Republic of the Philippines

APAYAO STATE COLLEGE

San Isidro Sur, Luna, Apayao, Philippines 3813
asc.edu.ph,www.facebook.com/asceduofficial.

Prof Ed 11
Child and Adolescent:
Learning and Learner Principles

MARK NEIL A. GALUT

Instructor
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PROF ED 11: CHILD AND ADOLESCENT: LEARNERS AND LEARNING
PRINCIPLES
Module 5: Week 14 – 15

Unit 5 – Behavioral Learning Theories and Approaches to Learning

A. What is Learning?

B. Approaches to Learning
1. Behavioral
2. Social cognitive
3. Information processing
4. Cognitive constructivist
5. Social constructivist

C. Connectionism

D. Conditioning
1. Classical
2. Contiguous
3. Operant

E. Behavior Analysis in Education

F. Gestalt-Insight Learning
G. Experiential Learning Theory
H. Current Research and Pedagogical Applications

Intended Learning Outcome:

o compare and contrast various approaches to learning and

describe how they are manifested in the classroom;

o apply behavior analysis in teaching child and adolescent

learners across curriculum areas;

o make connections, using knowledge on current research

literature, between behavioral learning theories and
developmentally appropriate teaching approaches suited to
learners’ gender, needs, strengths, interests and experiences.

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Unit 5 – Behavioral Learning Theories and Approaches to Learning
What is Learning?
Traditionally, research and studies around learning focused
primarily on early-years learning through childhood and
adolescence. However, it is now recognized that learning is a
continuous process that commences at birth and continues until
death; it is the process through which we use our experience to deal
with new situations and to develop relationships.
A lot of our learning occurs randomly throughout life, from new
experiences, gaining information and from our perceptions, for
example: reading a newspaper or watching a news broadcast,
talking with a friend or colleague, chance meetings and
unexpected experiences.
Many experiences in life provide us with learning opportunities
from which we can choose whether or not to learn. This type
of experiential learning is in contrast to more formal approaches to
learning such as training, mentoring, coaching and teaching, all of
which have some type of structure in that they are planned learning
involving a facilitator.
Teaching, training and other structured learning opportunities
are activities that one person does to another, while learning is
something we can only do for ourselves.
Learning involves far more than thinking: it involves the whole
personality - senses, feelings, intuition, beliefs, values and will. If we
do not have the will to learn, we will not learn and if we have
learned, we are actually changed in some way. If the learning
makes no difference it can have very little significance beyond
being random ideas that float through our consciousness.
Learning needs to meet some personal need and recognizing
and identifying such needs enables us to evaluate whether the
learning has been worthwhile and successful.

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Learning occurs when we are able to:
• Gain a mental or physical grasp of the subject.
• Make sense of a subject, event or feeling by interpreting it into
our own words or actions.
• Use our newly acquired ability or knowledge in conjunction with
skills and understanding we already possess.
• Do something with the new knowledge or skill and take
ownership of it.
Key Principles of Learning
People learn best when they are treated with respect and are
not talked down to or treated as ignorant. Establishing ground rules
at the start of a training session will reinforce this important principle
However, for the training to be most effective and to involve full
participation, the trainer should model such exemplar behavior.
Learning opportunities should, when possible, be linked to
previous positive experience - this involves self-awareness on the
part of the learner and understanding and empathy on the part of
any facilitator. Learning can be blocked by past negative
experiences - some people who hated school cannot bear to be in
a classroom situation, for example.
When possible, learners should take part in the planning of
learning activities. Learners should be encouraged to be self-
directing in terms of goal-setting since this usually improves
commitment and motivation and increases
participation. Facilitators should examine the expectations of the
learner at the start of a course or session to help to encourage self-
direction.
People learn best when their physical environment is
comfortable. In group situations a positive emotional and
supportive environment is also important; individuals in groups tend
to learn best when they can socialize and interact with other group
members.
Interaction with a facilitator is vital. People need to be able to
react, question and voice opinions on what they are

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learning. Generally, in group situations, quieter members should be
gently encouraged for their input.
Learning activities and/or delivery need to be varied, to cover
the range of different learning styles and help the learner maintain
interest and motivation. In a classroom setting, for example,
including discussions or other activities, especially some sort of
problem solving, as part of a lesson or lecture will enable learners to
interact and engage with the subject.
Instant rewards help. People learn best if the results and/or
rewards of learning are made clear and can be demonstrated
during or immediately after the learning experience.
Self-evaluation and reflective practice is important. Learners
should be encouraged to reflect on what they have learnt and think
about ways that they can further their knowledge.
Learning is an internal activity and a key personal development
skill.
Learning is not something that can be directly observed in
others. We can, however, observe the results of learning in ourselves
and others – this is why, in formal learning situations, assessment is
such a crucial part of the teaching process.
The results of academic assessment, essays, exams etc. are
simply attempts to measure how much an individual has learnt but
they cannot measure the actual process of learning.
Learning brings about changes in the way we act, think and/or
feel about ourselves, other people and the world around us. Such
changes may be permanent or temporary depending on our own
perceptions of the importance and relevance of the gained
knowledge.
B. Approaches to Learning
1. Behavioral
This approach to learning is based on the idea that learners
respond to stimuli in their environment. The role of the learning
facilitator, therefore, is to provide relevant and useful stimuli so
that the learner responds to and gains the required knowledge
or experience.
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The behaviorist approach to learning centers around the
belief that appropriate behavior can be taught through
constant repetition of a task combined with feedback from the
facilitator. Positive feedback encourages and reinforces
success while negative feedback and immediate correction
discourages the repetition of a mistake or undesirable behavior.
2. Social cognitive
The social-cognitive theory is a theoretical perspective in
which learning by observing others is the focus of study. Social-
cognitive theory is grounded by several basic assumptions.
One is that people can learn by observing others. Learners
can acquire new behaviors and knowledge by simply
observing a model. A model is a person who demonstrates
behavior for someone else. In our Electric Slide example, the
observer watched the models perform the dance in order to
learn it.
3. Information processing
The information processing theory is based on the idea that
humans actively process the information they receive from their
senses, like a computer does. Learning is what is happening
when our brains receive information, record it, mold it and store
it.
4. Cognitive constructivist
Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in
assimilating new information to existing knowledge, as well as
enabling them to make the appropriate modifications to their
existing intellectual framework to accommodate that
information.
5. Social constructivist
The level of potential development is the level at which
learning takes place. It comprises cognitive structures that are
still in the process of maturing, but which can only mature under
the guidance of or in collaboration with others.

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C. Connectionism
1. Connectionism/Associationism Theory (Edward Thorndike):
The distinctive feature of this theory is that learning is readily
explained by the visible attributes and not considering the
internal insights being developed in the process.
Learning has taken places when a strong bond between
stimulus and response is formed.
Thorndike's theory consists of three major laws:
(1) Law of effect
Responses to a situation which are followed by a rewarding
state of affairs will be strengthened and become habitual
responses to that situation. A result of the law of effect was that
responses that reduce the likelihood of achieving a rewarding
state will decrease in strength.
This is the justification of the means by the end result. If the
resultant factor is satisfying, a stereotype behavior of repeating
the same effort or response to the learning process will most
likely to occur in the future.
(2) Law of readiness
A series of responses can be chained together to satisfy
some goal which will result in annoyance if blocked. This stage
is crucial in the transfer of learning since a learner might
experience frustrations if the situation is not neutralized. A child
may not learn anything if the mood is not set up or the maturity-
readiness to learn is not yet geared up.
(3) Law of exercise
Connections become strengthened with constant
practice and weakened When practice is discontinued.
Practice makes one perfect, so the saying goes. A redundant
activity will result in mastery of the steps or the process.
D. Conditioning
1. Classical – Pavlov Classical Conditioning Theory:
learning requires constant practice whilst repetition is the
mother of all learning.

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Learning should also be rewarded to gain positive response
and motivation for learning is greater when it is rewarded.
Learning occurs when there is an experience of the event,
situation, and or phenomenon.
A classical conditioning theory experimented to human
subject: John B. Watson further extended Pavlov’s work and
applied it to human beings. In1921, Watson studied Albert, an
11-month-old infant child. The goal of the study was to condition
Albert to become afraid of a white rat by pairing the white rat
with a very loud, jarring noise (Unconditioned Stimulus). At first,
Albert showed no sign off ear when he was presented with rats,
but once the rat was repeatedly paired with the loud noise
(Unconditioned Stimulus), Albert developed a fear of rats. It
could be said that the loud noise (Unconditioned Stimulus)
induced fear (Unconditioned Response). The implications of
Watson’s experiment suggested that classical conditioning
could cause some phobias in humans.
To local settings, an adult person would constantly remind
children not to go to the dark places because there are
perceived “enchanted-evil spirits” which are lurking and
waiting for chances top ounce on their prey, and the preferred
victims are the youth and tender flesh. That would result in
youthful imagination to imprint on sagacious beliefs in
inanimate flesh eaters, humans- turned-into-beasts, mongrels
and ghouls, hiding in the dark which was carried until maturity.
2. Contiguous
Guthrie's contiguity theory specifies that "a combination of
stimuli which has accompanied a movement will on its
recurrence tend to be followed by that movement". According
to Guthrie, all learning was a consequence of association
between a particular stimulus and response. Furthermore,
Guthrie argued that stimuli and responses affect specific
sensory-motor patterns; what is learned are movements, not
behaviors.
In contiguity theory, rewards or punishment play no
significant role in learning since they occur after the association
between stimulus and response has been made. Learning takes
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place in a single trial (all or none). However, since each stimulus
pattern is slightly different, many trials may be necessary to
produce a general response. One interesting principle that
arises from this position is called "postremity" which specifies that
we always learn the last thing we do in response to a specific
stimulus situation.
Contiguity theory suggests that forgetting is due to
interference rather than the passage of time; stimuli become
associated with new responses. Previous conditioning can also
be changed by being associated with inhibiting responses such
as fear or fatigue. The role of motivation is to create a state of
arousal and activity which produces responses that can be
conditioned.
Scope/Application:
Contiguity theory is intended to be a general theory of
learning, although most of the research supporting the theory
was done with animals. Guthrie did apply his framework to
personality disorders (e.g. Guthrie, 1938).
Example:
The classic experimental paradigm for Contiguity theory is
cats learning to escape from a puzzle box (Guthrie & Horton,
1946). Guthrie used a glass paneled box which allowed him to
photograph the exact movements of cats. These photographs
showed that cats learned to repeat the same sequence of
movements associated with the preceding escape from the
box. Improvement comes about because irrelevant
movements are unlearned or not included in successive
associations.
Principles:
1. In order for conditioning to occur, the organism must
actively respond (i.e., do things).
2. Since learning involves the conditioning of specific
movements, instruction must present very specific tasks.
3. Exposure to many variations in stimulus patterns is desirable
in order to produce a generalized response.

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4. The last response in a learning situation should be correct
since it is the one that will be associated.
3. Operant
Operant Conditioning Theory:
Learning occurs when there are external interventions
which are more on reinforcements.
Reinforcement is the key element in B.F. Skinner's Stimulus-
Response theory.
A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired
reaction. It could be verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of
increased accomplishment or satisfaction. The theory also
covers negative reinforcers any stimulus that results in the
increased frequency of a response when it is inhibited. A great
deal of attention was given to schedules of reinforcement and
their effects on establishing and maintaining behavior.
Two types of reinforcements:
Positive reinforcement:
After performing at ask or obligation, a person is
rewarded with praise, monetary equivalent, a special
recognition or anything that creates a pleasant
atmosphere. This would result in the repetition of the same
performance or might exceed the present feat.
Negative reinforcement:
The concept of Negative Reinforcement is difficult to
teach and learn because of the word negative. Negative
Reinforcement is often confused with Punishment.
Punishment, on the other hand, weakens a behavior
because a negative condition is introduced or
experienced as a consequence of the behavior. They are
very different; however, Negative Reinforcement
strengthens a behavior because a negative condition is
stopped or avoided as a consequence of the behavior. For
example, is the avoidance of heavy traffic, an employee
must leave home at early hours every work day to avoid
heavy traffic and further results into good value of
punctuality and may result in a raise or promotions.
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E. Behavior Analysis in Education
- Behavior analysis is a comprehensive, natural- science
approach to the study of the behavior of organisms. Primary
objectives are the discovery of principles and laws that govern
behavior, the extension of these principles across species, and the
development of an applied technology for the management of
behavior.
- The underlying principle is called discrimination. The principle
of discrimination states that an organism will respond differently to
two situations (e.g., presence or absence of people) if its behavior
has been reinforced in one setting but not in the other (differential
reinforcement).
Two assumptions should be noted here.
First, behavior is a product of the organism’s past and current
interaction with the environment, as well as its biological or
evolutionary history (primarily coded by the genes).
Secondly, the principles (e.g., discrimination) discovered by an
experimental analysis have wide generality, applying to all animal
life. The principle of discrimination may be extended to human
behavior and social reinforcement. In a classroom, the principle of
discrimination can be used to improve teaching and learning. The
use of behavior principles to solve practical problems is called
applied behavior analysis.
F. Gestalt-Insight Learning
Gestalt Theory
- The integrated totality. The visual perception of
relatedness of the ideas, concepts, things or object
cohesively put together in one area or situation. Learning
process is taking place on visual perception as the analogies
likely to follow as to what is seen and the précis implication of
the object-situation being presented.
Insight Learning
- Development of the mental process, problem solving skill as
the existence of a situation which stimulates the individual for
finding ways to attain, e.g. freedom, hunger or thirst,

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threatens to be physically hurt or for survival. This is the innate
and grateful process which creates a new organization of
ideas, concepts and or designs that would likely lead into
discovering new things. This would take time or in no time, the
process of exploring, analyzing and restructuring perceptions
until the solution was arrived. An action that might not need
necessary external reinforcements, this is more on internal
gratification of needs and wants.
G. Experiential Learning Theory
David Kolb - The Experiential Approach
- The experiential model of learning that David Kolb
proposes, underpins much of the work of modern adult
training providers. Essentially, Kolb believes that learning is a
dynamic process, in which we are constantly able to
construct our own learning and development by moving
through the following cycle.

- Kolb’s four aspects of his learning cycle, in which

experience is constantly reviewed and impressions
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challenged or confirmed, form the basis of experiential
learning theory. The sequence is explained in the following
way: a person's life experiences form the basis for his/her
observation and reflection on what has been encountered
encourages learning. This in turn becomes assimilated into
what is already known, providing a new conceptual map on
which further actions will be based, thus forming a new
experience. To complete the cycle, people also need to be
able to practice skills learned if the training is to have any true
meaning for them.
- In training terms, therefore, learning is facilitated if the
course content and process key into participants' existing
experience and are so designed to encourage reflection
and the formation of new concepts.

ACTIVITY:
1. What are the three criteria on which developmentally
appropriate practices (DAP) are based?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

2. Define what is meant by "developmentally and culturally

appropriate practice" (DCAP).
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

3. Cite an example of applied behavior analysis in teaching child

and adolescent learners across curriculum areas.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

4. Complete the table below to compare and contrast various

approaches to learning and describe how they are manifested
in the classroom.
Approaches to Behaviorism, Contribution
Learning Constructivism, /Implication
Cognitivism
1. Behavioral

2. Social Cognitive

3. Information
Processing
4. Cognitive
Constructivist
5. Social
Constructivist

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SCORING RUBRIC
POINTS SCORING CRITERIA
The student answers the questions correctly and
completely.
4 Students incorporates information from the text or class
notes into the answer.
Students shows some prior knowledge and may use
terminology to answer the question. Student does not
3 use appropriate information from the text or lecture
notes to answer the question. (May be partially correct
but still incomplete)
Student try to answer the question but does not show
evidence of any previous knowledge to assist in
2 answering. Student may reveal misconception from the
text or lecture notes to answer the question. (Incorrect
answer)
Student says he/she does not know how to answer the
1 question.
Source: https://serc.carleton.edu/download/images/25074/jitt_scoring_rubric_12774786

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REFERENCES:
Brawner, D & Leus, M. (2018) “Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching”,
ADRIANA Publishing Co., Inc.
Rungduin, T., & Rungduin, D. (2019) Child and Adolescent: Learners and
Learning Principles. ADRIANA Publishing Co., Inc

Sigelman and Rider, 2009

Mortera, M., Pila, R., Soto, C.(2011) Advanced LET Reviewer and Practice with
Legal Guide Book 1

Online Sources:
www.cengage.com/psychology/shaffer
http://www.studocu.com
https://www.rsd.k12.pa.us/Downloads/Development_Chart_for_Booklet.pdf
https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/educational-psychology/physical-
and-motor-development-in-child/1898

https://earlychildhoodeducationgroupone.weebly.com/biological-
beginnings.html

http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/dev.html

https://www.skillsyouneed.com/learn/learning-approaches.html

https://www.grin.com/document/293498

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