methane is produced
whenever organic material decays. Methane is the main ingredient in natural gas, the gas sold by
natural gas utilities. Many landfills are recovering and using the methane gas produced by the garbage.
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 278
Conversion: Biomass can be converted into gas or liquid fuels by using chemicals or heat. In India, cow
manure is converted to methane gas to produce electricity. Methane gas can also be converted to
methanol, a type of alcohol made from fermenting wood. Methane and methanol each have only one
carbon atom.

CHAP 4. Sources of biomass

Globally biomass sources available from various categories, but the primary four sources which
benefited the power industries are "agricultural crops, agricultural waste (crop residues), forest residues,
and municipal solid waste. have been divided further into three main classifications: solid in non-woody
biomass and woody-biomass, liquid from processed waste, gas from processed fuel, as depicted in
Table 2 below

4.1.1. Agricultural crop (energy crop)

Aland without crops is just like a king without a crown. Natures have given a plethora of benevolence to
humankind to convert lands into food. Science innovation has opened another passage of energy
production through food crops. The farmland previously adopted for growing food crops has substituted
to a land of energy crops production. Quispe et al. has performed a study on agriculture production and
found that this agricultural crop variation is based on the type of soil, agronomic handling, climate
conditions, and other parameters [24]. Several agricultural crops can be used in energy production, such
as wheat, cotton, cassava, rice, palm fruits, and others
4.1.2Agricultural waste (crop residues) Farmers produced an enormous amount of agricultural waste or
crop residues from their farming activities, and it is begun directly from the beginning of the harvesting
process on the farm. There are six categories from 39 residues from 26 crops explained by Hiloidhari et
al. in Table 4 [26]. These horticultural wastages, which left untreated on the field, can cater to soil
erosion and process a small number of nutrients back into the farm-fields without upsetting the soil
fertility; again, some farmers from developing countries may openly burn it on the field causes loss of
energy, which can be transformed to yield vital energy for consumers

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 279
4.1.3. Forest residues The definition of biomass in terms of forest biomass involves only the above-
ground components of plants or trees, as due to the reason lies behind it are substantially counted on
the total forest living trees and does not project too much on the logistical forest estimation [28]. This
statement has been further added in the "Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)" on the evaluation of
forest resources estimation lies within a diameter equal to or greater than 10cm only.
Therefore, forest undergrowth and forest floor fine litter are disregarded under forest biomass material
estimation.
A Forest residue generates woody biomass residues from timber logging. It is regarded that roughly a
quarter of total global forest land covering almost 5B hectares is of wooded land globally according to
world forest statistics by FAO. It is estimated that about 50% of these residues fall under developing
nations. There are two types of residues within the category: direct residues (whole trees, branches, and
leaves) and processed forest residues (sawdust and logs). The production of the forest residues depends
upon the selection of tree species and local geographical conditions beforehand. The processed residues
are further divided into primary and secondary forest resources
4.1.4. Municipal solid waste "Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)" discard has been a vital solicitude in most
urban cities globally, and it has reached an alarming stage. Burke et al. has performed a study on the
global solid waste management (SWM) and expected that the rates of waste generation would be facing
an alarming stage of escalation from 1.3 billion tones (MSW) annually to 2.2 billion tones by 2025, which
is almost twofold in the next twenty years in low wage countries. In addition, Burke et al. further added
that globally, the cost of (SWM) would show a sturdy growth from today’s annual of £165.56 billion to
about £302.67 billion in the year 2025.
MSW is a heterogeneous character of the waste in nature as it comprises households, including food
waste, healthcare, and industrial waste, which are not segregated accordingly and are all disposed of
into the same landfill [32]. This MSW has to be segregated before undergoing a specific thermo chemical
or biochemical process to use it in the most sustainable ways formed by converting waste to-energy

4.2 Composition of biomass: Biomass can be dissected into a structural composition and chemical
composition to understand further biomass availability and readiness for biochemical and
thermochemical processes. It is a prerequisite in studying the biomass material before it can be
transformed into bio-fuels, biogas, or rich compost to be used as fertilizers in agricultural industries

CHAP 5. Classification of biomass energy:

The present innovation of energy from biomass derivatives is at the highest peak, carbon-neutral, yet
the sum of CO2, which pre-existed for a significant number of years in the environment from the past
fossil fuel activities, is as high as it is impossible to be absorbed back by soils and trees. Therefore, it is
critical to diminish the worldwide CO2 outflows by energy age advancements that are carbon negative.
This section gives an idea of changes in biomass into energy with a crucial remark to the bio-refinery

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 280
idea. The ongoing advancements in the zone are likewise featured, and the pros and cons in each area
are stipulated in upcoming sections.
Biomass energy is termed as 'Bio-energy,' and it is one of the infinite energy resources on our planet,
and it has been used as a source of energy from the beginning of the human race. The energy
derivatives from biomass and recent discoveries in technological advancement have extraordinary
possibilities in resolving the energy crisis looked specifically by developing nations. Biomass
advancement is an effective alternative method to discard open waste gathered in enormous amounts
and ways every day from the urban and rural sectors. Bio-energy can be divided into two subsystems,
which are bio-fuels and bio-power. In each of these bio-energy conversions, pretreatment needed
thermo-chemically or bio-chemically to produce bio-fuels, bio-products, or bio power to a grid system.
Figure 5 illustrated the biomass's conversion process to produce end products such as bio-fuels, bio
products, and bio-power.

5.1. Bio-fuels
The biomass can be remolded into "other forms of energy such as liquid bio-fuels, gases and electricity
accessible via the technologies and processes involved as in thermo-chemical or biochemical ways. The
conversion of biological matters such as corn, sugar cane, maize, and others, transformed into ethanol
via fermentation, is called transportation bio-fuels, whereas soybean, canola, vegetable oil, or waste fats
are biodiesel formed of a bio-fuel. Bio-fuels can be divided further into four-generation groups, "such as
first-generation (1G), second-generation (2G), third generation (3G), and lastly, the fourth generation"
Biomass composition and calorific values depend on the biomass nature and process involved. This
paper is not going in-depth on bio-fuel; instead, it focuses on bio-energy and its application. The
accompanying segment gives a review of the diverse biomass transformation advances created to date.
5.2. Bio-power
The biomass consumption to generate energy could vary from one to another in terms of the end
product generated directly from biomass burning or the vent gases produced from the combustion. The
generated heat from the processes, as mentioned earlier, is utilized to produce steam, which indirectly
can be reutilized certainly as either process heat for specific material production industries or
transformed into power denoted as "bio-power" by supplying it via a steam turbine. In particular,
biomass conversion's key objective prior to its use is to improve the relatively low characteristic of the
material as fuel, as fuel made up of biomass material is still exceptionally low in energy density. This
problem can be catered easily by redesign to fit into the "high energy density fuel markets such as
charcoal, liquid fuels, and gaseous fuels." This bio-fuel conversion will be the new advancement in

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 281
Bio-power The biomass consumption to generate energy could vary from one to another in terms of the
end product generated from each conversion, as depicted in Figure 6. It can be thermal energy
generated International Conference on Robotics and Artificial Intelligence (RoAI) 2020 Journal of Physics:
Conference Series 1831 (2021) 012033 IOP Publishing doi:10.1088/1742-
6596/1831/1/012033 11 directly from biomass burning or the vent gases produced from the combustion.
The generated heat from the processes, as mentioned earlier, is utilized to produce steam, which
indirectly can be reutilized certainly as either process heat for specific material production industries or
transformed into power denoted as "bio-power" by supplying it via a steam turbine. In particular,
biomass conversion's key objective prior to its use is to improve the relatively low characteristic of the
material as fuel, as fuel made up of biomass material is still exceptionally low in energy density. This
problem can be catered easily by redesign to fit into the "high energy density fuel markets such as
charcoal, liquid fuels, and gaseous fuels." This bio-fuel conversion will be the new advancement in
CHAP 6. How do we use biomass to generate electricity?
There are three ways of using biomass to generate electricity. Biomass is either:
1. Direct combustion;
2. broken down by bacteria;
3. or converted to a gas or liquid fuel.

6.1. Direct combustion

Burning biomass is the most used method. This is also called combustion. It is like burning fossil fuels.
The term for burning matter to generate electricity is thermal generation.
Electricity isn’t produced directly from this combustion. Burning solid biomass materials heats giant
boilers filled with water. This transforms liquid water into steam. The steam creates pressure in the
boiler. The force of the steam rotates a turbine. The turbine then moves a wire coil in a generator.

Some biomass plants generate electricity by burning methane. Methane is a gas that can be collected
from landfills. These plants use a slightly different process than plants that burn solid biomass. The

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 282
products of burning methane, instead of steam, cause the turbine to spin. As with solid biomass, the
rotation of the turbine drives a generator.
Generators are devices that generate electricity. Generators convert mechanical energy into electrical
energy. First a force from the water vapour or gas makes the rotor turn. The rotor has a coil of wire that
spins inside a fixed magnet around it, called the stator. The rotation creates a magnetic field which
forces electrons to move along the wire. This generates electric current. We call this electromagnetic
induction. The metal wire constantly moves inside the magnet. This creates a continuous flow of
electrons, generating electricity.
6.2. Broken down by bacteria (aerobic digestion)
A process known as anaerobic digestion, which is bacterial decomposition in low-oxygen conditions, can
be used to produce methane gas from biomass sources which contain 75% or more moisture. Such
biomass may include manures and processing wastes, such as from fruits and vegetables. The National
Non-Foods Crops Centre of the UK describes anaerobic digestion as “the process where plant and animal
material (biomass) is converted into useful products by micro-organisms in the absence of air”.
The process results in the production of biogas, a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide (usually
around 60% and 40%, respectively) along with water vapor and small amounts of other compounds,
depending on the nature of the biomass. The process also produces a slurry (digestate) of solids and
water that retains some of the nutrient properties of the original biomass that can be land applied or
further processed. The biogas can be burned in conventional boilers and furnaces modified for the lower
energy content of the fuel, or for electrical generation.
Biogas contaminants (in particular sulfur compounds) can create problems in combustion equipment
and may need to be stripped from the gas before it can be burned.
6.3. Converted to a gas (small-scale gasification)
*A combustible gas known as synthesis gas or “syngas” can be produced from plant biomass through the
use of technology known as gasification. The process involves heating of plant material into absence of
oxygen, while gases are drawn off. Small-scale gasification can be used to power either internal
combustion engines, micro turbines, or conventional equipment designed to burn LP or natural gas.
Syngas will need to be cleaned before use in equipment designed for LP or natural gas. This technology
has been known for decades, but its application to power generation is of recent origin.

*A biomass gasified consists of a reactor where, under controlled temperature and air supply, solid
biomass is combusted to obtain a combustible gas called Producers gas (consisting of H2 and CH4).
*This gas passes through a cooling and cleaning system before it is fed into a compression ignition
engine for generation of mechanical or electricity (by coupling to a generator).
*An assessment of its potential concluded that India presents a unique opportunity for large-scale
commercial exploitation of biomass gasification technology to meet a variety of energy needs,
particularly in the agricultural and rural sectors.
*The large potential of biomass gasification for water pumping and power generation for rural
electrification was recognized.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 283
 Figure: Block diagram of producer’s gas electricity system

Figure: A 20 kW gasifier with cooling and cleaning system

CHAP 7. How much power can biomass generate?
Biomass facilities can generate anywhere from 2 to 1000 megawatts of electricity. At the end of 2014,
Canada had 70 biomass power plants. Together, these plants can produce 2 043 megawatts of electricity.
Industries, such as pulp and paper plants, use about two-thirds of this electricity.
Atikokan Generating Station is North America’s largest 100% biomass power station. It is located in
Northwestern Ontario. This station used to generate power by burning coal. After modifications in 2014,
it now burns wood pellets. It can generate 205 megawatts of electricity by burning wood pellets. This is
enough electricity to power about 70 000 homes.
7.1 Advantages of Biomass Electricity Generation

Unlike other types of renewable energy resources, biomass plants can generate power all the time. They
don’t rely on intermittent things such as wind or sun. This makes electricity from biomass reliable.
But biomass is different from other types of renewable energy sources. Unlike the wind and the sun,
biomass is consumed when electricity is generated. To make biomass renewable, the consumed plant
material needs to be replaced as quickly as it is used. This may be through growing new crops or
planting trees. If this were to happen, then burning biomass would not increase greenhouse gas levels.
But if it does not, then burning biomass would increase greenhouse gas levels.
Another advantage of using biomass is that it can prevent some types of waste from going to landfills.
7.2. Disadvantages of Biomass Electricity Generation

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 284
Burning biomass produces similar greenhouse gases to burning fossil fuels. These greenhouse gases
contribute to rising global temperatures. Burning biomass also releases other pollutants into the air.
These pollutants include particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, sulfur and dioxide. Air pollution can cause
respiratory issues, heart disease, cancer, and other health issues.
Biomass-generated electricity can also impact the environment in other ways. For example, cutting
down trees can lead to deforestation. Growing plants to use as biomass can impact soil quality and
water usage. These plants take up space where wild plants could have grown.
We could solve some of these problems with technology. For example, more careful land-use, filters or
cleaner sources of biomass could help. Other sources of biomass, like methane gas from food waste,
may be more common in the future. These technologies may make producing electricity from biomass
better for the environment.

CHAP 8. Biomass and the Environment

Environmentally Biomass has some advantages over fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum. Biomass
contains little Sulphur and nitrogen, so it does not produce the pollutants that can cause acid rain.
Burning biomass releases carbon dioxide, but growing plants for use as biomass fuels may also help keep
carbon dioxide levels balanced. Plants remove carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) from the atmosphere
when they grow.

8.1. Environmental Impacts of Biomass Energy Sources in Rwanda

Rwanda relies on fuelwood for heating and cooking. Fuelwood in Rwanda accounts for at least 80.4
percent of energy consumption and as a result, there is significant deforestation across the country.
Furthermore, population growth is intensifying deforestation and causing more environmental
degradation. For this reason, in 2020 the government of Rwanda through the Ministry of Land and
forestry has begun a campaign to reduce the use of firewood for cooking while promoting other
technologies such as gas and energy saving stoves to limit deforestation.
The campaign will include the planting of more trees that will be catered for before being felled to
ensure they mature. Rwanda launched a national forest planting season 2017/2018, in which more than
45,000 hectares of agroforests will be planted especially in eastern Rwanda. According to the ministry,
current country forests cover stands at 704,997 hectares, equivalent to 29.6 percent, of which planted
forests constitute 17.7 percent and 11.9 percent are natural forests [1]. The biomass is used in the form
of firewood, charcoal and agricultural residues which is mainly used in cooking both in rural and urban
populations as well as some industries. Biomass consumption is putting pressure on existing resources,
with an estimated 870,000 tons of woody biomass deficit in 2009. Rwanda heavily relies on traditional
biomass, for instance, wood, charcoal, dung, with more than 83 percent of households using firewood
and demand for biomass energy continues to be a major driver of deforestation. An
products (transport, electricity generation and industrial use) and 4% from hydro sources for electricity
as shown in figure 1increase in demand for cooking fuel has exerted immense pressure on forestry
resource and the country aims to reach a potential net reduction in wood used to 5 770 000 tons by
2030. Rwandans still rely on biomass in big percentages and the government of Rwanda needs an
investor who is capable of replacing firewood-the traditional cooking energy which is putting the

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 285
country forests under pressure. Rwanda’s energy balance shows that about 85percent of its overall
primary energy consumption is based on biomass (99% of all households use biomass for cooking). 11%
from petroleum. products (transport, electricity generation and industrial use) and 4% from hydro
sources for electricity as shown in figure 1.

Figure. Total primary energy consumptions in Rwanda

8.2. Rwanda Energy Sector Structure
The mission of the Rwanda energy sector is to create conditions for the provision of safe, reliable,
efficient, cost-effective and environmentally appropriate energy services to households and all
economic sectors on a sustainable basis. The management of energy systems in Rwanda involves various
ministries and government agencies as well as private entities and individuals. The main parties involved
in the energy in the country include the Ministry of Infrastructure (MININFRA), genuinely interested in
biomass issues, but it is mainly concerned with end-users’ aspects and energy conversion,
transformation and efficiency; the Ministry of Natural Resources (MINIRENA), focuses on the silvicultural
aspects and productivity of plantations, and Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources (MINAGRI) on
the agroforestry aspects of biomass. Other Ministries such as the Ministry of Finance and Economic
Planning (MINECOFIN), the Ministry of Local Government (MINALOC), the Ministry of Trade and Industry
(MINICOM) have an interest in part of the technical and regulatory aspects of the biomass supply and
use chain. MININFRA is responsible for the development of national policies and strategies related to
energy generation in the country, while regulation of the sector is the preserve of the Rwanda Utilities
Regulatory Authority (RURA) Rwanda Energy Group (REG) is a private company established in 2014,
wholly owned by the government. It carries operations out by two subsidiaries, the Energy Development
Corporation Limited (EDCL) and the Energy Utility Corporation Limited (EUCL).
The EDCL is responsible for developing both generation and transmission projects, exploiting new
energy resources, and executing a least-cost power development plan and with Independent Power
Producers (IPPs) [18]. While the EUCL is in charge of day to day operations of power generation,
transmission, distribution and sales to final customers. The utility will also play a key role in the
execution of power purchase/sales agreements with IPPS and other regional utilities for import and
export. The institutional framework of the energy sector in Rwanda is shown in figure.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 286
 Figure. The institutional framework of the energy sector

8.3. Current Status of Biomass Energy in Rwanda

The analysis of supply and demand of energy in Rwanda indicates that today approximately 83 percent
of primary energy still comes from biomass, in the form of wood that is used directly as a fuel or is
converted into charcoal, together with smaller amounts of agricultural waste. Biomass is largely
consumed for cooking, with wood used by rural households and charcoal by urban households. This
leaves serious negative impacts on forests, environmental degradation and people's health, which
makes the government determined to cut the use of firewood for cooking by institutions such as hotels,
schools, hospitals, prisons, police and the army. The government of Rwanda has embarked on strategies
aimed to reduce its dependence on biomass as a source of energy by 2024. The current national energy
consumption is shown in figure 1. Firewood is the most common cooking fuel in Rwanda and it is used in
various types of woodstoves, 93% of rural households utilize firewood as it is considered in most cases
still freely available [4]. More than half of the firewood stoves operating nationwide are three stones
stoves as shown in figure 4. Approximately 65% of households living in major urban areas like Kigali,
Huye and Rwamagana use charcoal to meet most of their cooking needs, through both traditional and
improved cook stoves. Most of the charcoals are produced locally, in urban areas, charcoal is the most
preferred fuel due to its long-life storage and low-cost transportation as it is smaller in volume and
weight and has higher heat content compared to firewood [5].
In Rwanda, most charcoal (86%) is produced in a rather inefficient way and by use of traditional earth
mound kilns with the average thermal efficiency of about 12% (air dry kg of charcoal/air dry kg of wood)
[6]. Agricultural residues used to constitute only a small percentage of fuels used by the households but
their use has increased year after year as a substitute due to wood scarcity, particularly among the
poorest households of rural semi-arid areas. In Rwanda, the most used agricultural residues at the
household level are cereals (maize, sorghum, stalks and rachis), wheat and rice straws and husks, tubes
like cassava stalks, banana leaves, coffee husks, vegetable wastes (beans, groundnuts, soya, coffee pulps
and dried caw dung). A rice husk is used as a fuel mainly for brick firing in the major rice growing areas.
Sugar bagasse, coffee husks, rice husks and wheat husks are also used in brick making industries. In
urban areas, poor households use sawdust and other end-cuts from wood processing industries without
using appropriate cook stoves.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 287
The exposure to polluting cooking energy is different between rural and urban areas. We observe a slow
but increasing use of clean energy in the metropolitan area where we record 2% of the usage of LPG
cooking gas and 63.9% of households using an improved stove, while in a rural area only 22.4%
household’s use an improved oven, and use of clean fuel stoves is negligible The transition from Tier 0 to
Tier 5 will take time and will pass by intermediate cooking fuels and improved stoves on Tier 3 and 4
before reaching Tier 5, as presented in table 1.
Based on a review of recent data, five key market segments as shown in table 2 have been defined for
biomass energy used for cooking, heating and drying processes in Rwanda: Household sector (Rural and
Urban), commercial food industry, public institutions and processing and production sectors. The use of
firewood by rural households is an attractive option as it is freely available to most households. In urban
areas, charcoal is the preferred fuel. This is due to its long-life storage and relatively low-cost
transportation, given its smaller volume and weight compared to firewood.

CHAP 9. IMPACTS OF BIOMASS ENERGY IN RWANDA

9.0. Environmental Impact Assessment Results

9.1. Environmental Impacts

As a developing country, Rwanda uses wood and charcoal for cooking and heating fuels. Burning
biomass releases carbon dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse gas. However, the plants that are the source of
biomass for energy capture almost the same amount of CO2 through photosynthesis while growing as is
released when biomass is burned which can make biomass a carbon neutral energy source. The
environmental impacts of biomass energy in Rwanda are the changes in forest areas, degradation,
biodiversity, regeneration, ecosystem services and greenhouse gases, etc. Beyond the availability of
firewood and charcoal, the most significant impact of wood and charcoal cooking is the effects on
people’s health and the environment in general. According to the ministry of health, more than three
million Rwandans suffer from respiratory problems every year, of which 13 percent are caused by air
pollution.
Global Climate Change Impacts
First, a significant portion of charcoal production wood is unsustainably harvested. Second, emissions
during charcoal production are significant compared to those from charcoal burning. Charcoal is
produced via pyrolysis, or thermal degradation, of biomass. This partial combustion, in an oxygen-poor

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 288
environment, results in the formation of products of incomplete combustion (PICs), such as CH4, CO,
alkanes, alkenes, oxygenated compounds and particulate matter. In ideal biomass combustion, only CO2
and H2O would be formed as shown in figure 9. In practice, however, various amounts of PICs are
produced, depending upon operating conditions.

9.2. Economic Impacts

By displacing the use of biomass (firewood or charcoal) energy sources, biogas and LPG can help to
reduce households’ energy expenses.
In this regard, the deforestation is increased as the demand for energy is increasing due to the
population increases. To ensure environment protection the, all households in the urban and rural areas
are encouraged to use modern gas and stoves for cooking. The distribution of fuel-efficient cook stoves
reduces the amount of wood burning in households, which means less harmful smoke, less indoor air
pollution, and fewer greenhouse gas emissions. The socio-economic impacts for the community and
beneficiaries are the change of income, employment, assets, equity, costs and profits, etc.
9.3. Social Impacts
Charcoal is often blamed for the destruction of the forests and this is both true and false. In the past,
charcoal was one of the factors that contributed to deforestation, although it was not the main factor:
land clearing for agriculture, for habitation, and for creating tea plantations contributed more to the
destruction of the natural forests than did the demand for charcoal.

The rural employment and income opportunities will be lost but also because urban households and low
income would have trouble finding cooking fuels. If the rural and urban household continues to cut trees
for firewood and timber, etc.., the country risks desertification and that’s why everybody should be
aware of the consequences and embrace the safe cooking system and also improve environmental
protection. Indoor pollution and illness are the health impacts of the use of biomass energy (charcoal,
firewood). Many households across rural Rwanda look to forests as a source of income, cutting down
trees to supply growing markets for charcoal and timber, however, urged them to embrace sustainable

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 289
charcoal production to protect the country's forest cover. The protection of our environment must be a
high priority to forest conservation while subsidizing households to use alternative energy sources [11].
The use of uncontrolled trees has contributed to deforestation in some parts of the country as shown in
figure 7. The changes are meant to reduce the cutting down of trees as well as respiratory diseases that
kill an estimated 12,000 people annually.
CHAP 10. SOLUTIONS TO THE IMPACTS OF BIOMASS ENERGY IN RWANDA
1. Improved Cooking Technologies in Rwanda
Rwanda Energy Group (REG), in partnership with its stakeholders, is carrying out a countrywide
awareness campaign on the use of safe, effective and clean cooking technologies to ensure that Rwanda
meets its targets to reduce the use of biomass energies to cook in households. Currently, around 83
percent of Rwandans still use firewood for cooking but by 2024. Rwanda is targeting to have reduced
the figure to 42 percent as shown in table 3. The performance of a cook stove is characterized by three
processes: Heat-transfer efficiency depends primarily on the geometry of the cook stove and the flow of
hot gases around the bottom and sides of the pot. Combustion efficiency, by contrast, depends primarily
on the temperature in the cook stove and the characteristics of the combustion chamber that affects
the circulation of air. Overall thermal efficiency can be raised by improving either combustion efficiency
or heat-transfer efficiency [3]. The use of improved cook stoves that are up to three times more efficient
than the traditional 3-stone stove and can reduce biomass consumption by anywhere between 68-94%.
The transition from traditional cooking to modern energy cooking solution is shown in figure 4.

Figure. The classification of cooking technologies in Rwanda

2. The Transition from Cooking with Charcoals to LPG Gas in Kigali
The transition from cooking on the charcoal to another alternative energy source particularly LPG are
still at the beginning with some difficulties, like the cost and cultural habits, but the trend shows that

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 290
more people, especially in urban areas, are attracted by LPG and are willing to change. The government
of Rwanda continuous sensitization campaigns, the population becomes aware of the ecological risk of
cooking with wood and charcoal and understands the need to adopt clean fuels for cooking. The
ministry of environment is set to ban the use and supply of charcoal in Kigali City as it steps up efforts to
protect the environment by reducing the use of wood fuel.

CHAP 11. advantages and disadvantages of biomass energy.

11.1. Advantages of Biomass Energy
1) It is a renewable source of energy.
2) It is a comparatively lesser pollution generating energy.
3) Biomass energy helps in cleanliness in villages and cities.
4) It provides manure for the agriculture and gardens.
5) There is tremendous potential to generate biogas energy.
6) Biomass energy is relatively cheaper and reliable.
7) It can be generated from everyday human and animal wastes, vegetable and agriculture left-
over etc.
8) Recycling of waste reduces pollution and spread of diseases.
9) Heat energy that one gets from biogas is 3.5 times the heat from burning wood.
10) Because of more heat produced the time required for cooking is lesser.
11) Pressure on the surrounding forest and scrubs can be reduced when biogas is used as cooking
fuel.
12) It is a more cost effective means of acquiring energy as compared to oil supplies. As oil supplies
are getting depleted day by day, it is becoming a costly commodity.
13) Growing biomass crops use up carbon dioxide and produces oxygen.
11.2. Disadvantages of Biomass Energy
1) Cost of construction of biogas plant is high, so only rich people can use it.
2) Continuous supply of biomass is required to generate biomass energy.
3) Some people don’t like to cook food on biogas produced from sewage waste.
4) Biogas plant requires space and produces dirty smell.
5) Due to improper construction many biogas plants are working inefficiently.
6) It is difficult to store biogas in cylinders.
7) Transportation of biogas through pipe over long distances is difficult.
8) Many easily grown grains like corn, wheat are being used to make ethanol. This can have bad
consequences if too much of food crop is diverted for use as fuel.
Crops which are used to produce biomass energy are seasonal and are not available over whole year.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 291
 Student presentation reports
[PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY group]

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Biomass source of energy
3 .Methods of extracting of Biomass Energy to useful energy
4. Importance of Biomass Energy
5. Advantages and disadvantages of Biomass Energy
6. Conclusion

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 292
 1. INTRODUCTION
First we discuss the most important question. Which arise in our mind that is “what is biomass”? Bio-
mass covers all kinds of organic matter from fuel, wood to marine vegetable. Biomass is a term used to
describe all organic materials (plants and animals) produced by photosynthesis, existing on the earth’s
surface.
They include all water- and land-based vegetation and trees, and all waste biomass such as municipal
solid waste (MSW), municipal bio solids (sewage), and animal wastes (manures), forestry and
agricultural residues, and certain types of industrial wastes.
Biomass, unlike other renewables, is a versatile source of energy, which can be converted to modern
forms such as liquid gaseous fuels, electricity and process heat. One of the major advantages of biomass
energy is that it can be used in different forms. For example, gas generated from the biomass can be
directly used for cooking or it can be used for running an internal combustion engine, generate
electricity and so on.
The world's energy markets have relied heavily on the fossil fuels. Biomass is the only other naturally
occurring energy-containing carbon resource that is large enough in quantity to be used as a substitute
for fossil fuels.

Nowadays, biomass energy continues to be an important fuel in many countries especially for cooking,
heating, transportation and for electricity generation; as a means of avoiding emission of carbon dioxide
(CO2) from fossil fuel.
In Rwanda, Biomass energy will remain dominant for cooking, other household uses and small-scale
industries. In this regard it is imperative that forests and woodlots be more productively managed, and
charcoal more efficiently produced.
The current national energy balance statistics show that biomass (mostly wood fuel) accounts for about
83% of the total energy consumption, followed by petroleum at 9.7%, electricity at 1.3% and others at
about less than 0,5%. In rural areas, the reliance on biomass is over 90%. Most Rwandans live in rural
areas where traditional biomass, mainly wood fuel has remained the leading source of energy for
cooking.
However, the potential of biomass has not been effectively utilized in the provision of modern energy
for a variety of reasons. One is the failure to exploit the opportunities for transforming wastes from
agricultural production and processing into locally produced modern energy. Continued over-
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 293
dependence on unsustainable wood fuel, biomass residue and other forms of biomass as the primary
sources of energy to meet household energy needs has contributed to uncontrolled harvesting of trees
and shrubs with negative impacts on the environment.
How biomass gets their energy?

Through the process of photosynthesis, chlorophyll in plants captures the sun's energy by converting
carbon dioxide from the air and water from the ground into carbohydrates, i.e., complex compounds
composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. When these carbohydrates are burned, they turn back into
carbon dioxide and water and release the sun's energy they contain.
2. BIOMASS SOURCE OF ENERGY

A large biomass resource is from native vegetation, forest plantations and forestry residues, wood and
wood processing wastes, agriculture crops and crop residues from field and processing operations,
herbaceous and woody energy crops, wastes arising from a range of activities involved in animal

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 294
husbandry, food processing wastes, industrial organic wastes, vegetable oil and municipal solid wastes.
Native forests and old growth forests are excluded from consideration as biomass resources for energy
production and their characteristics are not considered further in this handbook except for wood wastes
which arise from processing native forest products and are permitted to be used as a biomass resource.
The biomass resources that are considered eligible biomass resources under the Renewable Energy
(Electricity) are:
1. Forest and forestry residues
2. Wood and wood wastes
3. Agricultural crop residues
4. Agricultural process residues
7. Wet waste from animal husbandry and food processing
8. Municipal solid wastes
3. METHODS OF EXTRACTING BIOMASS ENERGY
Biomass can be converted to thermal energy, liquid, solid or gaseous fuels and other chemical products
through a variety of conversion processes. Bio power technologies are proven electricity-generation
options in the United States, with 10GW of installed capacity. All of today's capacity is based on mature,
direct-combustion technology.
Generally, the methods of extracting biomass energy is grouped in 3 process
 Thermochemical conversion
 Biological conversion
 Chemical conversion
Bioenergy production routes

1. THERMOCHEMAL CONVERSION
Thermochemical conversion of biomass as the name indicate is thermal decomposition process in which
biomass feedstock materials are heated in closed pressurized vessels at high temperatures in controlled
amount of oxygen.
In Thermochemical conversion there are -direct combustion, -pyrolysis and -gasification which are the
methods of converting biomass to useful energy. Both are thermal decomposition process but differ in
process temperature and amount of oxygen present during the process.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 295
 1.1 DIRECT COMBUSTION
This is perhaps the simplest method of extracting energy from biomass. Industrial biomass combustion
facilities can burn many types of biomass fuel, including wood, agricultural residues, wood pulping liquor,
municipal solid waste (MSW) and refuse-derived fuel.
Biomass is burned to produce steam, the steam turns a turbine and the turbine drives a generator,
producing electricity. Because of potential ash build-up (which fouls boilers, reduces efficiency and
increases costs), only certain types of biomass materials are used for direct combustion.

1.2 GASIFICATION
Is a process that exposes a solid fuel to high temperatures and limited oxygen, to produce a gaseous fuel
The gas produced by this process is a mix of gases such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen,
hydrogen, and methane. The gas is then used to drive a high efficiency, combined-cycle gas turbine.
In this methods require stages as shown below:

Gasification has several advantages over burning solid fuel. One is convenience – one of the resultant
gases, methane, can be treated in a similar way as natural gas, and used for the same way. Another
advantage of gasification is that it produces a fuel that has had many impurities removed and could
therefore cause fewer pollution problems when burnt.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 296
 Under suitable circumstances, it can also produce synthesis gas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and
hydrogen which can be used to make Hydro-carbon (e.g., methane and methanol) for replacing fossil
fuels. Hydrogen itself is a potential fuel
Without much pollution which can conceivably substitute oil and petroleum in a foreseeable Pyrolysis in
its simplest form, pyrolysis represents heating the biomass to drive off the volatile matter and leaving
behind the charcoal.
Producer Gas Characteristics for different biomass resources

This process has doubled the energy density of the original material because charcoal, which is half the
weight of the original biomass, contains the same amount of energy, making the fuel more
transportable. The charcoal also burns at a much higher temperature than the original biomass, making
it more useful for manufacturing processes.
More sophisticated pyrolysis techniques are developed recently to collect volatiles that are otherwise
lost to the system. The collected volatiles produce a gas which is rich in hydrogen (a potential fuel) and
carbon monoxide.
These compounds are synthesized into methane, methanol, and other hydrocarbons. Flash pyrolysis is
used to produce bio-crude, a combustible fuel. Heat is used to chemically convert biomass into pyrolysis
oil. The oil, which is easier to store and transport than solid biomass material, is then burned like
petroleum to generate electricity
Classification of Gasification methods

Types of gasifier
1. Updraft Gasifier
+ Suitable for moderate outputs.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 297
+ Good fuel flexibility [fines, small & large chips]
+ Good turndown - Low gas quality
- Very high tars [100g/nm3]
- Requires extensive secondary tar cracking with catalysts [Ni based or dolomite]
- High capital cost
2. Downdraft Gasifier Gasifier types
+ Very low tar gas [< 1 g/nm3]
+ Good gas CV [~5 MJ/nm3]
+ Simple gas train possible
+ Modular design
+ Simple construction and operation
- Limited scalability [0.5 MWe~ 500 kg/h]
- Precise fuel requirements [size, shape, moisture]
- Engine costs can be high relative to other costs
- Limited turndown 30
3. Twin-fire Gasifier Gasifier types
+ Suitable for large electrical outputs [> 5- 10 MWe]
+ More flexible in use of steam, air, steam/O2 mix
+ High gas CV – 8-12 MJ/nm3 + High overall electrical efficiencies [gas turbine use]
- Complex design
- Limited turndown
- Stable operation difficult [DPs, gas flows]
- High tar levels in gas
- Extensive cleaning/catalytic cracking required [Ni based or dolomites].
- Feed pretreatment to small particles
4. Crossdraft Gasifier Gasifier types
+ Operable at very small scale (10kW and below)
- Minimum tar conversion capabilities.
- High exit gas velocity and temperature 32 33 Gasification Technology scale

1.3 PYROLYSIS
Biomass pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of biomass in the absence of oxygen. The products of
decomposition are solid char, a liquid known as bio-oil or pyrolysis oil and a mixture of combustible
gases.
The relative proportions of solid, liquid and gaseous products are controlled by process temperature and
residence time.
In recent years, there has been much research interest in fast pyrolysis of biomass, in which production
of bio-oil is maximized. Flash pyrolysis, which uses higher temperatures and shorter residence times
than fast pyrolysis, is similarly aimed at maximizing bio-oil production, with bio-oil yields of 75-80%. Bio-
oil has a lower heating value of about 16MJ/kg and after suitable upgrading, can be used as fuel in
boilers, diesel engines and gas turbines for electricity or CHP generation.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 298
As a liquid with higher energy density than the solid biomass from which it is derived, bio-oil provides a
means of increasing convenience and decreasing costs of biomass transport, storage and handling. Bio-
oil production also offers the important advantage of separating fuel production from power generation,
enabling independent operation of both processes at the most economical scales.

Figure above shows prolysis process

Classification of Pyrolysis methods

Temperature profile in standard Pyrolysis test

2. BIOLOGICAL CONVERSION
Biological conversion includes fermentation to convert biomass into ethanol and anaerobic digestion
(bio digestion) to produce renewable natural gas (also called biogas or biomethane).

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 299
2.1 Anaerobic digestion
Biomass digestion works by utilizing anaerobic bacteria. These microorganisms usually live at the
bottom of swamps or in other places where there is no air, consuming dead organic matter to produce
biogas (methane and hydrogen).
We put these bacteria to work for us. By feeding organic matter such as animal dung or human sewage
into tanks, called digesters, and adding bacteria, we collect the emitted gas to use as an energy source.
This process is a very efficient means of extracting usable energy from such biomass.
Usually, up to two thirds of the fuel energy of the animal dung could be recovered. Another related
technique is to collect methane gas from landfill sites. A large proportion of household biomass waste,
such as kitchen scraps, lawn clipping and pruning, ends up at the local tip. Over a period of several
decades, anaerobic bacteria at the bottom of such tips could steadily decompose the organic matter and
emit methane. The gas can be extracted and used by capping a landfill site with an impervious layer of
clay and then inserting perforated pipes that would collect the gas and bring it to the surface

Parameters and conditions influencing anaerobic digestion

End product of the process:

1. Biogas: a mixture of CH4 and CO2 mainly which is combusted to generate electricity and/or heat or
processed into renewable natural gas and transportation fuel.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 300
2. Digested solid: residue from the digester, can be composted and applied as land amendment or used
for dairy bedding
3. Nutrients: residue from liquid digestate, used in agriculture as fertilizer
Various feedstock can be used: Livestock manure, municipal wastewater solids, food waste, industrial
wastewater and residuals, fats, and other organic waste streams
Schematic of a typical agricultural AD system

2.2. FERMENTATION
For centuries, people have used yeasts and other Micro-organisms to ferment the sugar of various
plants into ethanol. Producing fuel from biomass by fermentation is just an extension of this process,
although a wider range of plant material from sugar cane to wood fibre can be used.
For instance, the waste from a wheat mill in New South Wales is used to produce ethanol through
fermentation. Ethanol is then mixed with diesel to produce diesel.
Technological advances will inevitably improve the method. For example, scientists in Australia and the
U.S. have substituted a genetically engineered bacterium for yeast in the fermentation process. The
process has vastly increased the efficiency by which waste paper and other forms of wood fibre are
fermented into ethanol.

Figure above shows fermentation process

Biomass is converted into transportation fuels such as ethanol, methanol, biodiesel and additives for
reformulated gasoline. Bio-fuels are used in pure form or blended with gasoline. Ethanol: Ethanol, the
most widely used Bio-fuel, is made by fermenting biomass in a process similar to brewing beer.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 301
Currently, most of the 1.5 billion gallons of ethanol used in the U.S. each year is made from corn and
blended with gasoline to improve vehicle performance and reduce air pollution.

IMPORTANCE OF BIOMASS
Biomass is of interest for a number of reasons. It is the raw material of food, fiber, and fuel wood. It is
important for soil, fire and water management. It is related to vegetation structure, which, in turn,
influences biodiversity. It determines the magnitude and rate of autotrophic respiration.
And, finally, biomass density (the quantity of biomass per unit area determines the amount of carbon
emitted to the atmosphere (as CO2, CO, and CH4 through burning and decay) when ecosystems are
disturbed. The purpose of this paper is to offer the scientific rationale, from the perspective of the
carbon cycle, for accurate measurement of biomass density and changes in it.
We define the objectives and measurement requirements for a satellite mission designed to measure
biomass density and changes in biomass density. Why, from the perspective of the carbon cycle, do we
need to quantify biomass density and changes in it? The paper will consider a number of subsidiary
questions, such as where do we need to measure biomass density? At what resolution? How accurately?
And how often? The answers define the observational (and modeling) requirements for meeting the
objectives for understanding the role of terrestrial ecosystems in the carbon cycle.

APPLICATION OF BIOMASS ENERGY

There are many application of biomass energy but most of them are classified into:
• Cooking and Heating - Burning biomass material like firewood or biogas generate heat which
can be used in cooking
• Engine Fuel- biofuel (basically biodiesel and bioethanol) .this biofuel can be used as engine fuel
like other fossil fuel
• Electricity generation- by direct combustion for instance: means burning agricultural waste or
wood to heat water which produce steam that rotate turbines.

Advantages of Biomass Energy

1. It is renewable source of energy
2. it’s a comparatively lesser pollution generating energy.
3. Biomass energy helps in cleanliness in villages and cities.
4. It provides manure for the agriculture and gardens.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 302
5. There is tremendous potential to generate biogas energy.
6. Biomass energy is relatively cheaper and reliable.
7. It can be generated from everyday human and animal wastes, vegetable and agriculture left-over etc.
8. Recycling of waste reduces pollution and spread of diseases.
9. Heat energy that one gets from biogas is 3.5 times the heat from burning wood.
10. Because of more heat produced the time required for cooking is lesser.
11. Pressure on the surrounding forest and scrubs can be reduced when biogas is used as cooking fuel.
12. It is a more cost effective means of acquiring energy as compared to oil supplies. As oil supplies are
getting depleted day by day, it is becoming a costly commodity.
13. Growing biomass crops use up carbon dioxide and produces oxygen.

Disadvantages of Biomass Energy

1. Cost of construction of biogas plant is high, so only rich people can use it.
2. Continuous supply of biomass is required to generate biomass energy.
3. Some people don’t like to cook food on biogas produced from sewage waste.
4. Biogas plant requires space and produces dirty smell.
5. Due to improper construction many biogas plants are working inefficiently.
6. It is difficult to store biogas in cylinders.
7. Transportation of biogas through pipe over long distances is difficult.
9. Many easily grown grains like corn, wheat are being used to make ethanol. This can have bad
consequences if too much of food crop is diverted for use as fuel.
10. Crops which are used to produce biomass energy are seasonal and are not available over whole year.
CONCLUSION
According to complete information of BIOMASS it is concluded that Bio Mass is cheap and more
efficient energy in world. It provides energy with simpler manner. It removes the burden on the head of
farmer. And provide the better opportunity of them. The process of extraction these type energy have
studies at starting. Mostly it can be extraction from the wastes. So it is more economically.
Biomass systems can be used for village-power applications in the range of 10-250 kW scale.
Opportunities for biomass energy are growing. In June2000, the federal government in the United States
passed a law that will provide $49 million per year for five years to develop advanced technologies and
crops to produce energy, chemicals, and other products from biomass.
A number of states also provide incentives for biomass energy. In 1998, biomass provided about 2% of
America's electricity [1% of the fuel used in cars and trucks, and some of the heat and steam used by
homes and businesses. With more energy crops and better conversion technology, it could gain a much
larger portion of the market. Energy crops and crop residues could provide 14% of US electricity use by
2008 or 13% of the nation's motor fuel.
In Rwanda, wood is mostly used biomass. And the rate of consuming trees will lead to deforestation as
also the population is rising. And also there is big gap in biogas production even if there is much waste
and problems of waste management. For that reason, we encouraged engineers and scientists of

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 303
Rwanda to use this waste in producing enough biogas fuel. Also we recommend them to develop other
way of extracting biomass energy like gasification, fermentation
Thus it is seen that the emerging technologies of biomass as a renewable source of energy is highly
advantageous to promote a greener planet and also cut down on the need for fossil fuels which not only
cause pollution in the atmosphere but also are fast depleting.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 304
 “Skills for a Better Destiny”
Integrated Polytechnic Regional College – Kigali Campus
vI. INTODUCTION TO OCEAN ENERGY

Prepared by
Alexis MUHIRWA, PhD.
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 305
INTRODUCTION TO OCEAN ENERGY
Almost 71% of the earth is covered with water in the form of oceans. Oceans have tremendous potential
of providing green and sustainable energy to the world. Ocean energy is much more predictable than
solar and wind, Apart from increasing the energy generation it can also contribute to reduction in
carbon footprints and generation of jobs for people. There are four sources of ocean energy: waves,
tides, osmotic and thermal energy, all of which can be converted into electrical energy.

Tidal range (Tidal rise and fall): The daily variation in tides can be converted into electrical energy in
coastal areas. There must be a difference of at least 5metres between the high tides and low tides to
harness energy from them. The significantly higher density of seawater allows ocean currents to carry
much more energy than air, making tidal technology more productive than wind power plants, even
when ocean currents are slower than wind speeds.
Turbines, which resemble wind turbines, can be placed offshore once water depths are 20–30metres.
Other options to harness tidal energy are more environmentally invasive, such as dams and tidal fences,
both of which can interfere with sea life and silt flows.
Tidal Currents: water flow resulting from the filling and emptying of coastal regions as a result of
the tidal rise and fall.
Ocean Currents: derived from wind-driven and thermohaline ocean circulation. The density of ocean
water depends on both temperature (T) and salinity (S). The “thermohaline” circulation of the ocean
refers to the flow of ocean water caused by changes in density.
Waves: Wave energy can be harnessed and converted into electrical energy at onshore or offshore sites
through a number of technological mechanisms. Onshore or coastal sites extract power from breaking
waves. Deep-water sites have three to eight times as much wave power as coastal sites and are more
efficient in electrical energy conversion; however, the transmission and maintenance costs increase the
further the installation is offshore.
Salinity Gradients (osmotic power): derived from salinity differences between fresh and ocean water at
river mouths. When salt water from the ocean meets freshwater, there is a pressure differential created
because salt from the seawater wants to move into the freshwater. As it does so, energy is released.
Capturing and converting this energy is the goal of osmotic ocean energy production.
Thermal gradient: Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) relies on temperature differences between
sun-warmed water near the ocean’s surface and colder waters in the deep ocean, generally below 1,000
m, to produce steam to power a turbine and then condense it back into liquid. A difference of 20
degrees is needed, making OTEC power production most viable in tropical coastal zones.

1. TIDAL ENERGY
1.1 Historic perspectives
Tidal energy is one of the oldest forms of energy used by humans. The sea has long been seen as a
source of energy: In the Middle Ages (1200-1500 AD) farmers used to trap seawater in millponds and
use it to power water mills as the tide dropped. Indeed, tide mills, in use on the Spanish, French and
British coasts, date back to 787 A.D. but it is likely that there were predecessors lost in the anonymity of
prehistory. Tide mills consisted of a storage pond filled by the incoming (flood) tide through a sluice and
emptied during the outgoing (ebb) tide through a water wheel. The tides turned waterwheels,

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 306
producing mechanical power to mill grain and power was available for about two to three hours, usually
twice a day. Over the last fifty years, engineers have begun to look at tidal and wave power on a larger,
industrial scale.
The power requirements of the industrialized world dwarf the output of the early tidal barrages and it
was not until the 1960’s that the first commercial-scale modern-era tidal power plant was built, near St.
Malo, France. After that, more and more commercial-scale tidal barrage was put in service in France,
Canada, Switzerland, UK, China and so forth. In the late 1990s, it has become clear that technology has
advanced to the point where reliable and cheap electricity from the oceans is becoming a real possibility.

1.2 Physical concepts of the tides

The interaction of the sun-moon-earth system causes one of the strangest phenomena: tides. Tides are
a self-gravitating, near-resonant, sloshing of water in a rotating, elastic, ocean basin with ridges,
mountains, and submarine basins. They are the vertical movement (rise and fall) of the ocean and seas
caused by the rotation of the earth and the gravitation induced relative movements of the earth, moon,
sun, and to a much lesser extent other celestial bodies. Thus, the primary forces responsible for the
tides are gravitational and centripetal in nature (although secondary effects including inertia and
frictional forces also play a crucial role).

Fig. Tidal bulges due to the gravity and centrifugal forces

Gravitational forces/pull between principally the moon and the earth cause the rhythmic rising and
lowering of ocean waters around the world that result in Tide Waves. The sun also plays a minor role,
not through its radiant energy but in the form of its gravitational pull, which exerts small additional
effect on tidal rhythms.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 307
It is known that the gravitational force that mutually attracts any two bodies is directly proportional to
the product of their masses and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance that separates
the masses. The attractive force exerted by the sun or moon on a molecule of water can be calculated as:
𝑲×𝑴×𝒎
𝑭=
𝒅𝟐
Where F: attraction force K: universal constant of gravitation M: mass of the moon or sun m: mass of a
water molecule d: the distance from a water molecule to the moon/sun
The moon exerts more than twice (about 2.17 times) as great a force on the tides as the sun due to its
much closer position to the earth. As a result, the tide closely follows the moon during its rotation
around the earth, creating diurnal tide and ebb cycles at any particular ocean surface.
Tidal movements are basically due to two factors:
i) The gravitational forces between the Sun, Moon and Earth.
ii) The rotation of the moon and earth.
As there are gravitational forces between the Moon and the Earth, seas or oceans water is pulled away
from earth toward the moon at the area where the moon and the earth are in front of each other. At
the opposite side of the earth, the water is being pushed away from the earth due to centrifugal forces.
Thus, there are two areas where the water levels are high and other areas where the water level is low.
Thus, the tidal motion of water is created. This is called the lunar tide.

The same concepts that apply for the moon apply for the sun, yet, the sun has a smaller effect on the
water levels but when that can only contribute or lessen the effect of the moons gravitational power.
This is described by "spring tides" where the lunar tide and solar tide are aligned and contribute to each
other and by "neap tides" where the lunar and solar tides are at right angles of each other and lessen
each other.
When sun and moon are in line whether pulling on the same side or on the opposite side (full or new
moons); the gravitational attraction combine together causes high tides, known as spring tides.
Conversely, when sun and moon are orthogonal, their gravitational forces pulls water in different
directions causing the bulges to cancel each other, giving place to neap tides. The maximum power is
produced during spring tide while the minimum is during the neap tide.

Hence, the magnitude of tides changes during each lunar month: The highest tides, called spring tides,
occur when the moon, earth and sun are positioned close to a straight line (moon syzygy). The lowest
tides, called neap tides, occur when the earth, moon and sun are at right angles to each other (moon
quadrature). Isaac Newton formulated the phenomenon first as follows: ‘The Ocean must flow twice
and ebb twice, each day, and the highest water occurs at the third hour after the approach of the
luminaries to the meridian of the place’.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 308
 Fig. Schematic of spring and neap tides
The amplitude or height of the tide wave is very small in the open ocean where it measures several
centimeters in the center of the wave distributed over hundreds of kilometers. However, the tide can
increase dramatically when it reaches continental shelves, bringing huge masses of water into narrow
bays and river estuaries along a coastline. For instance: the tides in the Bay of Fundy in Canada are the
greatest in the world, with amplitude between 16 and 17 meters near shore; Severn Estuary in England
with 14.5m range, etc.
Tidal phenomenon is periodic. The periodicity varies according to the lunar and solar gravitational
effects, respective movements of the moon and sun, and other geographical peculiarities. The mean
interval between conjunctions of the sun and moon (new moon to new moon) has a cycle of 29.53 days,
which is known as synodic month or lunation.
There are three different types of tidal phenomena at different locations of the earth:
a) Semidiurnal tides with monthly variation: it has a period of 12h 25 min, due to the earth rotation
relative to both sun and moon; consequently the tidal phenomenon occurs twice every 24h 50min 28s;
so each landmass is exposed to two high tides and two low tides during each period of rotation. The
amplitude of the tide varies according to the lunar month, with higher tidal range at full moon and new
moon, when sun and moon are aligned. Neap tides occur during half-moon as the resultant gravitational
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 309
pull is minimum. However, one of the tides has greater range than the other, having a higher high and a
lower low, therefore, a greater tidal flow while water is coming in and going out during the period
between high and low level. Furthermore, the tidal output peaks and troughs four times a day as the
tide comes in and out twice daily
b) Diurnal tides with monthly variation
This type of tide is found in China Sea and Tahiti. In this case, the tidal period is of 24h 50 min 28s, a full
revolution of the moon around the earth. During each earth rotation, a point of the earth surface will
pass through different parts of the equilibrium tide envelope and therefore experience a diurnal
variation in tide levels.
c) Mixed tides
This type of tides combines the characteristics of diurnal and semidiurnal tides. Moreover, they can also
display monthly and bimonthly variation. They are found in the Mediterranean Sea and at Saigon.
There are several periodic phenomena that affect on tidal behavior. The following mentioned are the
ones which have greater impact.

Fig. Type of tides showing distribution of tidal phases

- A 14-day cycle, due to the interaction of the gravitational field of the sun and moon. As a result
of the moon’s elliptical orbit the cycle is slightly modified, so successive spring-neap tides can
vary in amplitude by about a 15%.

- A half year cycle, as a result of the moon’s orbit inclination giving place to a 178 days period
between the highest spring tides, which take place in March and September.
- The Saros, period of 223 synodic periods equivalent to 18 years and 10 days, is the time
required by the earth, sun and moon to return to the same relative positions.
Tidal currents occur in coastal areas and in places where the seabed forces the water through relatively
narrow boundaries. Thus both high tidal ranges and narrow channels are generally required to cause
significant tidal stream currents. The range of a spring tide is commonly about twice the neap tide range.
The common tidal range is about 50 centimeters in the open ocean. However, the tidal amplitude can be
increased by several local effects such as shelving, funneling, reflection and resonance. The shelving
effect consists on increasing the deep water tidal wave height as the wave slows down when entering in
shallow water areas. The tidal amplitude can be further increased due to funneling effect, which occurs
when the tidal bulge progresses into a narrowing estuary. Moreover, tidal wave can also be reinforced
by reflections of the waves by the coastline. At some sites, the tidal flow can be heightened to more
than 10 meters by resonance effects, i.e. Bay of Fundy, in Canada, where the greatest tides in the world

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 310
can be found, and the Severn Estuary in England. The resonance effect it takes place when the tide at
the mouth of the estuary can resonate with the natural frequency of tidal propagation up the estuary.

Tidal currents can flow in two directions; the current moving in the direction of the coast is known as
flood current and the current receding from the coast is known as ebb current. All tidal variations rise
and fall and flood and ebb current can be utilized to generate electricity. The generation of electrical
power from ocean tides is very similar to hydroelectric generation.

Working Principle for Tidal Power Generation Systems

The technology required to convert tidal range into electricity is very similar to conventional
hydroelectric power plants, but in this case, the current flows in both directions.

Fig. Tidal Energy conversion system

In very simple terms a barrage is built at the entrance of a gulf and the water levels vary on both sides of
the small dam. This means, that tidal barrages are unable to produce electricity at a constant rate, as
they have to wait for sufficient hydrostatic head between both sides of the dam. Passages are made
inside the dam and water flows through these passages and turbines rotate to generate electricity due
to this flow of water under head of water. The dam can either be placed at the entrance of channels
where ocean water gets inside the land via a bay or between the main land and an island or just in
between two islands.

What follows will be a description of a general

tidal power station with its components. Also,
many systems of power generation will be
described. The gearing of the equipment is
tremendous to turn the very slow motion of the
tide into enough displacement to produce energy.

Fig. General scheme of the tidal power station

The highest output is achieved from hydroelectric turbines by operating when the available head is
highest. The available head is highest at extreme low tide and extreme high tide. These periods are
roughly two hours in length, but there is relatively little change in water level during the half hour
preceding and the half hour after each of the extreme lows and highs. By including these 30-minute
“shoulder” periods, a 3-hour generation period is achieved twice per tidal cycle. Thus, one can

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 311
effectively generate at optimum levels for roughly half of each tidal cycle. Unfortunately, tidal cycles do
not correspond to daily cycles of demand for electricity.

Turbines
They are the components responsible for converting potential energy into kinetic energy. They are
located in the passageways that the water flows through when gates of barrage are opened. Tidal
turbines look like wind turbines. They are arrayed underwater in rows, as in some wind farms. The
turbines function best where coastal currents run at between 3.6 and 4.9 knots (4 and 5.5 mph). In
currents of that speed, a 15-meter diameter tidal turbine can generate as much energy as a 60-meter
diameter wind turbine. Ideal locations for tidal turbine farms are close to shore in water depths of 20–
30 meters.
There are many types of turbines used in tidal power stations:
2.1 Bulb turbines are a type of hydro turbines, whose name comes from the shape of the upstream
watertight casing which contains the generator located in the horizontal axis and is mounted inside
the water passageway as an integral unit with the turbine for size, cost and civil work reductions.

They difficult to maintain as water flows around them and the generator is in water. If maintenance is
required then the water must be stopped for the turbine or/and the generator to be lifted which causes
a problem and is time consuming with possible loss of generation.

They are considered the most efficient solution for low

heads up to 30m, for these reason they are the most
popular turbines among barrage designers. Moreover,
the turbine and generator are reversible, namely, they
can generate power on the flood tide or act as a motor
to pump seawater into the basin.
Fig. A Bulb turbine
Bulb turbine has proved very reliable, as it has operated nearly constantly without majors problems for
over 30 years in La Rance tidal barrage, France.

2.2 Rim turbines: Rim turbine's generator is separate from the turbine itself; it is mounted on the
barrage and is connected through a shaft that moves with the turbine; consequently, only the
turbine is in water flow. Moreover, the rotor is protected from ingress of sea water by especially
designed water seals.
They are better maintained than the bulb turbines as they can be removed alone, although the
generator can be accessed when water inlet gate is closed and water drains off.
It’s hard to regulate their performance as generator is
fixed in barrage. When rim turbines are used, the
generator is mounted at right angles to the to the turbine
blades, making access easier. But this type of turbine is
not suitable for pumping.

Fig.: Rim turbines

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 312
Early design were more suitable for river applications due to water seals leaking under pressure;
however recent improvements have made them more reliable, there being a 20 MW Straflo turbine, 8.2
m diameter, currently installed in Annapolis River Tidal Barrage Canada. This kind of turbine is preferred
for its greater theoretical efficiency and greater inertia (to satisfy stability criteria). However, it can only
operate on the ebb tide and cannot be used to pump storage to the basin due to their more-delicate
nature.
2.3 Tabular turbines: the generator is mounted on the top of the barrage at a 45 degree angle with the
turbine, and the blades are connected to a long shaft so as to solve both problems that bulb and rim
turbines have as they are easier to maintain and control.

Fig. Tabular turbines

The blades are connected to a long shaft and are orientated at an angle so that the generator is sitting
on top of the barrage. The environmental and ecological effects of tidal barrages have halted any
progress with this technology and there are only a few commercially operating plants in the world.

The real advantage that they present is that the blades can be adjusted. This means that they can be
changed to meet electricity demand; smaller blades will generate less power while larger blades will
generate more power. This allows the turbine to run more efficiently, generating only the amount of
power needed. Furthermore, this design gives some room to a gearbox, which allows more efficient
operation of generators. It presents some vibration problems of the long shaft and it cannot be reversed
to operate on flood tide or used to pump storage.

Types of turbines
Currently, there are mainly two types of turbines, horizontal axis and vertical axis tidal current turbines.
Horizontal axis tidal current turbines

The turbine blades rotate about a horizontal axis which is parallel to the
direction of the water flow. They are arrayed underwater in rows, similar
to some wind farms. The optimum operating point of the turbines is for
coastal currents speeds between 4 and 5.5 mph. In those currents, a 15
meter diameter tidal turbine can generate as much energy as a 60 meter
diameter wind turbine. The ideal locations for tidal turbine farms are close
to shore in water depths of about 20–30 m. Horizontal turbines have
slightly higher efficiency than vertical turbines.

Fig. Horizontal axis turbines

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 313
However, as they depend on the current direction, a mechanism to make the blades rotate is needed,
generally, they are very complex.
Some real examples of horizontal turbines are seaflow and E-Tide project turbines:

Seaflow turbine has an 11m diameter rotor, with full span pitch control.
It is mounted on a steel tubular pile, 2.1m in diameter, set in a hole
drilled in the seabed and tall enough to always project above the surface
of the sea. It is installed in a mean depth of 25 m, 1.1 km off the nearest
landfall in North Devon, UK. U Under favorable conditions it has
exceeded its 300 KW rated power with a 15 rpm rotor. It is not grid-
connected, dumps its power into resistance heaters. This device was
developed by the Marine Current Turbines (MCT)

The E-Tide project was developed by Hammerfest Strom. This turbine can
be installed on the seabed offshore or near shore depending on the tidal
current strength. The blades of 15- 16m are able to rotate on their own
axes, allowing the turbine to be optimized to current conditions and also
operate in both directions of the tide. A 300 KW system was tested,
currently, a larger design is being developed that will provide 750-1000
KW of power.

Vertical axis tidal current turbines

Vertical axis turbines are cross-flow turbines, with the axis positioned perpendicular to the direction of
the water flow.
Cross flow turbines allow the use of a vertically oriented rotor
which can transmit the torque directly to the water surface
without the need of complex transmissions systems or an
underwater nacelle. The vertical axis design permits the
harnessing of tidal flow from any direction, facilitating the
extraction of energy not only in two directions, the incoming and
the outgoing tide, but making use of a full tidal ellipse of the
flow. Moreover, the blades are easily built and their span can be
easily increased.

Fig. Vertical axis turbine

However, this type of turbines experiment a lot of vibrations, as the forces exerted on the bladders are
very different, consequently, it is difficult to reach stability. In vertical axis turbines as in horizontal axis
ones the rotation speed is very low, around 15 rpm.

Two vertical axis projects are introduced:

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 314
 This turbine main feature is the high starting torque that makes it able to
start spontaneously even in loaded conditions. A pilot plant is moored in
Messina, Italy, in an average tidal current of about 2m/s. With a current
speed of 1.8m/s, the system can produce a power of 20 KW.

Four fixed hydrofoils are connected to a rotor that drives an integrated

gearbox and an electrical generator assembly. The turbine is mounted in
a concrete caisson which anchors the unit to the ocean floor. The
generator and the gearbox are placed above water surface and are
readily accessible for maintenance and repair. A unit turbine output
power is expected to be about 200 KW, for large scale production,
multiple turbines are linked in series.

3. Sluices
Sluice gates are the ones responsible for the flow of water through the barrage. They open when there
is an adequate difference in the water elevation on both sides of the barrage; the hydrostatic head that
is created causes the water flow through the turbines, turning an electric generator to produce
electricity.
4. Embankments
They are caissons made out of concrete to prevent water from flowing at certain parts of the dam and
to help maintenance work and electrical wiring to be connected or used to move equipment or cars over
it.

Fig. Embankments
Embankments function is to seal the basin, where it is no sealed by caissons.

Advantages of Tidal Power Generation

 Tidal power is a renewable and sustainable energy resource.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 315
  It reduces dependence upon fossil fuels to which reserves limited and rapidly dwindling.
 It produces no liquid or solid pollution.
 It has little visual impact.
 Construction of large-scale offshore devices results in new areas of sheltered water, attractive
for fish, sea birds, seals and seaweed.
 Tidal power exists on a worldwide scale from deep ocean waters.
 It offers short time scale between investing in the modular construction and benefiting from the
revenue
 Tidally driven coastal currents provide an energy density four times greater than air, meaning
that a 15-m diameter turbine will generate as much energy as a 60m-diameter windmill.
 Tidal currents are both predictable and reliable, a feature which gives them an advantage over
both wind and solar systems. it is independent of weather and climate change and follows the
predictable relationship of the lunar orbit. Power outputs can be accurately calculated far in
advance, allowing for easy integration with existing electricity grids
 The tidal turbine offers significant environmental advantages over wind and solar systems; the
majority of the assembly is hidden below the waterline, and all cabling is along the seabed.
 Seawater is 832 times as dense as air; therefore the kinetic energy available from a 5-knot ocean
current is equivalent to a wind velocity of 270 km/h.
 More efficient than wind because of the density of water
 It will protect a large stretch of coastline against damage from high storm tides
Disadvantages and Constraints to Tidal Power Generation
Unfortunately, there are also disadvantages and limitations to generating tidal power. Some of these are:
 At the present time both tide and wave energy are suffering from orientation problems, in the
sense that neither method is strictly economical (except in few locations throughout the world)
on a large scale in comparison with conventional power sources.
 Presently costly, very expensive to build and maintain (A 1085MW facility could cost about 1.2
billion dollars to construct and run)
 Tidal power systems do not generate electricity at a steady rate and thus not necessarily at
times of peak demand, so unless a way can be found of storing energy efficiently - and any
storage devices currently available incur a considerable loss - they would not help in reducing
the overall need for fossil power stations, but only allow them to run at a lower rating for a
certain amount of the time.
 Tidal fences could present some difficulty to migrating fish.
 Technology is not fully developed
 Only provides power for around 10 hours each day, when the tide is actually moving in or out
 Barrage has environmental affects:
a) fish and plant migration
b) Silt and mud deposits
c) Waste and sewage blocks

2. TIDAL CURRENT POWER GENERATION METHODS

Ebb generation

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 316
This method is the simplest mode of operation for a tidal plant, in which the basin is filled with water
through the sluices gates during flood tide. At high tide, the sluice gates are closed, keeping the water in
the basin. During periods of low demand, extra water can be pumped to raise the level further. The
sluices are kept closed until the current has ebbed sufficiently to develop substantial hydrostatic head
across the barrage.
Consequently, the water is let flow through the
turbines, generating electricity for several hours,
until the hydrostatic head drops to the minimum
level in which turbines cannot efficiently
operate. Once this point is reached, the sluices
are opened, turbines disconnected and the basin
is filled again, starting a new cycle. Ebbs
generation takes this name because generation
occurs as the tide ebbs.

Fig. Ebb generation mode

Water starts to ebb or go toward the sea - The gates are left closed keeping the water trapped in basin
to increase its level - Then water is released out toward the sea rotating turbines creating electrical
energy.
In other words, the basin is filled through the sluices and freewheeling turbines until high tide. Then the
sluice gates and turbine gates are closed. They are kept closed until the sea level falls to create sufficient
head across the barrage and the turbines generate until the head is again low.

Then the sluices are opened, turbines

disconnected and the basin is filled again. The
cycle repeats itself. Ebb generation (also known as
outflow generation) takes its name because
generation occurs as the tide ebbs.

Fig. Ebb generation mode

Ebb plus pumping method: The turbines are operated as pumps pumping the water into the basin at
the flood period -The water level in the basin is increased creating greater head - At the ebb phase the
water is let out of the basin creating energy for longer time than usual due to the increased head. In
other words; Turbines can be powered in reverse by excess energy in the grid to increase the water level
in the basin at high tide (for Ebb generation and two-way generation). This energy is returned during
generation.
Flood method
The flood generation method uses incoming tide to generate power. Turbines and sluices gates are kept
closed until a substantial hydrostatic head is developed across the barrage. Once the sufficient head is
achieved the turbine gates are opened allowing the water to flow through them into the basin.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 317
Generally; It is less efficient than ebb generation because the volume of water stored on the upper half
of the basin (which is where ebb generation operates) is greater than the volume stored on the lower
half (filled first during flood generation).

Therefore, the water head between the basin and the sea,
reduces more quickly than it would be with ebb
generation, thus, less energy is produced. Moreover, as in
average the system it creates a decrease in sea level
within the basin, it can have a negative effect on shipping
and the environment; as the level of the reservoir is
subjected to continuous changes in water level, whereas
in ebb generation, the greater changes in water level are
suffered by the basin.
Fig. Flood generation

Two-way power generation

This method combines ebb and flood generations; as the tide ebbs and floods in every cycle. This mode
is only comparable to Ebb generation at spring tides, and in general is less efficient. The sluices gates are
kept close until near the end of the flood cycle.

When the minimum hydrostatic head for

electricity generation is reached, the sluices
gates are opened. At high tide, the sluices gates
are closed and water is trapped until sufficient
hydrostatic head is reached again. Water is
then allowed to flow through the turbines to
generate in the ebb mode.

Fig. Two-Way generation

In other words; Starting with the basin full the gates are opened letting water flow out generating
energy - The turbines are reversed as the flow will be reversed - The gates are closed when the flood
period or cycle starts - Water starts to build up behind the dam - When a sufficient head is achieved the
gates are opened to start flood generation cycle as the water flows into the basin.
This method has an advantage respect to the other two; it has a reduced period of non-generation and a
reduction in generators costs due to lower peak power. Blocks of energy are produced in approximately
6 hours cycle, with smaller output and greater plant utilization factor. However, it presents a smaller
power output than for simple ebb generation, due to the reduce range within the basin. Moreover,
turbines are designed to operate in both directions are more costly.

Two basin generation method: Two basins are built one called a high - level basin and the other is the
low-level basin - The turbines are placed in the wall dividing the two basins - The high level basin is filled
at high tide or flood period - Then the low-level basin is filled through the turbines from the high level
basin - The low level basin is emptied at low tide ebb period.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 318
 In other words; with two basins, one is filled at high
tide and the other is emptied at low tide. Turbines are
placed between the basins.
Two-basin schemes offer advantages over normal
schemes in that generation time can be adjusted with
high flexibility and it is also possible to generate
almost continuously. In normal estuarine situations,
however, two-basin schemes are very expensive to
construct due to the cost of the extra length.

Fig. Schematic diagram of two basin tidal power station

OCEAN CURRENTS
Ocean currents are driven by solar heating and wind in the waters near the equator, also by tides,
salinity and density of the water. Current can be divided into two types: marine currents and tidal
currents. Marines are relatively constant and flow in one direction. Tidal current occur close to the shore
due to gravitational forces.

Fig. Map of distribution of ocean currents through the world

Currents are flowing bodies like wind. Current energy can be calculated using the formula of flowing
bodies 𝐾𝐸 = 0.5𝜌𝑉 3 . The kinetic energy of flowing bodies is proportional to the cube of their velocities
and their density.

3. WAVE ENERGY
Recently, electrical power generation from oceanic waves is becoming very popular, as it is prospective,
predictable, and highly available compared to other conventional renewable energy resources. Ocean
waves can be created in several ways. Scientists have struggled for centuries to find a way to utilize the
energy in the oceans, and a series of different concepts have come up over the years. In connection with
the oil crisis in the middle of the seventies, the research started to emerge in Europe.
The first patent in wave energy happened in Paris in 1799. Monsieur Girard and his son proposed using
direct mechanical action to drive heavy machinery, including mills, saws, and pumps. After the first

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 319
patent, thousands more followed. There were 340 from 1855 to 1973 in the UK alone. Another early
application was in 1910. Bochaux Praceique developed a device to light and power his house. This
application was also in France. The pioneer for modern wave energy was Yoshio Masuda, a Japanese
naval commander. Masuda tested multiple different wave-energy devices at sea, and several hundred of
these units were used to power navigation lights. Masuda is also credited for different wave-energy
inventions, such as the KAIMEI, a large barge used as a testing platform, and the Oscillating Water
Column, which was initially used for small-scale navigation. Wave energy got a new interest in the 1970s
during the oil crisis on 1973. In 1973, member of the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OAPEC) decided to put a prohibition on oil exports, which in turn caused people to look for
alternative energies.
The source creating the waves could for example be an earthquake, a ship or the tide. However, when
studying wave energy, the ocean waves created by the winds, wind waves, are the most important.
When the sun heats the earth surface it generates zones with different pressures that produce winds. As
those winds blow over the ocean surface the friction that is created between the wind and the water
forms waves. When the wind sweeps over the ocean surface some of its kinetic energy is transferred to
the ocean due to the friction between the wind and the ocean surface. There are also pressure
variations in the wind which force the water particles into motion resulting in waves.
The size of the waves will depend on three factors: (i) strength of the winds, (ii) Amount of time that the
winds blow, (iii) the distance (fetch) over which it blows.

Fig. Water particle movements in a wave

The potential of ocean waves for energy utilization is large; it has both a high utilization factor and a
high power density. On a yearly average, the wave climate is estimated to be better on the southern
hemisphere because of its smaller variations in sea state, but on a monthly basis, the northern and
southern hemisphere can have similar sea states. The global power potential represented by waves is
estimated to be 1–15 TW.
Physically, a wave can be described by its length, l, and height, H, its period T and wave length 𝜆. To
describe the behavior of a wave more accurately, different wave theories can be applied depending on
the water depth and the steepness of the waves.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 320
 Fig. Basic characteristics of a wave

Technology
The technology is still in its infancy and any concept developer faces immense risks in demonstrating the
structural integrity of the technology and its installation, as well its financial viability. Wave energy is
found in hostile areas, which mariners would traditionally avoid, making the deployment of this energy
difficult.
Wave energy converter (WEC) and wave energy device (WED) almost stand for each other. Usually, WED
means a physical structure which mainly receives the mechanical power from the oceanic wave and
drives it in a specific direction. This is because of facilitating electrical generators to produce electricity.
On the other hand, WEC generally means a converter used in wave energy conversion system. Irregular
mechanical energy obtained from the wave is first converted into regular mechanical motion. The
motion could be rotational or linear/translational. Rotational motion usually drives a turbine, which
further drives rotating electrical generator. On the other hand, translational motion drives a linear
electrical generator. The WED is required to materialize the principle of wave energy conversion. WED is
classified into many different types, which are based on operational concept such as oscillating water
column. It could be on basis of location of the WED that can be situated nearshore or onshore, or based
on vertical position it can be fixed, floating, or submerged, and the other point of view is orientation.
There are different types of WEDs, and it can be classified based on the site they are mounted.
However, in most cases, there are three areas for which wave energy converters are represented, as
shown in Figure below where the average and exploitable amount are expressed in percentage of the
maximum wave power. Onshore implies shoreline regions in which the water depth is 10–15m and
the maximum wave height has the ability to reach up to 7.8m, as the wave trough would be about to
touch the seabed. Nearshore has intermediate water regions, and the water level can reach up to
15–25m. According to the water depth, it can be classified as deep water, intermediate water,
and shallow water.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 321
 Fig. Position of the wave energy converter system in the sea
Offshore is in deep-water zone, and the water depth is higher than 50 m, and the wave height can reach
up to 30 m or even more. Wave power devices are less dense in onshore and nearshore areas than
offshore as wave energy loses its power density when approaching the coastal area, as stated in
previous figure. Thus, building offshore devices are much easier than building onshore and nearshore
devices. Because, it is very challenging to construct any large structure in the intermediate and shallow
water regions due to violent wave breaking. In addition, these are the regions where the waves almost
touch the sea bottom. The coastal structures could be more vulnerable to failure in intermediate and
shallow water than that in deep water where calm sea is found, even though they are most likely
nonlinear in nature.

There are multiple different technologies used for Wave energy. Main types of technology used include;
Absorbers, Attenuators, Oscillation water columns, oscillating wave surge converter, overtopping or
terminator device, submerge pressure differential, bulge wave converter and Inverted- Pendulum
device.
Absorbers extract energy from the rise and fall of the waves with a buoy. Once the energy is extracted it
is then converted to electrical energy with a linear or rotary generator. Most researchers focus on the
point absorber, which is cost effective and can produce adequate energy.

Fig. Schematic diagram a of point absorber wave energy converter (WEC)

It has moving parts where the horizontal dimension is less than the vertical one, which takes advantage
of wave action at a single point, one part is almost motionless and the other part is mounted near the
sea surface. It moves in a perpendicular motion, catching the wave energy which drives linear generator
for producing electricity. There are different examples of point absorbers, but the well-known one is the
Ocean Power Technology’s “Power Buoy”

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 322
Attenuators capture energy by being placed perpendicular to the length of the wave, this cause the
attenuator to contentiously flex where segments are connected. This connection is then connected to
hydraulic pumps which convert the energy. Attenuator or surface attenuator wave power device is
nearly identical to the direction of wave moves, which consists of connected sections including main
tubes and bends that move when the wave hits serially to consecutive segments of this device one by
one. Main tube includes nose tube mid tube, and end tube and inside the tubes where a power
conversion module is placed in between two main tubes, as shown in Figure below. The most used
example of this type of WEC is Pelamis, manufactured by Pelamis Wave Power.

Fig. Attenuator wave energy harnessing device

Hydraulic cylinder moves with the wave and pumps high pressure oil through hydraulic motors.
Electricity is generated by electrical generator, which is driven by hydraulic motors.

Oscillation Water Columns (OWC) is a partially submerged enclosed structure. The upper part of the
structure, above the water, is filled with air and incoming waves are funneled into the bottom part of
the structure. When these waves come through the structure it causes the water column to rise and fall

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 323
with the wave which causes the air in the top structure to pressurize and depressurize. this in turn
pushes and pulls air through a connected air turbine at the top of the structure, converting the energy.

Fig. Complete structure of oscillating water column

Oscillating water column (OWC) is built onto or near to the rocks and it is close to the sea bottom,
as shown in Figure 4. The water is compressed and decompressed, and when the wave enters the
chambers, the water level increases, and it creates high air pressure which drives the turbine. The air
pressure inside the chamber under this condition is much greater than atmospheric pressure. When the
water falls back to the sea, the air pressure under this condition is much lower than atmospheric
pressure. For this reason, air enters again into the chamber from outside, finding no other way. As a
result, the air then flows in negative direction. It drives the turbine in such a way that it can produce
electricity. An example of OWC is Wavegen Limpet.

Overtopping has a wave lift over a barrier which fills a reservoir with the water and is then drained
through a hydro turbine. This technology is very similar to a conventional hydropower dam.

Fig. Illustration of the overtopping device

Overtopping wave power device is also called terminator device, which has a huge structure that allows
it to catch the sea water. When the wave reaches the channel, the water falls through the hole and
passes through the turbine, which is connected to a rotating electrical generator. The turbine produces
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 324
electrical energy from both potential energy and kinetic energy because potential energy is continuously
converted to kinetic energy after a few moments. The familiar example of overtopping wave power
device is Wave Dragon.

Oscillating Wave Surge Converters or Inverted-Pendulum device uses the motion of waves to move a
hinged paddle back and forth. The motion of the paddle drives hydraulic pumps which drives electrical
generators.
Oscillating wave surge converter is a type of WED that uses back and forth motion of ocean waves. The
device is submerged in the bottom of the sea in deep water. The most common one is pendulum arm
flap at the center of this device that makes the flap move, as shown in Figure below, when the wave hits
it. This movement pumps the water to a hydraulic power converter for driving generator to produce
electricity. An example of this device is Wave Roller or Sea Oyster.

Fig. Floating device of oscillating wave surge converter

Submerged Pressure Differential
Submerged pressure differential devices as shown in Figure below are normally positioned at the lower
level of the sea. When the wave moves, it makes the float move up and down overhead the device,
creating alternating pressure that either pumps fluid through a system or drives a linear generator to
produce electricity. The example of this type of wave energy converter is the Archimedes wave swing
which is suitable for generating electricity.

Fig. Production of electricity using submerged pressure differential device

Rotating Mass
Rotating mass wave power device operates the motion of wave to roll a physical heavy object (mass)
that produces mechanical energy. The rotating mass receives mechanical power from the oceanic wave
and supplies it to the electrical generator, as shown in Figure below. Few examples of rotating mass
wave energy converter are Witt Energy, Wello: Penguin, Enorasy Labs: Robotic Juggler.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 325
 Fig. Rotating mass wave energy technology
Bulge Head Wave Energy Converter
Bulge wave energy converter uses entirely new principles to convert oceanic wave energy into electrical
power. This type of converter is also called Anaconda wave power device, as designed by Checkmate Sea
Energy Ltd. It is used to generate electricity by using abandoned oceanic waves, as shown in Figure
below. It is made of elastic pipe, which is submerged just under the sea water surface at low pressure.
One of the two sides of this elastic pipe is fixed and anchored with its head to the base. As the sea wave
passes along the tube, a bulge wave is created, which moves in front of the wave. The energy is
captured continuously, which is used to drive the turbine generator (TG) to produce electricity.

Fig. Bulge wave energy production system

Pros and Cons
Wave energy has a lot of potential. Oceans cover 71% of the Earth, so it's very accessible. Wave energy
also has many different positive aspects. First, the energy is green. Harnessing wave energy doesn't emit
any harmful gases, and it can easily replace energies that do, such as using fossil fuels. Second, the
energy is renewable. Ultimately, the energy is caused by heat which is emitted from the Sun, and this
energy will not be disappearing any time soon. Third, there is an incredible potential in wave energy. For
every meter of wave along the shore, the energy density is between 30 kW and 40 kW. The Electric
Power Research Institute (EPRI) analyzed the potential, and for the U.S. alone, there is a potential of
about 2,640 TWh/y along the continental shelf edge. 6 Fourth, wave energy is reliable. Solar always
needs the Sun, and wind energy always needs the wind to work. Since waves are essentially always in
motion and are never interrupted, it's a reliable source compared to others.
• Relatively steady supply: Compared with solar and wind energy, the ocean energy is a more reliable
source of energy, with support from technology advancements.
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 326
• Vast potential: Although the development of ocean energy technologies is still in a nascent stage, a
theoretical potential for ocean energy (7,400 EJ per year) is huge enough to accommodate the energy
needs of current and future generations.

However, as with any energy resource available, there are negatives as well. Wave energy effects the
environment. As with wind farms being an eye-sore, wave energy could cause conflicts with appearance
of oceans, which in turn could conflict with tourism and local acceptance. It is also currently unclear on
how harvesting wave energy affects marine life. Because of these, installations on the coast and land
facilities are held to higher restriction on size and location for wave energy farms. Wave energy also has
issues in terms of cost. It still is in the early stages of development, so costs of wave power are still fairly
high compared to other forms of technology. Wave energy devices also require regular maintenance
which isn't cheap either.

Overall, wave power has some disadvantages as of now, but the potential is enormous.
• High capital costs prove to be a major hurdle to development. In addition to the development of
underwater transmission, most coastal regions lack high-voltage transmission lines and would need
significant transmission upgrades to move power to the load centers.
• Low-profile installations may present a hazard to shipping navigation and fishing, creating conflict with
other economic uses of the water. Ocean front views may be disturbed by onshore or near-shore
installations (such as tidal dams), leading to reduced tourism or real estate values along the coast.

4. OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION (OTEC)

The large difference between the temperatures of the ocean surfaces waters, especially on the tropics
and the deep seawaters stimulate the presence of thermal gradients. Based on this concept, the OTEC
has been proposed and is currently under development. OTEC converts the difference between the
warm surface waters and the cold deeper waters (approximately 1000m below the surface) into energy.

Fig. Ocean’s Temperature differences between ocean’s surface and 1000m depth

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 327
The minimum water temperature difference must be 200C to operate the OTEC power cycle on a
satisfactory way. This resource as others is concentrated on certain zones. These zones are located on
the equatorial waters between the 100N and 100S except for the west coast of South America and
southern Africa. On this zone industrial nations such as US and Australia are located as well as
approximately 29 territories and 66 developing nations.

OTEC working cycles

Open Cycle: warm seawater can be used as the working fluid. When the surface seawater is flashed
evaporated it is pumped into a vacuum chamber to produce to produce a spray of the liquid. Making the
pressure of the chamber less than the saturation pressure of the spray of the water, it starts to boil. The
steam that is produced passes through the turbine to generate electricity. The steam later condensates
using the cold seawater and is not returned to the evaporator. This condensation process can be done
using two methods: Spray cold seawater over the steam or in a surface condenser in which the steam
and the Coldwater do not enter in contact with each other, producing desalinated water. If the
condensation is done using the spray method the mixed of steam and cold water is discharged back to
the ocean.

Fig. Simplified diagram of the OTEC open cycle process

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 328
Open Cycle: Two working fluids work to complete the cycle. First, it is necessary to use warm seawater
to vaporize a second working fluid such as ammonia, propane or Freon-type refrigerant. This second
working fluid will flow through an evaporator (heat exchanger). The high pressure steam that is
produced moves the turbine, it is condensate using the cold seawater that is pumped from the depths
and is pumped back to the evaporator to start the cycle. The turbines that are used in the closed cycle
are usually smaller than the ones used in the open cycle because the density and operating pressure of
the second working fluid are higher.

Fig. Simplified Diagram of the OTEC closed cycle process

Pros and cons of Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is currently believed to be one of the most advantageous sources of energy. Not only
is it a renewable type of energy but is also present in most areas, outperforming even some conventional
sources in many aspects.
Advantages of Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy has many advantages, especially when compared to conventional sources of energy:
1. Geothermal Energy Sourcing is good for the Environment: First and foremost, geothermal energy is
extracted from the earth without burning fossil fuels, and geothermal fields produce practically no
emissions. What’s more, geothermal energy can be very beneficial, as you can achieve savings of up to
80% over conventional energy usage.
2. Geothermal Is a Reliable Source of Renewable Energy: Geothermal energy also has many advantages
when compared to other renewable sources like solar, wind or biomass. It is an exceptionally constant
source of energy, meaning that it is not dependent on neither wind nor sun, and available all year long.
When looking at the availability factor, which shows how reliable and constant specific energy sources
are, geothermal is ranking on the top (see the figure below), way above the other groups, which
supports the argument of its independence on inconstant external circumstances when delivering
energy.
3. High Efficiency of Geothermal Systems: Geothermal heat pump systems use 25% to 50% less
electricity than conventional systems for heating or cooling, and with their flexible design they can be
adjusted to different situations, requiring less space for hardware as opposed to conventional systems.
4. Little to No Geothermal System Maintenance: Due to the fact that geothermal systems only have few
RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 329
movable parts which are sheltered inside a building, the life span of geothermal heat pump systems is
relatively high. Heat pump pipes even have warranties of between 25 and 50 years, while the pump can
usually last for at least 20 years.

Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy

However, there are always two sides of the coin so let’s have a look at the cons of geothermal energy:
1. Environmental Concerns about Greenhouse Emissions: Unfortunately, no matter its reputation of being
an environmentally friendly alternative energy source, geothermal energy also causes some minor
concerns in regards to the environment.
The extraction of geothermal energy from the grounds leads to a release of greenhouse gases like
hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, methane and ammonia. However, the amount of gas released
is significantly lower than in the case of fossil fuels.
2. Possibility of Depletion of Geothermal Sources: Furthermore, despite being considered a sustainable
and renewable energy, the chances are that specific locations might cool down after time, making it
impossible to harvest more geothermal energy in future.
The only non-depletable option is sourcing geothermal energy right from magma but the technology for
doing so is still in the process of development. This option is worth the investment mainly thanks to the
fact that magma will be around for billions of years.
3. High Investment Costs for Geothermal System: Another disadvantage is the high initial cost for
individual households. The need for drilling and installing quite a complex system into one’s home makes
the price climb quite high. Nevertheless, the return on such investment is very promising, being able to
earn the investment back within 2 to 10 years. ‘Ground source heat pump prices,’ a geothermal ground
source heat pump can cost from £13,000 to £20,000, whereas an air source heat pump hovers around
£7,000-£11,000.
4. Land Requirements for Geothermal System to Be Installed: In case of geothermal systems, having a
piece of land next to the house is required in order to be able to install one. That makes geothermal
systems hard to be implemented for homeowners in big cities, unless a vertical ground source heat
pump is used.

RP-IPRC KIGALI “Skills for a better destiny” _Mechanical Eng. Dept. _ Subject: “Renewable Energy Resources”
Page 330