Alliteration is a term that describes a literary stylistic device.

 Alliteration occurs when a series of

words in a row (or close together) have the same first consonant sound. For example, “She sells
sea-shells down by the sea-shore” or “Peter Piper Picked a Peck of Pickled Peppers” are both
alliterative phrases. In the former, all the words start with the “s” sound, while in the later, the
letter “p” takes precedence. Aside from tongue twisters, alliteration is also used in poems, song
lyrics, and even store or brand names.
How to Identify Alliteration
The best way to spot alliteration being used in a sentence is to sound out the sentence, looking
for the words with the identical consonant sounds. For example, read through these sentences
to test your skills in identifying alliteration:
1. Alice’s aunt ate apples and acorns around August.
2. Becky’s beagle barked and bayed, becoming bothersome for Billy.
3. Carrie's cat clawed her couch, creating chaos.
4. Dan’s dog dove deep in the dam, drinking dirty water as he dove.
5. Eric’s eagle eats eggs, enjoying each episode of eating.
6. Fred’s friends fried Fritos for Friday’s food.
7. Garry’s giraffe gobbled gooseberries greedily, getting good at grabbing goodies.
8. Hannah’s home has heat, hopefully.
9. Isaac's ice cream is interesting and Isaac is imbibing it.
10. Jesse’s jaguar is jumping and jiggling jauntily.
11. Kim’s kids kept kicking.
12. Larry’s lizard likes leaping leopards.
13. Mike’s microphone made much music.
14. Nick’s nephew needed new notebooks now.
15. Orson’s owl out-performed ostriches.
16. Peter’s piglet pranced priggishly.
17. Quincy’s quilters quit quilting quickly.
18. Ralph’s reindeer rose rapidly and ran round the room.
19. Sara’s seven sisters slept soundly in the sand.
20. Tim took tons of tools to make toys for tots.
21. Uncle Uri's united union uses umbrellas.
22. Vivien is very vixen-like and vexing.
23. Walter walked wearily while wondering where Wally was.
24. Yarvis yanked you at yoga, and Yvonne yelled.
25. Zachary zeroed in on zoo keeping.

Allusion
Allusion Definition

Allusion is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of historical, cultural,
literary or political significance. It does not describe in detail the person or thing to which it
refers. It is just a passing comment and the writer expects the reader to possess enough
knowledge to spot the allusion and grasp its importance in a text.

For instance, you make a literary allusion the moment you say, “I do not approve of
this quixotic idea,” Quixotic means stupid and impractical derived from Cervantes’s “Don
Quixote”, a story of a foolish knight and his misadventures.

Allusion Examples in Everyday Speech

The use allusions are not confined to literature alone. Their occurrence is fairly common in our
daily speech. Look at some common allusion examples in everyday life:

 “Don’t act like a Romeo in front of her.” – “Romeo” is a reference to Shakespeare’s

Romeo, a passionate lover of Juliet, in “Romeo and Juliet”.
 The rise in poverty will unlock the Pandora’s box of crimes. – This is an allusion to one of
Greek Mythology’s origin myth, “Pandora’s box”.
 “This place is like a Garden of Eden.” – This is a biblical allusion to the “garden of God” in
the Book of Genesis.
 “Hey! Guess who the new Newton of our school is?” – “Newton”, means a genius
student, alludes to a famous scientist Isaac Newton.
 “Stop acting like my ex-husband please.” – Apart from scholarly allusions we refer to
common people and places in our speech.

 Metonymy is a figure of speech that replaces the name of a thing with the name of
something else with which it is closely associated. We can come across examples of
metonymy both from literature and in everyday life.

 Metonymy, Synecdoche, and Metaphor

 Metonymy is often confused with another figure of speech called “synecdoche.” These
devices resemble one another, but are not the same. Synecdoche refers to a thing by
the name of one of its parts. For example, calling a car “a wheel” is a synecdoche, as a
part of a car – the “wheel” – stands for the whole car.

In a metonymy, on the other hand, the word we use to describe another thing is closely linked
to that particular thing, but is not a part of it. For example, the word “crown” is used to refer to
power or authority is a metonymy. It is not a part of the thing it represents.

Metonymy is also different from a metaphor, which draws resemblance between two different
things. For instance, in the sentence, “You are sunlight and I moon,” (Sun and Moon by Miss
Saigon), sunlight and the moon, and humans are quite different things without any association.
However, metaphor attempts to describe one thing in terms of another based on a supposed
similarity.

Metonymy, however, develops a relation on the grounds of close association, as in “The White
House is concerned about terrorism.” The White House here represents the people who work in
it.

Examples of Metonymy in Everyday Life

We use metonymy frequently in our everyday life. For a better understanding, let us observe a
few metonymy examples:

 “England decides to keep check on immigration.” (England refers to the government.)

 “The pen is mightier than the sword.” (Pen refers to written words, and sword to
military force.)
 “The Oval Office was busy in work.” (The Oval Office is a metonymy, as it stands for
people who work in the office.)
 “Let me give you a hand.” (Hand means help.)

Examples of Metonymy in Literature

Example #1: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare)

The given lines are from Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, Act I:

“Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.”

Mark Anthony uses “ears” to say that he wants the people present to listen to him attentively.
It is a metonymy because the word “ears” replaces the concept of paying attention.

Example #2: Gone with the Wind (By Margaret Mitchell)

This line is from Margaret Mitchell’s novel Gone with the Wind:

“I’m mighty glad Georgia waited till after Christmas before it secedes or it would have ruined
the Christmas parties.”

Scarlett uses the word “Georgia” to point out everything that makes up the state: its citizens,
politicians, and the government. It is a metonymy extremely common in the modern world,
where the name of a country or state refers to a whole nation and its government. Thus, it
renders brevity to the ideas.

Definition of Oxymoron
Oxymoron is a figure of speech in which two opposite ideas are joined to create an effect. The
common oxymoron phrase is a combination of an adjective proceeded by a noun with
contrasting meanings, such as “cruel kindness,” or “living death”.

However, the contrasting words/phrases are not always glued together. The contrasting ideas
may be spaced out in a sentence, such as, “In order to lead, you must walk behind.”

Difference Between Oxymoron and Paradox

It is important to understand the difference between an oxymoron and a paradox. A paradox

may consist of a sentence, or even a group of sentences. An oxymoron, on the other hand, is a
combination of two contradictory or opposite words. A paradox seems contradictory to the
general truth, but it does contain an implied truth. An oxymoron, however, may produce a
dramatic effect, but does not make literal sense. Examples of oxymoron are found both in
casual conversations and in literature.

Common Examples of Oxymoron

1. Open secret
2. Tragic comedy
3. Seriously funny
4. Awfully pretty
5. Foolish wisdom
6. Original copies
7. Liquid gas

Short Examples of Oxymoron in Speech

1. There was a love-hate relationship between the two neighboring states.

2. The professor was giving a lecture on virtual reality.
3. Paid volunteers were working for the company.
4. The channel was repeating the old news again and again.
5. The contractor was asked to give the exact estimate of the project.
6. A lot of soldiers have been killed in friendly fire.
7. The doctor was absolutely unsure of the nature of his illness.
8. All the politicians agreed to disagree.
9. There was an employee in the office who was regularly irregular.
10. The hero of the play was so dejected that he was the perfect embodiment of
being alone in a crowd.
11. The heads of state gathered to determine an approximate solution to the crisis.
12. The green pasture surrounded by hills was teeming with a deafening silence.
13. The political scientist was asked to give his unbiased opinion on the current issue.
14. The CEO of a multinational company said, “We have been awfully lucky to have survived
the disastrous effects of the recent economic recession.”
 15. The program was not liked by the people, for a lot of unpopular celebrities were
invited.

Analogy Definition

An analogy is a comparison in which an idea or a thing is compared to another thing that is

quite different from it. It aims at explaining that idea or thing by comparing it to something that
is familiar. Metaphors and similes are tools used to draw an analogy. Therefore, analogy is
more extensive and elaborate than either a simile or a metaphor. Consider the following
example:

“The structure of an atom is like a solar system. The nucleus is the sun, and electrons are the
planets revolving around their sun.”

Examples of Analogy in Everyday Life

We commonly use analogy in our everyday conversation. Some common analogy examples are
given below:

 Life is like a race. The one who keeps running wins the race, and the one who stops to
catch a breath loses.
 Just as a sword is the weapon of a warrior, a pen is the weapon of a writer.
 How a doctor diagnoses diseases is like how a detective investigates crimes.
 Just as a caterpillar comes out of its cocoon, so we must come out of our comfort zone.
 You are as annoying as nails on a chalkboard.

Allegory Definition

characters, figures, and events. It can be employed in prose and poetry to tell a story, with a
purpose of teaching or explaining an idea or a principle. The objective of its use is to teach
some kind of a morallesson. Allegory is a figure of speech in which abstract ideas and principles
are described in terms of

Difference Between Allegory and Symbolism

Although an allegory uses symbols, it is different from symbolism. An allegory is a

complete narrativethat involves characters and events that stand for an abstract idea or event.
A symbol, on the other hand, is an object that stands for another object, giving it a particular
meaning. Unlike allegory, symbolism does not tell a story. For example, Plato, in his Allegory of
Cave, tells a story of how some people are ignorant, while at the same time other people “see
the light.” Plato’s allegory stands for an idea and does not tell an actual story.

Examples of Allegory in Everyday Life

Allegory is an archaic term, which is used specifically in literary works. It is difficult to spot its
occurrence in everyday life, although recently we do find examples of allegory in political
debates. The declaration of former U.S. President George W. Bush was allegorical when he used
the term “Axis of Evil” in referring to three countries considered a danger to the world. He later
used the term “allies” for those countries that would wage war against the “Axis.”

Examples of Allegory in Literature

Example #1: Animal Farm (By George Orwell)

Animal Farm, written by George Orwell, is an allegory that uses animals on a farm to describe
the overthrow of the last Russian Tsar, Nicholas II, and the Communist Revolution of Russia
before WW I. The actions of the animals on the farm are used to expose the greed and
corruption of the revolution. It also describes how powerful people can change the ideology of
a society. One of the cardinal rules on the farm is this:

“All animals are equal but a few are more equal than others.”

The animals on the farm represent different sections of Russian society after the revolution.

For instance, the pigs represent those who came to power following the revolution; “Mr.
Jones,” the owner of the farm, represents the overthrown Tsar Nicholas II; while “Boxer” the
horse, represents the laborer class. The use of allegory in the novel allows Orwell to make his
position clear about the Russian Revolution and expose its evils.

Example #2: Faerie Queen (By Edmund Spenser)

Faerie Queen, a masterpiece of Edmund Spenser, is a moral and religious allegory.

The good characters of book stand for the various virtues, while the bad characters represent
vices. “The Red-Cross Knight” represents holiness, and “Lady Una” represents truth, wisdom,
and goodness. Her parents symbolize the human race. The “Dragon,” which has imprisoned
them, stands for evil.

The mission of holiness is to help the truth fight evil, and thus regain its rightful place in the
hearts of human beings. “The Red-Cross Knight” in this poem also represents the reformed
church of England, fighting against the “Dragon,” which stands for the Papacy or the Catholic
Church.

Example #3: Pilgrim’s Progress (By John Bunyan)

John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress is an example of spiritual allegory. The ordinary sinner,

Christian, leaves the City of Destruction, and travels towards Celestial City, where God resides,
for salvation. He finds Faithful, a companion who helps him on his way to the City. On many
instances, many characters, including Hypocrisy, Apollyon, Mr. Worldly Wiseman, Obstinate,
and Pliable try to discourage or stop him from achieving his aim. Finally, he reaches the
Celestial City, carried by Hopeful’s faith.

The moral learned through this allegory is that the road to Heaven is not easy, and it is full of
obstacles. A Christian has to be willing to pay any price to achieve salvation. A man is full of sins,
but this does not stop him from achieving glory.

Litotes
Litotes - understatement that uses a negation to express a positive. In other words, a statement
is made about what is - by saying what is not.
Examples of Litotes:
1. You won't be sorry!
2. The casserole wasn't too bad.
3. The trip was not a total loss.
4. I cannot disagree with your point.
5. Karen is not unlike her father.
6. The game is not likely to be rained out.
Examples of Litotes from Literature and Film
1. "Are you also aware, Mrs. Bueller, that Ferris does not have what we consider to be an
exemplary attendance record?" Ferris Bueller's Day Off
2. "I will multiply them, and they shall not be few; I will make them honored, and they shall not
be small." Correctly interpreted, he is saying "there will be many and they will be great or
large." Jeremiah 30, The Bible
3. "I can't get no satisfaction." The Rolling Stones
4. Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks,
But bears it out even to the edge of doom.
If this be error and upon me proved 
I never writ, nor no man ever loved. Shakespeare, "Sonnet 116"

Definition of Caesura

Everyone speaks, and everyone breathes while speaking. For instance, when you say, “Maria
has taken a break,” you take breath before further saying, “But Adam did not.” Then again you
take a little breath and say, “He fell on his ankle.” Such pauses come from natural rhythm of
your speech. Poetry also uses pauses in its lines.

One such pause is known as “caesura,” which is a rhythmical pause in a poetic line or a
sentence. It often occurs in the middle of a line, or sometimes at the beginning and the end. At
times, it occurs with punctuation; at other times it does not. Poets indicate such a pause with a
parallel symbol thus: ||. Caesura can be medial (occurring in the middle of line), initial
(occurring at the beginning of poetic line), or terminal (occurring at the end of a poetic line).
Types of Caesura

Caesural breaks, or caesura, are of two types in poetry:

Feminine Caesura

A feminine caesural pause occurs after a non-stressed and short syllable in a poetic line. This is
softer and less abrupt than the masculine version. For instance:

“I hear lake water lapping || with low sounds by the shore…”

(The Lake Isle of Innisfree by William Butler Yeats)

It has two subdivisions:

 Epic Caesura
 Lyric Caesura

Masculine Caesura

Masculine pause occurs after a long or accented syllable in a line. It creates a staccato effect in
the poem, such as:

“of reeds and stalk-crickets, || fiddling the dank air,

lacing his boots with vines, || steering glazed beetles”

(The Bounty by Derek Walcott)

Short Examples of Caesura

1. The headphone explodes, || breaking the mold

2. Roses, roses! || Two bucks a bunch! They say
The boys in the street, || ready to sell you.
3. Lilac, || locust, || and roses, || perfuming
East End, || West End, || wondrously blooming
From mother earth.
4. You’re nobody! ||Are you?
No, ||You are somebody, ||are you?
5. My candle burns
It may last till mid night;
Oh but, ||my friends, ||and ah, || my foes-
It gives me a shiny light.
 6. I saw a red cow,
I assure you, ||anyhow,
I’d again see that one!
7. The day is dark and dreary;
It’s raining, ||and the clouds are not weary;
8. Often in summer, || the wild bees turn tigers, || their wings
gathering black in a hole
Of a rotten tree.
9. Tonight the moon rises
In my window. || Its glazing light
scattered around the room.
10. From my balcony, || I see the stars
Blistering in the river water much brighter.
11. Love the rain, ||the seagull dives
Love the rain, ||it will bring more rain.
12. The rain, || falls in my backyard where I see it,
Coming down slowly at different rates.
13. I saw you, || she says-
But whom she saw? ||-is it
That right-handed schoolboy?
14. Meow, || meow in my ears,
A little cat follows me everywhere.
15. We gather, || we shout,
Then we gossip together on festivities.

Deus Ex Machina
Definition of Deus Ex Machina

The term deus ex machina refers to the circumstance where an implausible concept or a
divine character is introduced into a storyline, for the purpose of resolving its conflict and
procuring an interesting outcome.

The use of deus ex machina is discouraged, for the reason that the presence of it within a plot is
viewed as a sign of an ill-structured plot. The explanation that the critics provide for this view is
that the writer’s sudden resort to random, insupportable, and unbelievable twists for the
purpose of procuring an ending, highlights the inherent deficiencies of the plot. Hence, deus ex
machina is a rather debatable, and often criticized, form of literary device.

The term is Latin for “god out of the machine,” and has its origins in ancient Greek theatre. It
denotes scenes in which a crane (machine) was used to lower actors or statues playing a god or
gods (deus) onto the stage to set things right, usually near the end of the play.

Deus Ex Machina Examples

Example #1: Medea (By Euripides)

When Medea is shown in the chariot of the sun god Helios, the god himself isn’t present. From
her vantage point in the chariot, she watches the grieving Jason. The argument goes about that
this specific scene is an illustration of the employment of the deus ex machina device within the
plot of the tragedy.

Example #2: Hippolytus (By Euripides)

There are three deities present in this play: the jealous Aphrodite, Artemis the object of
Hippolytus’ affection, and vengeful Poseidon. However, it is only Artemis who appears. She
explains to Theseus that Hippolytus was innocent all along, and that it was Aphrodite who had
sinned and caused all the grief. Artemis also promises to destroy any man Aphrodite ever loves.

Example #3: Andromache (By Euripides)

In the end of the play, Thetis the sea goddess appears to Peleus. She comes to take Peleus back
with her to her ocean home. The play ends with Peleus going with Thetis his wife, into the
ocean.

Example #4: Helen (By Euripides)

Theoclymenos is furious when Helen and Menelaus trick him and run away together. In
consequence, he tries to murder his sister for not telling him that Menelaus was not dead. The
demi-gods Castor and Polydeuces – Helen’s brothers, and sons of Zeus and Leda – appear
astonishingly to interrupt.

Example #5: Orestes (By Euripides)

Apollo appears on stage to bring things in order. Apollo clears the situation by informing the
characters (and the audience) that Helen had been put amongst the stars, and therefore
Menelaus should return to Sparta. He also orders Orestes to travel to Athens to stand trial in
their court, and ensures him of his subsequent acquittal. Further, Apollo states that Orestes will
marry Hermione, and that Pylades and Electra will also marry.