Chapter 6

METALS

Introduction

The applications of metals in civil engineering are many and varied, ranging from their
use as main structural materials to their use for fastenings and as bearing materials. As
main structural materials, cast iron and wrought iron have been superseded by rolled-
steel sections and some use has been made of wrought aluminium alloys. Steel is also
of major importance for its use in reinforced and pre-stressed concrete. On a smaller
scale, metals are used extensively for fastenings, such as nails, screws, bolts and
rivets, for bearing surfaces in the expansion joints of bridges, and for decorative
facings.

The properties of metals which make them unique among construction materials are
high stiffness and tensile strength, the ability to be formed into plate, sections and wire,
and the weld ability or ease of welding of those metals commonly used for construction
purposes. Other properties typical of metals are electrical conductivity, high thermal
conductivity and metallic lustre, which are of importance in some circumstances.
Perhaps the greatest disadvantage of the common metals and particularly steels, is the
need to protect them from corrosion by moist conditions and the atmosphere, although
weathering steels have been developed which offer much greater resistance to
atmospheric corrosion.

When in service, metals frequently have to resist not only high tensile or compressive
forces and corrosion, but also conditions of shock loading, low temperatures, constantly
varying forces, or a combination of these effects. Most pure metals are relatively soft
and weak , and do not meet the rigorous service requirements, except for those
applications where the properties of high electrical conductivity or corrosion resistance
are required. Normally one or more alloying elements are added to increase strength or
to modify the properties in some other way. Metals and alloys are crystalline and the
bulk material has a structure composed of myriads of small crystals, or grains. The
grain structure, or microstructure, of any component is influenced by many factors,
including the type of metal or alloy, methods of manufacture and heat treatment, and
the final properties are highly dependent on structure. Micro- and micro-sized defects
may be introduced into the structure during manufacture. In order to appreciate the
properties and behaviour in service of metallic materials it is necessary to have some
knowledge of the nature of the crystalline state and of the microstructure, and the
coarser macrostructure, of these materials. Also, it is necessary to understand how
these structures may be modified by alloying, deformation and heat treatments.
Classification of Metals

Metals are classified into two main categories:

(1) Ferrous metals - have iron as the main constituent.
(2) Non-ferrous metals - have no iron as the main constituent.

Steel Carbon steel

Alloy steel

Alloy cast iron

Grey cast iron
Ferrous Metals Cast iron High duty cast iron
Malleable cast iron
White cast iron

Metals Wrought iron

Aluminium
Copper
Lead
Non-ferrous Metals Magnesium
Nickel
Tin
Titanium
Zinc

Occurrence of metals

Native (elemental state): copper, gold, silver

Oxides or hydrated oxides: aluminium, copper, iron, tin
Carbonates: copper, iron, lead, zinc
Sulphides: copper, lead, nickel, zinc
Silicates: zinc
Chloride: lead, magnesium

Those used in the construction industry are very few in number and have as base
metals Aluminium, Copper, Lead, Iron and Zinc. Out of these iron as by far the most
important one.

Iron
Iron ores

Magnetite (Fe3O4 ) - Contains 65 - 75% iron

Hematite) (Fe2O3 ) - Contains 45 - 65% iron
Limonite (Fe2O3 3H2O) - Contains 20 - 50% iron
Siderite (FeCO3 ) - Contains about 30% iron

Extraction of Iron

The winning of iron from its ores and production of iron based materials follows specific
steps which include smelting and purification. Smelting is done in a blast furnace where
the prepared iron ore is charged with coke and limestone. When heated by hot air the
coke(which is normally coal) liberates CO which reduces the ore to a molten metallic
iron. It is the crudest form of iron called pig iron and is collected at the bottom of the
blast furnace. The refining of pig iron is based on the oxidation process in open-hearth,
Bessemer converter or electric furnace. The process gives pure molten iron known as
wrought iron.

Alloys of Iron

Pure iron is a relatively soft and readily cold-worked metal. In order to improve some of
its properties and make it a useful and effective material, pure iron is alloyed with other
chemical elements. Out of numbers of alloying elements, carbon is the most important
one as it readily dissolves intrinsically in iron lattices.

There are different ways of forming alloys, the two most important being (a) the method
of fusion of the constituents and solidification after mixture, and (b) the method of
diffusion, where the main metal is in solid state, and the diffusing material is gas, liquid
or solid. The method of fusion is the most common.

Steel

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, and at times other elements are added for special
purposes. Depending on the percentage of the carbon content different types of steel
can be manufactured. At one extreme are the very soft steels used for making rods,
wire for nails, and metal sheets. At the other are the very hard and tough steels used
for making gears and bulldozer plates. The iron-carbon alloys containing from a trace to
about 2% carbon are called plain carbon steels. With carbon content between 2% and
6.67% the alloys are referred to as cast iron. While the iron containing a trace of carbon
is referred to as soft or dead mild steel, that containing 6.67%, and represented by the
formula Fe3C (iron carbide) , is commonly called cementite ( hard and brittle).
Classification and application of plain carbon steels.

Carbon Content % Type Application

0.07 - 0.15 Dead mild-steel Steel rods, wire for nails, rivets
0.15 - 0.30 mild-steel Structural section (e.g. reinforcing bars,
I-sections, angles . . .)
0.30 - 0.60 medium-carbon Axles, gears, crankshafts.
steel
0.60 - 0.80 High-carbon Springs, rails and tyres, wire ropes, band saws
steel
.80 - 1.2 Tools steel Chisels, shear blades, drills, files, hand saws,
razors (1.2 - 1.4%)

Plain carbon steels are elastic materials with relatively high compressive, tensile and
shear strength. They are also relatively stiff having generally high modulus of elasticity.
Almost all of their mechanical properties are influenced by three important factors which
are (1) chemical composition, (2) heat treatment and (3) mechanical work. Controlled
changes in these factors introduce variation in the properties over wide ranges.

Among the plain carbon steels mild steel is perhaps the most extensively used in the
construction industry. It has the following characteristics.
(a) Its structure is fibrous with dark bluish to black colour
(b) It is equally strong in tension, compression and in shear
(c) It has a specific gravity of 7.8
(d) It is malleable and ductile to a certain degree
(e) It rusts and corrodes easily
(f) It can be forged, welded and riveted
(g) It is tough

Corrosion

The corrosion of metals may be broadly classified into dry corrosion and wet corrosion.
Usually, the former is a direct reaction between the surface metal and atmospheric
oxygen, while the latter involves a series of electrochemical reactions in the presence of
an aqueous electrolyte. Direct oxidation is not a problem with most metals, except at
greatly elevated temperature when the oxidation rates are high. At ordinary
temperatures, the oxidation rate for most metals is low and, frequently, when an oxide
layer is formed it can be protective. When an alloy steel contains more than 12% of
chromium, a continuous film of chromic oxide forms, rapidly covering the whole of the
steel surface. Steels containing more than 12% of chromium, protected by self-healing
passive film of chromic oxide are, therefore, corrosion resistant or stainless.
Wet corrosion is the result of electrochemical, or galvanic, action. Any metal in contact
with an electrolyte will ionise to some extent, releasing free electrons which remain in
the metal, and creating ions which pass into solution in the electrolyte. A typical
reaction is :
Zn Zn2+ + 2e-

Metal in contact with electrolyte low in dissolved oxygen will be anodic with respect to
metal in contact with electrolyte rich in dissolved oxygen. A major reason for this is that
in areas rich in dissolved oxygen, A cathode-type reaction which absorbs electrons can
occur. This reaction is
2H2O + O2 + 4e- 4(OH)-
The electrons needed for this reaction will be supplied from another part of the metal
where there is less oxygen, and so such areas act as anodes. This one of the main
features of the rusting of irons and steels. Rust is the hydrated oxide of iron, Fe(OH) 3.
Both oxygen and water are required for the formation of rust, and steels will not rust in
either a dry atmosphere or when immersed in oxygen-free water.