INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

(Autonomous)
Dundigal, Hyderabad -500 043

COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

COURSE LECTURE NOTES

Course Name BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Course Code AEEC01

Programme B.Tech

Semester I

Course Coordinator Dr V Chandra Jagan Mohan , Professor, EEE

Lecture Numbers 1-60
Topic Covered All

COURSE OBJECTIVES:

The students will try to learn:

I Understand the basic electrical circuits and circuit laws to study the behavior AC and DC circuits.

II Analyze electrical circuits with the help of network theorems.

III Outline the concepts of network topology to reduce complexity of network and study its behavior.

IV Demonstrate the working principle of AC and DC machines.

V Analyse single phase transformers circuits.

SYLLABUS

Module -I INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Circuit concept: Ohm‘s law, Kirchhoff‘s laws, equivalent resistance of networks, Source transformation, Star to
delta transformation, mesh and nodal analysis; Single phase AC circuits: Representation of alternating
quantities, RMS, average, form and peak factor, concept of impedance and admittance .
Module -II NETWORK THEOREMS AND NETWORK TOPOLOGY

Network Theorems: Superposition, Reciprocity, Thevenin‘s, Norton‘s, Maximum power transfer for DC
excitations circuits. Network Topology: Definitions, Graph, Tree, Incidence matrix, Basic Cut Set and Basic Tie
Set Matrices for planar networks.

Module –III DC MACHINES

DC generators: Principle of operation, construction, EMF equation, types of DC generators. Losses and
efficiency DC motors: Principle of operation, back EMF, torque equation, types of DC motors, Losses and
efficiency, numerical problems.

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 Module –IV SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS
Single Phase Transformers: Principle of operation, construction, types of transformers, EMF equation, operation
of transformer under no load and on load, Phasor diagrams, equivalent circuit, efficiency, regulation and
numerical problems.
Module – V AC MACHINES
Three Phase Induction motor: Principle of operation, slip, slip -torque characteristics, efficiency and
applications; Alternators: Introduction, principle of operation, constructional features, calculation of regulation
by synchronous impedance method and numerical problems.
Text Books:
1. A Chakrabarthy, ―Electric Circuits‖, DhanipatRai& Sons, 6 th Edition, 2010.
2. A Sudhakar, Shyammohan S Palli, ―Circuits and Networks‖, Tata McGraw-Hill, 4th Edition, 2010.
3. A E Fitzgerald and C Kingsley, "Electric Machinery‖, McGraw Hill Education, 2013.
4. I JNagrath, DP Kothari, ―Electrical Machines‖, Tata McGraw-Hill publication, 3rdEdition, 2010.
Reference Books:
1. John Bird, ―Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology‖, Newnes, 2 nd Edition, 2003.
2. C L Wadhwa, ―Electrical Circuit Analysis including Passive Network Synthesis‖, International, 2 ndEdition,
2009.
3. David A Bell, ―Electric circuits‖, Oxford University Press, 7th Edition, 2009.
4. PS Bimbra, ―Electrical Machines‖, Khanna Publishers, 2nd Edition, 2008.

Course Outcomes Mapped To Module I:

Students will be able to:

CO Course outcomes Blooms
taxonomy
CO 1 Use the Kirchhoff‘s Laws, source transformation, star to delta Apply
transformation, mesh and nodal analysis for obtaining electrical quantities
of complex circuits.
CO 2 Define basic nomenclature of single phase AC circuits for obtaining Understand
impedance, admittance of series and parallel circuits.

Program Outcomes Mapped To Module I:

Program Outcomes
PO 1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals,
and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
PO 2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex engineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences,
and engineering sciences

Mapping of CO(s) With PO(s) For Module I:

Program Outcomes
Course outcomes
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

CO 1 √ √

CO 2 √ √

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 MODULE – I
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Given an electrical network, the network analysis involves various methods. The process of finding
the network variables namely the voltage and currents in various parts of the circuit is known as
network analysis. Before we carry out actual analysis it is very much essential to thoroughly
understand the various terms associated with the network. In this chapter we shall begin with the
definition and understanding in detail some of the commonly used terms. The basic laws such as
Ohm‘s law, KCL and KVL, those can be used to analyse a given network Analysis becomes easier if
we can simplify the given network. We will be discussing various techniques, which involve
combining series and parallel connections of R, L and C elements.

1.2 SYSTEMS OF MODULES

As engineers, we deal with measurable quantities. Our measurement must be communicated in
standard language that virtually all professionals can understand irrespective of the country. Such an
international measurement language is the International System of MODULEs (SI). In this system,
there are six principal MODULEs from which the MODULEs of all other physical quantities can be
derived.

Quantity Basic MODULE Symbol

Length Meter M
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric Current ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela Cd

One great advantage of SI MODULE is that it uses prefixes based on the power of 10 to relate larger
and smaller MODULEs to the basic MODULE.

Multiplier Prefix Symbol

1012 Tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo K
10-3 milli m
10-6 micro μ
10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p

1.3 BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

1.3.1 CHARGE

The most basic quantity in an electric circuit is the electric charge. We all experience the effect of
electric charge when we try to remove our wool sweater and have it stick to our body or walk across a
carpet and receive a shock.Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter
consists, measured in coulombs (C). Charge, positive or negative, is denoted by the letter q or Q.We
know from elementary physics that all matter is made of fundamental building blocks known as atoms
and that each atom consists of electrons, protons, and neutrons. We also know that the charge ‗e‘ on an

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electron is negative and equal in magnitude to 1.602x10-19 C, while a proton carries a positive charge
of the same magnitude as the electron and the neutron has no charge. The presence of equal numbers
of protons and electrons leaves an atom neutrally charged.

1.3.2 CURRENT
Current can be defined as the motion of charge through a conducting material, measured in Ampere
(A). Electric current, is denoted by the letter i or I.
The module of current is the ampere abbreviated as (A) and corresponds to the quantity of total charge
that passes through an arbitrary cross section of a conducting material per MODULE second.
Mathematically,
Q
I = orQ = It
t
Where 𝑄 is the symbol of charge measured in Coulombs (C), I is the current in amperes (A) and t is
the time in second (s).
The current can also be defined as the rate of charge passing through a point in an electric circuit.
Mathematically,
dq
i=
dt
The charge transferred between time t1 and t2 is obtained as
t2
q= idt
t1
A constant current (also known as a direct current or DC) is denoted by symbol I whereas a time-
varying current (also known as alternating current or AC) is represented by the symbol 𝑖 or 𝑖 (𝑡).
Figure 1.1 shows direct current and alternating current.

Current is always measured through a circuit element as shown in Fig. 1.1

Fig. 1.1 Current through Resistor (R)

Two types of currents:

1) A direct current (DC) is a current that remains constant with time.
2) An alternating current (AC) is a current that varies with time.

Fig. 1.2Two common types of current: (a) direct current (DC), (b) alternative current (AC)

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Example 1.1
Determine the current in a circuit if a charge of 80 coulombs passes a given point in 20 seconds (s).

Solution:
𝑄 80
𝐼= = =4𝐴
𝑡 20

Example 1.2
How much charge is represented by 4,600 electrons?

Solution:
Each electron has - 1.602x10-19 C. Hence 4,600 electrons will have:

-1.602x10-19x4600 = -7.369x10-16 C

Example 1.3
The total charge entering a terminal is given by 𝑞=5𝑡sin4𝜋𝑡𝑚𝐶. Calculate the current at 𝑡=0.5 𝑠.

Solution:
𝑑𝑞 𝑑
𝑖= = 5𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜋𝑡 = 5𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜋𝑡 + 20𝜋𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜋𝑡 𝑚𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

At 𝑡=0.5 𝑠.
𝑖 = 31.42 𝑚𝐴

Example 1.4
Determine the total charge entering a terminal between 𝑡=1 𝑠 and 𝑡=2 𝑠 if the current passing the
terminal is 𝑖= (3𝑡2−𝑡) 𝐴.
Solution:
𝑡=2 2 2
𝑡2 1
𝑞= 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 3𝑡 2 − 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 3 − = 8−2 − 1− = 5.5𝐶
𝑡=1 1 2 1 2

1.3.3 VOLTAGE (or) POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

To move the electron in a conductor in a particular direction requires some work or energy transfer.
This work is performed by an external electromotive force (emf), typically represented by the battery
in Fig. 1.3. This emf is also known as voltage or potential difference. The voltage𝑣 abbetween two
points aand b in an electric circuit is the energy (or work) needed to move a MODULE charge from a
to b.

Fig. 1.3(a) Electric Current in a conductor, (b)Polarity of voltage 𝑣 ab

Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move charge from one point to the other,

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measured in volts (V). Voltage is denoted by the letter v or V.
Mathematically,

𝑑𝑤
𝑣𝑎𝑏 =
𝑑𝑡
where w is energy in joules (J) and q is charge in coulombs (C). The voltage 𝑣 ab or simply V is
measured in volts (V).
1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb = 1 newton-meter/coulomb

Fig. 1.3 shows the voltage across an element (represented by a rectangular block) connected to points
a and b. The plus (+) and minus (-) signs are used to define reference direction or voltage polarity. The
𝑣 ab can be interpreted in two ways: (1) point a is at a potential of 𝑣 ab volts higher than point b, or (2)
the potential at point a with respect to point b is 𝑣 ab . It follows logically that in general

𝑣𝑎𝑏 = −𝑣𝑏𝑎

Voltage is always measured across a circuit element as shown in Fig. 1.4

Fig. 1.4 Voltage across Resistor (R)

Example 1.5
An energy source forces a constant current of 2 A for 10 s to flow through a lightbulb. If 2.3 kJ is
given off in the form of light and heat energy, calculate the voltage drop across the bulb.

Solution:
Total charge dq= i*dt = 2*10 = 20 C
𝑑𝑊 2.3∗10 3
The voltage drop is 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑞
= 20
= 115 𝑉

1.3. 4 POWER
Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts (W). Power, is denoted by
the letter p or P.
Mathematically,
𝑑𝑤
𝑝=
𝑑𝑡
Where p is power in watts (W), w is energy in joules (J), and t is time in seconds (s).

From voltage and current equations, it follows that;

𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑞
𝑝= = ∗ =𝑉∗𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑡
Thus, ifthe magnitude of current I and voltage are given, then power can be evaluated as the product
of the two quantities and is measured in watts (W).

Sign of power:
Plus sign: Power is absorbed by the element. (Resistor, Inductor)
Minus sign: Power is supplied by the element. (Battery, Generator)

Passive sign convention:

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If the current enters through the positive polarity of the voltage, p = +vi
If the current enters through the negative polarity of the voltage, p = – vi

Fig 1.5 Polarities for Power using passive sign convention

(a) Absorbing Power (b) Supplying Power

1.3.5 ENERGY

Energy is the capacity to do work, and is measured in joules (J).

The energy absorbed or supplied by an element from time 0 to t is given by,
𝑡 𝑡
𝑤= 𝑝𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑡
0 0

The electric power utility companies measure energy in watt-hours (WH) or Kilo watt-hours (KWH)

1 WH = 3600 J
Example 1.6
A source e.m.f. of 5 V supplies a current of 3A for 10 minutes. How much energy is provided in this
time?
Solution:
𝑊 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 = 5 × 3 × 10 × 60 = 9 𝑘𝐽
Example 1.7
An electric heater consumes 1.8Mj when connected to a 250 V supply for 30 minutes. Find the power
rating of the heater and the current taken from the supply.
Solution:
𝑃 = 𝑊/𝑡 = (1.8×106)/ (30×60) = 1000 𝑊
Power rating of heater = 1kW
𝑃=𝑉𝐼
Thus
𝐼=𝑃/𝑉=1000/250=4𝐴
Hence the current taken from the supply is 4A.

Example 1.7
Find the power delivered to an element at 𝑡=3 𝑚𝑠 if the current entering its positive terminals is

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𝑖=5cos60𝜋𝑡𝐴 and the voltage is: (a) 𝑣=3𝑖, (b) 𝑣=3didt.
Solution:
(a) The voltage is 𝑣=3𝑖=15cos60𝜋𝑡𝐴; hence, the power is: 𝑝=𝑣𝑖=75cos260𝜋𝑡𝑊
At 𝑡=3 𝑚𝑠,
𝑝=75cos260𝜋𝑡×3×10−3 =53.48 𝑊
(b) We find the voltage and the power as
𝑣=3𝑑𝑖𝑑𝑡=3 −60𝜋 5sin60𝜋𝑡=−900𝜋sin60𝜋𝑡𝑉
𝑝=𝑣𝑖=−4500𝜋sin60𝜋𝑡cos60𝜋𝑡𝑊
At 𝑡=3 𝑚𝑠,
𝑝=−4500𝜋sin0.18𝜋cos0.18𝜋=−6.396𝑊

1.4 OHM’S LAW

Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854), a German physicist, is credited with finding the relationship between
current and voltage for a resistor. This relationship is known as Ohm‘s law.
Ohm‘s law states that at constant temperature, the voltage (V) across a conducting material is directly
proportional to the current (I) flowing through the material.
Mathematically,
V𝛼I
V=RI
Where the constant of proportionality R is called the resistance of the material. The V-I relation for
resistor according to Ohm‘s law is depicted in Fig.1.6

Fig. 1.6 V-I Characteristics for resistor

Limitations of Ohm‘s Law:

1. Ohm‘s law is not applicable to non-linear elements like diode, transistor etc.
2. Ohm‘s law is not applicable for non-metallic conductors like silicon carbide.

1.5 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

An element is the basic building block of a circuit. An electric circuit is simply an interconnection of
the elements. Circuit analysis is the process of determining voltages across (or the currents through)
the elements of the circuit.
There are 2 types of elements found in electrical circuits.
a) Active elements (Energy sources): The elements which are capable of generating or
delivering the energy are called active elements.
E.g., Generators, Batteries
b) Passive element (Loads): The elements which are capable of receiving the energy are
called passive elements.
E.g., Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors

1.5.1 ACTIVE ELEMENTS (ENERGY SOURCES)

The energy sources which are having the capacity of generating the energy are called active elements.

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The most important active elements are voltage or current sources that generally deliver power/energy
to the circuit connected to them.
There are two kinds of sources
a) Independent sources
b) Dependent sources

1.5.1.1 INDEPENDENT SOURCES:

An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specified voltage or current that is
completely independent of other circuit elements.
Ideal Independent Voltage Source:

An ideal independent voltage source is an active element that gives a constant voltage across its
terminals irrespective of the current drawn through its terminals. In other words, an ideal independent
voltage source delivers to the circuit whatever current is necessary to maintain its terminal voltage.
The symbol of idea independent voltage source and its V-I characteristics are shown in Fig. 1.7

Fig. 1.7 Ideal Independent Voltage Source

Practical Independent Voltage Source:

Practically, every voltage source has some series resistance across its terminals known as internal
resistance, and is represented by Rse. For ideal voltage source Rse = 0. But in practical voltage source
Rse is not zero but may have small value. Because of this Rse voltage across the terminals decreases
with increase in current as shown in Fig. 1.8
Terminal voltage of practical voltage source is given by

VL= VS - IL Rse

Fig. 1.8 Practical Independent Voltage Source

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Ideal Independent Current Source:

An ideal independent Current source is an active element that gives a constant current through its
terminals irrespective of the voltage appearing across its terminals. That is, the current source delivers
to the circuit whatever voltage is necessary to maintain the designated current. The symbol of idea
independent current source and its V-I characteristics are shown in Fig. 1.9

Fig. 1.9 Ideal Independent Current Source

Practical Independent Current Source:

Practically, every current source has some parallel/shunt resistance across its terminals known as
internal resistance, and is represented by Rsh. For ideal current source Rsh = ∞ (infinity). But in
practical voltage source Rsh is not infinity but may have a large value. Because of this Rsh current
through the terminals slightly decreases with increase in voltage across its terminals as shown in Fig.
1.10.

Terminal current of practical current source is given by

IL = Is -Ish

Fig. 1.10 Practical Independent Current Source

1.5.1.2 DEPENDENT (CONTROLLED) SOURCES

An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in which the source quantity is
controlled by another voltage or current.
Dependent sources are usually designated by diamond-shaped symbols, as shown in Fig. 1.11. Since
the control of the dependent source is achieved by a voltage or current of some other element in the
circuit, and the source can be voltage or current, it follows that there are four possible types of
dependent sources, namely:

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1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)
2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS)
3. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS)
4. A current-controlled current source (CCCS)

Fig. 1.11 Symbols for Dependent voltage source and Dependent current source

Dependent sources are useful in modeling elements such as transistors, operational amplifiers, and
integrated circuits. An example of a current-controlled voltage source is shown on the right-hand side
of Fig. 1.12, where the voltage 10i of the voltage source depends on the current i through element C.
Students might be surprised that the value of the dependent voltage source is 10i V (and not 10i A)
because it is a voltage source. The key idea to keep in mind is that a voltage source comes with
polarities (+ -) in its symbol, while a current source comes with an arrow, irrespective of what it
depends on.

Fig. 1.12 The source in right hand side is current-controlled voltage source

1.5.2 PASSIVE ELEMENTS (LOADS)

Passive elements are those elements which are capable of receiving the energy. Some passive elements
like inductors and capacitors are capable of storing a finite amount of energy, and return it later to an
external element. More specifically, a passive element is defined as one that cannot supply average
power that is greater than zero over an infinite time interval. Resistors, capacitors, Inductors fall in this
category.

1.5.2.1 RESISTOR

Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the flow of electric charge. This
physical property, or ability to resist the flow of current, is known as resistance and is represented by
the symbol R.The Resistance is measured in ohms (𝛀). The circuit element used to model the current-
resisting behavior of a material is called the resistor.

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 Fig. 1.13 (a) Typical Resistor, (b) Circuit Symbol for Resistor
The resistance of a resistor depends on the material of which the conductor is made and geometrical
shape of the conductor. The resistance of a conductor is proportional to the its length (𝑙) and inversely
proportional to its cross sectional area (A). Therefore the resistance of a conductor can be written as,
𝜌𝑙
𝑅=
𝐴
The proportionality constant 𝜌 is called the specific resistance o resistivity of the conductor and its
value depends on the material of which the conductor is made.
The inverse of the resistance is called the conductance and inverse of resistivity is called specific
conductance or conductivity. The symbol used to represent the conductance is G and conductivity is𝜍.
Thus conductivity 𝜍 = 1/𝜌 and its MODULEs are Siemens per meter
1 𝐴 1 𝐴 𝐴
𝐺 = = = . = 𝜍.
𝑅 𝜌𝑙 𝜌 𝑙 𝑙
By using Ohm‘s Law, The power dissipated in a resistor can be expressed in terms of R as below
𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 =
𝑅
The power dissipated by a resistor may also be expressed in terms of G as
𝐼2
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝑉 2 𝐺 =
𝐺

The energy lost in the resistor from time 0 to t is expressed as

𝑡
𝑊= 𝑃𝑑𝑡
0
𝑡
𝑊= 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑑𝑡 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡
0
Or
𝑡
𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑊= 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡
0 𝑅 𝑅
Where V is in volts, I is in amperes, R is in ohms, and energy W is in joules

Example 1.8
In the circuit shown in Fig. below, calculate the current i, the conductance G, the power p and energy
lost in the resistor W in 2hours.

Solution:
The voltage across the resistor is the same as the source voltage (30 V) because the resistor and the
voltage source are connected to the same pair of terminals. Hence, the current is
𝑣 30
𝑖= = = 6 𝑚𝐴
𝑅 5х103
The conductance is
1 1
𝐺= = = 0.2𝑚𝑆
𝑅 5х103
We can calculate the power in various ways

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 𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 30 6х10−3 = 180𝑚𝑊
or
𝑝 = 𝑖 2 𝑅 = 6х10−3 2
5х103 = 180𝑚𝑊
or
𝑣2 302
𝑝= = = 180𝑚𝑊
𝑅 5х103
Energy lost in the resistor is
𝑊 = 𝑖 2 𝑅𝑡 = 6х10−3 2
5х103 2 = 360 𝑚𝑊ℎ𝑜𝑟 = 360 𝑚𝐽

1.5.2.2 INDUCTOR

Fig. 1.14 (a) Typical Inductor, (b) Circuit symbol of Inductor

A wire of certain length, when twisted into a coil becomes a basic inductor. The symbol for inductor is
shown in Fig.1.14 (b). If current is made to pass through an inductor, an electromagnetic field is
formed. A change in the magnitude of the current changes the electromagnetic field. Increase in
current expands the fields, and decrease in current reduces it. Therefore, a change in current produces
change in the electromagnetic field, which induces a voltage across the coil according to Faraday's law
of electromagnetic induction. i.e., the voltage across the inductor is directly proportional to the time
rate of change of current.
Mathematically,
𝑑𝑖
𝑉∝
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
𝑣=𝐿
𝑑𝑡
Where L is the constant of proportionality called the inductance of an inductor. The MODULE of
inductance is Henry (H).we can rewrite the above equation as

1
𝑑𝑖 = 𝑣𝑑𝑡
𝐿
Integrating both sides from time 0 to t, we get
𝑡
1 𝑡
𝑑𝑖 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
0 𝐿 0
1 𝑡
𝑖 𝑡 −𝑖 0 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝐿 0
1 𝑡
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖 0
𝐿 0
From the above equation we note that the current in an inductor is dependent upon the integral of the
voltage across its terminal and the initial current in the coil𝑖 0 .
The power absorbed by the inductor is

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 𝑑𝑖
𝑃 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝐿𝑖
𝑑𝑡
The energy stored by the inductor is
𝑡
𝑊= 𝑃𝑑𝑡
0
𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝐿𝑖 2
= 𝐿𝑖 𝑑𝑡 =
0 𝑑𝑡 2

From the above discussion, we can conclude the following.

1. The induced voltage across an inductor is zero if the current through it is constant. That
means an inductor acts as short circuit to DC.
2. A small change in current within zero time through an inductor gives an infinite voltage
across the inductor, which is physically impossible. In a fixed inductor the current cannot
change abruptly i.e., the inductor opposes the sudden changes in currents.
3. The inductor can store finite amount of energy. Even if the voltage across the inductor is
zero
4. A pure inductor never dissipates energy, only stores it. That is why it is also called a non-
dissipative passive element. However, physical inductors dissipate power due to internal
resistance.

Example 1.9
Find the current through a 5-H inductor if the voltage across it is
30𝑡 2 , 𝑡>0
𝑣 𝑡 =
0, 𝑡<0
Also, find the energy stored at t = 5 s. assume initial conditions to be zero.

Solution:
𝑡 𝑡
1 1 𝑡3
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖 0 = 𝑖 𝑡 = 30𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 + 0 = 6х = 2𝑡 3
𝐿 0 5 0 3
The power 𝑃 = 𝑣𝑖 = 60𝑡 5

Then the energy stored is

𝑡 5 5
5
𝑡6
𝑊= 𝑃𝑑𝑡 = 60𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 60х = 156.25 𝑘𝐽
0 0 6 0

1.5.2.2 CAPACITOR

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 Fig. 1.15 (a) Typical Capacitor, (b) Capacitor connected to a voltage source, (c) Circuit Symbol of
capacitor
Any two conducting surfaces separated by an insulating medium exhibit the property of a capacitor.
The conducting surfaces are called electrodes, and the insulating medium is called dielectric. A
capacitor stores energy in the form of an electric field that is established by the opposite charges on
the two electrodes. The electric field is represented by lines of force between the positive and negative
charges, and is concentrated within the dielectric.

When a voltage source v is connected to the capacitor, as in Fig 1.15 (c), the source deposits a positive
charge q on one plate and a negative charge — q on the other. The capacitor is said to store the electric
charge. The amount of charge stored, represented by q, is directly pro-proportional to the applied
voltage v so that
𝑞 = 𝐶𝑣
Where C, the constant of proportionality, is known as the capacitance of the capacitor. The MODULE
of capacitance is the farad (F).
Although the capacitance C of a capacitor is the ratio of the charge q per plate to the applied voltage v,
it does not depend on q or v. It depends on the physical dimensions of the capacitor. For example, for
the parallel-plate capacitor shown in Fig.1.15 (a), the capacitance is given by
𝜖𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑
Where A is the surface area of each plate, d is the distance between the plates, and 𝜖 is the permittivity
of the dielectric material between the plates.
The current flowing through the capacitor is given by
𝑑𝑞
𝑖=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
𝑖=𝐶
𝑑𝑡
We can rewrite the above equation as

1
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶
Integrating both sides from time 0 to t, we get
𝑡
1 𝑡
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
0 𝐶 0
1 𝑡
𝑣 𝑡 −𝑣 0 = 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝐶 0
1 𝑡
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑣 0
𝐶 0
From the above equation we note that the voltage across the terminals of a capacitor is dependent upon
the integral of the current through it and the initial voltage𝑣 0 .
The power absorbed by the capacitor is
𝑑𝑣
𝑃 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣𝐶
𝑑𝑡

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The energy stored by the capacitor is
𝑡
𝑊= 𝑃𝑑𝑡
0
𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝐶𝑣 2
= 𝑣𝐶 𝑑𝑡 =
0 𝑑𝑡 2
From the above discussion we can conclude the following,
1. The current in a capacitor is zero if the voltage across it is constant; that means, the capacitor acts
as an open circuit to DC.
2. A small change in voltage across a capacitance within zero time gives an infinite current through
the capacitor, which is physically impossible. In a fixed capacitance the voltage cannot change
abruptly. i.e., A capacitor will oppose the sudden changes in voltages.
3. The capacitor can store a finite amount of energy, even if the current through it is zero.
4. A pure capacitor never dissipates energy, but only stores it; that is why it is called non-dissipative
passive element. However, physical capacitors dissipate power due to internal resistance.

Example 1.10
Determine the current through a 200𝜇𝐹 capacitor whose voltage is shown in Fig. below

Solution:
The voltage waveform can be described mathematically as
50𝑡𝑉 0<𝑡<1
100 − 50𝑡𝑉 1<𝑡<3
𝑣 𝑡 =
−200 + 50𝑡𝑉 3<𝑡<4
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝑑𝑣
Since 𝑖 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐶 = 200𝜇𝐹, we take the derivative of 𝑣 𝑡 to obtain the i 𝑡
50 0<𝑡<1
−50 1<𝑡<3
𝑖 𝑡 = 200х10−6 х
50 3<𝑡<4
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
10 𝑚𝐴 0<𝑡<1
−10 𝑚𝐴 1<𝑡<3
=
10 𝑚𝐴 3<𝑡<4
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
Hence, the current wave form is as shown in the fig. below

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1.6 NETWORK/CIRCUIT TERMINOLOGY

In the following section various definitions and terminologies frequently used in electrical circuit
analysis are outlined.
 Network Elements: The individual components such as a resistor, inductor, capacitor, diode,
voltage source, current source etc. that are used in circuit are known as network elements.
 Network: The interconnection of network elements is called a network.
 Circuit: A network with at least one closed path is called a circuit. So, all the circuits are
networks but all networks are not circuits.
 Branch: A branch is an element of a network having only two terminals.
 Node: A node is the point of connection between two or more branches. It is usually indicated
by a dot in a circuit.
 Loop: A loop is any closed path in a circuit. A loop is a closed path formed by starting at a
node, passing through a set of nodes, and returning to the starting node without passing
through any node more than once.
 Mesh or Independent Loop: Mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops in it.

1.7 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS

The most common and useful set of laws for solving electric circuits are the Kirchhoff‘s voltage and
current laws. Several other useful relationships can be derived based on these laws. These laws are
formally known as Kirchhoff‘s current law (KCL) and Kirchhoff‘s voltage law (KVL).
1.7.1 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW (KCL)

This is also called as Kirchhoff's first law or Kirchhoff‘s nodal law. Kirchhoff‘s first law is based on
the law of conservation of charge, which requires that the algebraic sum of charges within a system
cannot change.
Statement: Algebraic sum of the currents meeting at any junction or node is zero. The term 'algebraic'
means the value of the quantity along with its sign, positive or negative.
Mathematically, KCL implies that
𝑁

𝑖𝑛 = 0
𝑛=1
Where N is the number of branches connected to the node and 𝑖𝑛 is the nth current entering (or
leaving) the node. By this law, currents entering a node may be regarded as positive, while currents
leaving the node may be taken as negative or vice versa.
Alternate Statement: Sum of the currents flowing towards a junction is equal to the sum of the
currents flowing away from the junction.

Fig 1.16 Currents meeting in a junction

Consider Fig. 1.16 where five branches of a circuit are connected together at the junction or node A.
Currents I1, I2 and I4 are flowing towards the junction whereas currents I3 and I5 are flowing away
from junction A. If a positive sign is assigned to the currents I2 and I4 that are flowing into the junction
then the currents I3 and I4 flowing away from the junction should be assigned with the opposite sign
i.e. the negative sign.

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 Applying Kirchhoff‘s current law to the junction A
I1 + I2 - I3 + I4 - I5= 0 (algebraic sum is zero)
The above equation can be modified as I1 + I2 + I4 = I3 + I5 (sum of currents towards the junction = sum
of currents flowing away from the junction).

1.7.2 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW (KVL)

This is also called as Kirchhoff's second law or Kirchhoff's loop or mesh law. Kirchhoff‘s second law
is based on the principle of conservation of energy.

Statement: Algebraic sum of all the voltages around a closed path or closed loop at any instant is
zero. Algebraic sum of the voltages means the magnitude and direction of the voltages; care should be
taken in assigning proper signs or polarities for voltages in different sections of the circuit.

Mathematically, KVL implies that

𝑁

𝑉𝑛 = 0
𝑛=1
Where N is the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of branches in the loop) and 𝑉𝑛 is the nth
voltage in a loop.

The polarity of the voltages across active elements is fixed on its terminals. The polarity of the voltage
drop across the passive elements (Resistance in DC circuits) should be assigned with reference to the
direction of the current through the elements with the concept that the current flows from a higher
potential to lower potential. Hence, the entry point of the current through the passive elements should
be marked as the positive polarity of voltage drop across the element and the exit point of the current
as the negative polarity. The direction of currents in different branches of the circuits is initially
marked either with the known direction or assumed direction.

After assigning the polarities for the voltage drops across the different passive elements, algebraic
sum is accounted around a closed loop, either clockwise or anticlockwise, by assigning a particular
sign, say the positive sign for all rising potentials along the path of tracing and the negative sign for all
decreasing potentials. For example consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1.17

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 Fig. 1.17 Circuit for KVL

The circuit has three active elements with voltages E1, E2 and E3. The polarity of each of them is fixed.
R1, R2, R3 are three passive elements present in the circuit. Currents I1 and I3 are marked flowing into
the junction A and current I2 marked away from the junction A with known information or assumed
directions. With reference to the direction of these currents, the polarity of voltage drops V 1, V2 and
V3 are marked.
For loop1 it is considered around clockwise
+ E1 - V1 + V3 - E3 = 0
+ E1 - I1 R1 + I3 R3 - E3 = 0
E1 - E3 = I1 R1 - I3 R3
For loop2 it is considered anticlockwise
+ E2+ V2+ V3 – E3 = 0
+ E2 + I2 R2 + I3 R3 – E3 = 0
E2 – E3 = - I2 R2 - I3 R3
Two equations are obtained following Kirchhoff‘s voltage law. The third equation can be written
based on Kirchhoff‘s current law as
I1 – I2 + I3 = 0
With the three equations, one can solve for the three currents I1, I2, and I3.
If the results obtained for I1, I2, and I3 are all positive, then the assumed direction of the currents are
said to be along the actual directions. A negative result for one or more currents will indicate that the
assumed direction of the respective current is opposite to the actual direction.

Example 1.11
Calculate the current supplied by two batteries in the circuit given below

Solution:
The four junctions are marked as A, B, C and D. The current through R1 is assumed to flow from A to
B and through R2, from C to B and finally through R3 from B to D. With reference to current
directions, polarities of the voltage drop in R1, R2 and R3 are then marked as shown in the figure.
Applying KCL to junction B
I3 =I1 + I2 …..(1)
Applying KVL to loop 1
E1 – I1R1 – I3R3 = 0
I1R1 + I3R3 = E1
10I1 + 25I3 = 90 …… (2)
Substituting Eq. (1) in Eq. (2)
10I1 + 25(I1 + I2) = 90
35I1 + 25I2 = 90 ……. (3)
Applying KVL to loop 2
E2 – I2R2 – I3R3 = 0

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 I2R2 + I3R3 = E2
5I2 + 25I3 = 125 …… (4)

Substituting Eq. (1) in Eq. (4)

5I2 + 25(I1 + I2) = 125
25I1 + 30I2 = 125 ……. (5)
Multiplying Eq. (3) by 6/5 we get
42I1 + 30I2 = 108 …… (6)

Subtracting Eq. (6) from Eq. (5)

– 17I1 = 17
I1 = – 1 A
Substituting the value of I1 in Eq. (5) we get
I2 = 5 A
As the sign of the current I1 is found to be negative from the solution, the actual direction of I1 is from
B to A to D i.e. 90 V battery gets a charging current of 1 A.

1.8 RESISTIVE NETWORKS

1.8.1 SERIES RESISTORS AND VOLTAGE DIVISION
Two or more resistors are said to be in series if the same current flows through all of them. The
process of combining the resistors is facilitated by combining two of them at a time. With this in mind,
consider the single-loop circuit of Fig. 1.18.

Fig.1.18 A single loop circuit with two resistors in series

Fig. 1.19 Equivalent Circuit of series resistors

The two resistors are in series, since the same current i flow in both of them. Applying Ohm‘s law to
each of the resistors, we obtain
𝑣1 = 𝑖𝑅1 , 𝑣2 = 𝑖𝑅2
………. (1)
If we apply KVL to the loop (moving in the clockwise direction), we have

𝑣 − 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 = 0
……….. (2)
Combining equations (1) and (2), we get

20 | P a g e
 𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 = 𝑖(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )
……….. (3)
Or
𝑣
𝑖=
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
……….. (4)
Equation (3) can be written as
𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅𝑒𝑞
………. (5)
implying that the two resistors can be replaced by an equivalent resistor 𝑅𝑒𝑞 ;that is
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
…………… (6)

Thus, Fig. 1.18 can be replaced by the equivalent circuit in Fig. 1.19. The two circuits in Fig 1.18 and
1.19 are the equivalent because they because they exhibit the same voltage-current relationships at the
terminals a-b. An equivalent circuit such as the one in Fig. 1.19 is useful in simplifying the analysis of
a circuit.

In general, the equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series is the sum of the
individual resistances.
For N resistors in series then,
𝑁

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑁 = 𝑅𝑛
𝑛=1
……… (7)
VOLTAGE DIVISION:
To determine the voltage across each resistor in Fig. 1.18, we substitute Eq. (4) into Eq. (1) and obtain
𝑣 𝑣
𝑣1 = 𝑅1 , 𝑣2 = 𝑅
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 2
……… (8)

Notice that the source voltage 𝑣 is divided among the resistors in direct proportion to their resistances;
the larger the resistance, the larger the voltage drop. This is called the principle of voltage division,
and the circuit in Fig. 1.18 is called a voltage divider. In general, if a voltage divider has N resistors (
𝑅1, 𝑅2, … 𝑅𝑁 ) in series with the source voltage𝑣, the nth resistor (𝑅𝑁 ) will have a voltage drop of
𝑅𝑁
𝑣𝑁 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑁
.…….. (9)
1.8.2 PARALLEL RESISTORS AND CURRENT DIVISION

Two or more resistors are said to be in parallel if the same voltage appears across each
element.Consider the circuit in Fig. 1.20, where two resistors are connected in parallel and therefore
have the same voltage across them.

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 Fig. 1.20 Two resistors in parallel

Fig. 1.21Equivalent circuit of Fig. 1.

𝑣 = 𝑖1 𝑅1 = 𝑖2 𝑅2
……… (1)
𝑣 𝑣
𝑖1 = , 𝑖2 =
𝑅1 𝑅2
………. (2)

Applying KCL at node 𝑎 gives the total current 𝑖 as

𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2
…….. (3)
Substituting Eq. (2) into Eq. (3), we get
𝑣 𝑣 1 1 𝑣
𝑖= + =𝑣 + =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑒𝑞
……… (4)
where𝑅𝑒𝑞 is the equivalent resistance of the resistors in parallel.
1 1 1
= +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2
………. (5)
Or
𝑅 𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅 1+𝑅2 ……….. (6)
1 2

Thus,
The equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to the product of their resistances divided
by their sum.
It must be emphasized that this applies only to two resistors in parallel. From Eq. (6), if 𝑅1 =
𝑅2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 /2.
We can extend the result in Eq. (5) to the general case of a circuit with N resistors in parallel. The
equivalent resistance is

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 𝑁
1 1 1 1 1
= + + ⋯+ =
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑁 𝑅𝑛
𝑛=1
……… (7)
1
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 1 1 1
𝑅1
+ 𝑅 + ⋯+ 𝑅
2 𝑁
Thus,
The equivalent Resistance of parallel-connected resistors is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals
of the individual resistances.
Note that 𝑅𝑒𝑞 is always smaller than the resistance of the smallest resistor in the parallel combination.

Current Division:

Given the total current i entering node 𝑎 in Fig. 1.20, then how do we obtain currents 𝑖1 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖2 ? We
know that the equivalent resistor has the same voltage, or
𝑖𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
……. (8)
Substitute (8) in (2), we get
𝑖𝑅2
𝑖1 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑖𝑅1
𝑖2 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
……….. (9)
This shows that the total current 𝑖 is shared by the resistors in inverse proportion to their resistances.
This is known as the principle of current division, and the circuit in Fig.1.20 is known as a current
divider. Notice that the larger current flows through the smaller resistance.

1.9 INDUCTIVE NETWORKS

Now that the inductor has been added to our list of passive elements, it is Necessary to extend the
powerful tool of series-parallel combination. We need to know how to find the equivalent inductance
of a series-connected or parallel-connected set of inductors found in practical circuits.
1.9.1 SERIES INDUCTORS

Two or more inductors are said to be in series, if the same current flows through all of them. Consider
a series connection of N inductors, as shown in Fig. 1.22(a), with the equivalent circuit shown in Fig.
1.22(b). The inductors have the same current through them.

Fig. 1.22 (a) series connection of N inductors (b) Equivalent circuit for the series inductors
Applying KVL to the loop,
𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑁 … . . . (1)
𝑑𝑖
We know that the voltage across an inductor is 𝑣 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡

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Therefore, Eq. (1) becomes
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑣 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝑁
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
= (𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝑁 ) … … … (2)
𝑑𝑡
𝑁
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
= 𝐿𝑛 = 𝐿𝑒𝑞
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑛=1
Where,
𝐿𝑒𝑞 = (𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝑁 … … … (3)
Thus
The equivalent inductance of series-connected inductors is the sum of the individual inductances.
* Inductors in series are combined in exactly the same way as resistors in series.

1.9.2 INDUCTORS IN PARALLEL

Two or more inductors are said to be in parallel, if the same voltage appears across each element. We
now consider a parallel connection of N inductors, as shown in Fig. 1.23(a), with the equivalent circuit
in Fig. 1.23(b). The inductors have the same voltage across them.

Fig. 1.23 (a) Parallel connection of N inductors (b) Equivalent circuit for parallel inductors
Using KCL,
𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + ⋯ + 𝑖𝑁 … … … (1)
But the current through the inductor is
1 𝑡
𝑖= 𝑣𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖(0)
𝐿 0
If we neglect the initial value of current i.e, 𝑖 0 = 0 then current through inductor becomes
1 𝑡
𝑖= 𝑣𝑑𝑡
𝐿 0

Hence,
𝑡
1 1 𝑡 1 𝑡 1 𝑡
𝑖= 𝑣𝑑𝑡 + 𝑣𝑑𝑡 + 𝑣𝑑𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑑𝑡
𝐿1 0 𝐿2 0 𝐿3 0 𝐿𝑁 0
𝑡
1 1 1 1
𝑖= + + + ⋯+ 𝑣𝑑𝑡
𝐿1 𝐿3 𝐿3 𝐿𝑁 0
𝑁 𝑡 𝑡
1 1
∴𝑖= 𝑣𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣𝑑𝑡 … … … (2)
𝐿𝑛 0 𝐿𝑒𝑞 0
𝑛=1
Where,
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯+
𝐿𝑒𝑞 𝐿1 𝐿3 𝐿3 𝐿𝑁
1
𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 1 1 1 1
+ + + ⋯+
𝐿1 𝐿3 𝐿3 𝐿𝑁
Thus,

24 | P a g e
The equivalent inductance of parallel inductors is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the
individual inductances.
* Note that the inductors in parallel are combined in the same way as resistors in parallel.

1.10 CAPACITIVE NETWORK

We know from resistive circuits and inductive circuits that the series-parallel combination is a
powerful tool for reducing circuits. This technique can be extended to series-parallel connections of
capacitors, which are sometimes encountered. We desire to replace these capacitors by a single
equivalent capacitor Ceq.

1.10.1 SERIES CAPACITORS

Two or more capacitors are said to be in series, if the same current flows through all of them. Consider
a series connection of N capacitors, as shown in Fig. 1.24(a), with the equivalent circuit shown in Fig.
1.24(b). The capacitors have the same current through them.

Fig. 1.24 (a) series connection of N capacitors (b) Equivalent circuit for the series capacitors
Applying KVL to the loop,
𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑁 … . . . (1)
We know that the voltage across a capacitor is
1 𝑡
𝑣= 𝑖𝑑𝑡 + 𝑣 0
𝐶 0
If we neglect the initial value of voltage i.e, 𝑣 0 = 0 then voltage across the capacitor becomes
1 𝑡
𝑣= 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶 0

Hence, Eq. (1) becomes

𝑡
1 1 𝑡 1 𝑡 1 𝑡
𝑣= 𝑖𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖𝑑𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶1 0 𝐶2 0 𝐶3 0 𝐶𝑁 0
𝑡
1 1 1 1
𝑣= + + + ⋯+ 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶𝑁 0
𝑁 𝑡 𝑡
1 1
∴𝑣= 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 𝑖𝑑𝑡 … … … (2)
𝐶𝑛 0 𝐶𝑒𝑞 0
𝑛=1
Where,
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯+
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶𝑁
1
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 1 1 1 1
𝐶
+𝐶 + 𝐶 +⋯+ 𝐶
1 2 3 𝑁
Thus,
The equivalent capacitance of series-connected capacitors is the reciprocal of the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual capacitances.
* Note that the capacitors in series are combined in the same way as resistors in parallel.

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For N=2,
1 1 1
= +
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2
𝐶1 𝐶2
𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
𝐶1 + 𝐶2

1.10.2 PARALLEL CAPACITORS

Two or more capacitors are said to be in parallel, if the same voltage appears across each element.
Consider a parallel connection of N capacitors, as shown in Fig. 1.25(a), with the equivalent circuit in
Fig. 1.25(b). The capacitors have the same voltage across them.

Fig. 1.25 (a) Parallel connection of N capacitors (b) Equivalent circuit for parallel capacitors
Applying KCL to Fig. 1.25(a)
𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + ⋯ + 𝑖𝑁 … … … (1)
We know that the current through capacitor is
dv
i=C
dt
Therefore, Eq. (1) becomes
dv dv dv dv
i = C1 + C2 + C3 + ⋯ + CN
dt dt dt dt
dv
= (C1 + C2 + C3 + ⋯ + CN ) … … … (2)
dt
N
dv dv
= Cn = Ceq
dt dt
n=1
Where,
Ceq = (C1 + C2 + C3 + ⋯ + CN ) … … … (3)
Thus
The equivalent capacitance of parallel-connected capacitors is the sum of the individual capacitances.
* Capacitors in parallel are combined in exactly the same way as resistors in series.

Single phase AC circuits

The alternating quantity is one whose value varies with time. This alternating quantity may be periodic
and non-periodic. Periodic quantity is one whose value will be repeated for every specified interval.
Generally to represent alternating voltage or current we prefer sinusoidal wave form, because below
listed properties
1. Derivative of sine is an sine function only.
2. Integral of sine is an sine function only.
1. It is easy to generate sine function using generators.
2. Most of the 2nd order system response is always sinusoidal.

1.2 Alternating quantity:

As said above an alternating voltage or current can be represented with sine wave. Sine wave can be

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defined with degree or radians as reference.
At, 0 degrees --- 0
90 degrees --- maximum
180 degrees --- 0
270 degrees --- maximum
360 degrees --- 0
i.e value of sine function varies with time, firstly increases from zero and reaches maximum and again
falls to zero, there after tends to increase in opposite direction and reaches maximum value and falls to
zero. This the variation of sine in 1st cycle is called as positive half cycle and other negative half
cycle.(i.e during +ve half cycle direction is required one and during 2nd half cycle direction actual
required direction.). Therefore one positive and negative cycle combinely forms one complete cycle
.

Sine equation , voltage , V(t) = Vm sin wt.

Where, Vm = peak value or maximum value
W = angular frequency.
1.3 Definitions:

Peak to peak value: It is total value from positive peak to the negative peak.(2Vm)

Instantaneous value: It is the magnitude of wave form at any specified time. V(t)

Average value :It is ratio of area covered by wave form to its length.(Vd)

Vd = (1/T) ʃ V (t) dwt.

Vd = (1 / 2Π) ʃ Vm sin wt.dwt
= - Vm / 2Π. coswt---with limits of 2Π and 0
= 0. (i.e. average value of sine wave over a full cycle is zero)

Hence it is defined for half cycle.

Vd = (1 / Π) ʃ Vm sin wt.dwt
= -Vm / Π . coswt with limits of Π and 0
= 2Vm / Π
RMS value:
It is the root mean square value of the function, which given as
Vrms = √[(1/T) ʃ V(t)]2 dwt.
= √[(1/2Π) ʃ Vm2[ (1- cos2wt)/2]dwt.
= √[(1/2Π) .Vm2[ (wt- sin2wt / 2wt)/2]
= Vm / √2 = effective value.

Peak factor:
It is the ratio of peak value to the rms value.
Pp = Vp / Vrms = √2

Form factor:
It is the ratio of average value to the rms value.

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Fp = Vd / Vrms = 2√2/ Π = 1.11
Eg: Find the peak, peak to peak, average, rms, peak factor and form factor of given current function ,
i(t) = 5 sin wt.

1.4 Phase and phase difference:

Phase of the sine indicates staring phase of the sine wave. i.e
Let , V(t) = Vm sin wt, here we can say that phase is zero as function starts from origin.
V(t)= Vm sin(wt-θ), here we can say that phase of function is θ degrees to right shift.
V(t)= Vm sin(wt+θ), here we can say that phase of function is θ degrees to left shift.

Phase difference is the difference of phase between two wave forms taking one as reference.
Eg: If wave form A is Vm sin (wt+15), B is Vm sin (wt – 30) and C is Vm sin (wt + 45).
Determine the phase difference between every pair if wave forms.
When A and B are compared , phase difference is 45 degrees.
When C and B are compared , phase difference is 75 degrees.
When A and C are compared , phase difference is 30 degrees.

1.5 Phasor diagram:

Phasor diagram is the pictorial representation of sine wave. Here magnitude and phase of the wave
function are represented in four quadrant axis. We assume positive phases in anti-clock wise direction
and negative phases in clock wise direction. From the phasor diagram we can esily identify the phase
difference between different wave forms. We can also identify whether function is right shift or left
shift.

1.6 Phase relations of network parameters:

Resistor:
Let us consider resistor allowing alternating current i(t). Then the voltage drop across resistor is given
as,
If, V(t) = Vm sin wt
V(t) = i(t).R
i(t) = V(t) / R
= Vm sin wt / R
i(t) = Im sin wt.
The ratio of V(t) / i(t) = Z = impedance offered by resistor.(ohms).
Z = Vm sin wt / Im sin wt.
= Vm / Im
Hence we can say that V(t) and i(t) in resistor element are in phase

Inductor:

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Let us consider an coil of N turns allowing current i(t).( Im sin wt)
Hence emf induced in the coil is ,
V(t) = L di(t) / dt
= L d(Im sin wt) / dt
= L w Imcoswt
= Vmcoswt = Vmsin(wt + 90).
Where, Vm = L w Im = Im .XL
XL = reactance offered by coil.
Impedance offered by coil is , Z = V(t) / i(t)
= Vmsin(wt + 90) / Im sin wt
The function Vmsinwt = Vm ˪0.
Z = Vm˪90 / Im ˪0
Z = Vm˪90 / Im
= j wL = j XL ( j = 1˪90)
As there is left shift in V (t), we can say that i(t) lags V(t) by 90 degrees.

Capacitor:

Let us consider an capacitor allowing current i(t).( Im sin wt)

Hence voltage across it is ,
V(t) = 1 / C ∫ i(t) dt
= 1 / C ∫ Im sin wtdt
= - coswt .Im / wC
= Vmsin(wt - 90).
Where, Vm= Im/ wC = Im .XC
XC = reactance offered by capacitor
Impedance offered by capacitor is , Z = V(t) / i(t)
= Vmsin(wt -90) / Im sin wt
The function Vmsinwt = Vm ˪0.
Z = Vm˪ − 90 / Im ˪0
Z = Vm˪ − 90 / Im
= -j wL =- j XL ( j = 1˪90)
As there is right shift in V(t), we can say that i(t) leads V(t) by 90 degrees.
1.7 Power in Ac circuits

In the case of DC circuits power is given as product of voltage and current in that element.
P = V.I (W)
Let V(t) = Vm sin wt
i(t) = Im sin(wt +90)
Instantaneous power, P (t) = V (t).i (t)
= Vm sin wt. Imsin(wt + Ф)
= Vm.Im sin wt sin (wt + Ф).
Vm Im
2 sin( w t + Ф)
√2 √2
Vm Im
[cos φ −cos ( 2w t + Ф)
√2 √2

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 Average power, Pav = 1/ 2π ∫ p(t) dwt.

= 1/ 2π ∫ Vm.Im[ cos Ф – cos( 2wt + Ф)] dwt

--------------------------------
√2 . √2
As average value over full cycle is equal to zero, hence second term can be neglected.
Pav = 1/ 2π ∫ Vm.Im[ cos Ф ] dwt
--------------------------------
√2 . √2
= VrmsIrmscosФ[wt] ----------- with limits 2π and 2π
Pav = Vrms. Irmscos Ф.(W) = true power= active power.
Cos Ф = Pav / Vrms. Irms.= defined as power factor of the circuit.
Cos Ф = Pav / Pa
= true power / apparent power
= actual power utilized by load / total generated power.
Pa = apparent power =Vrms. Irms = V-A
Let us consider commercial inductor
Z = R + jXL
Where, Z = impedance of the coil Pav Pa
R = internal resistance of the coil Pr
XL = reactance offered by the coil.
I(t) Z = I(t) R + I(t) jXL
I2 Z = I2R + j I2XL
Pa = Pav + j Pr power triangle with phase Ф
Pav = Pa cos Ф = Vrms.Irmscos Ф = active power= W
Pr = Pa sin Ф = Vrms.Irms sin Ф= reactive power = VAR
Let us consider commercial capacitor,
Z = R - jXC
Where, Z = impedance of the capacitor
R = internal resistance of the capacitor Pav Pa
Pr
XC = reactance offered by the capacitor.
I(t) Z = I(t) R - I(t) jXC
I2 Z = I2R - j I2XC
Pa = Pav - j Pr power triangle with phase Ф
Pav = Pa cos Ф = Vrms.Irmscos Ф = active power= W
Pr = Pa sin Ф = Vrms.Irms sin Ф= reactive power = VAR

1.8 Complex power:

Complex power is represented with S.

S = V(t).i(t)*
= P+jQ or P-jQ
Where, P = active power
Q = reactive power
Here only useful power is true power where as net reactive power over an cycle
will be zero.

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 1.9 Complex numbers:

Complex numbers can be represented in two ways, either rectangle form or polar form
Rectangular form = a + j b
Polar form =√a2 + b2∁tan-1 (b/a)
Here j operator plays major role in complex number, which is define MODULE vector rotating in anti-
clock wise direction with phase 90.
j = 1˪90 = √−1
j2 = -1
j3 = -√−1

1.10 RLC series A.C. circuits

The e.m.f. that is supplied to the circuit is distributed between the resistor, the inductor, and the
capacitor. Since the elements are in series the common current is taken to have the reference phase.

Adding the potentials around the circuit:

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 The physical current and potentials are:

Example
A 240V, 250/π Hz supply is connected in series with 60R, 180mH and 50μF. Take the emf as the
reference phase and find:
(a) the complex impedance of the circuit
(b) the complex, real (i.e. physical) and rms currents, and
(c) the complex, real (i.e. physical) and rms potential differences across each element.

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The complex impedance for the circuit is 78.1 Ω, and the phase angle between current and applied emf
is 0.69 radians (or 39.80).

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Complex potentials and currents hold both magnitude and phase information.Resistor/Capacitor and
Resistor/Inductor circuits can form filters to block high or low frequency signals.Average Power is
calculated with rmsquanties.ApparentPower is the product of appliedemf and current.Real Power is
the product of applied emf, current and cos(the phase angle between emf and current) (in Watt).
cos(phase angle between emf and current) is called the power factor.Apparent and Complex power are
given the MODULE VA (Volt Amp).Reactive Power is given the MODULE VAR (Volt Amp
Reactive).However, the analysis of a parallel RLC circuits can be a little more mathematically
difficult than for series RLC circuits so in this tutorial about parallel RLC circuits only pure
components are assumed in this tutorial to keep things simple.This time instead of the current being
common to the circuit components, the applied voltage is now common to all so we need to find the
individual branch currents through each element. The total impedance, Z of a parallel RLC circuit is
calculated using the current of the circuit similar to that for a DC parallel circuit, the difference this
time is that admittance is used instead of impedance. Consider the parallel RLC circuit below.

3.11 Parallel RLC Circuit

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In the above parallel RLC circuit, we can see that the supply voltage, V S is common to all three
components whilst the supply current IS consists of three parts. The current flowing through the
resistor, IR, the current flowing through the inductor, IL and the current through the capacitor, IC.
But the current flowing through each branch and therefore each component will be different to each
other and to the supply current, IS. The total current drawn from the supply will not be the
mathematical sum of the three individual branch currents but their vector sum.
Like the series RLC circuit, we can solve this circuit using the phasor or vector method but this time
the vector diagram will have the voltage as its reference with the three current vectors plotted with
respect to the voltage. The phasor diagram for a parallel RLC circuit is produced by combining
together the three individual phasors for each component and adding the currents vectorially.
Since the voltage across the circuit is common to all three circuit elements we can use this as the
reference vector with the three current vectors drawn relative to this at their corresponding angles. The
resulting vector IS is obtained by adding together two of the vectors, IL and IC and then adding this sum
to the remaining vector IR. The resulting angle obtained between V and IS will be the circuits phase
angle as shown below.
Phasor Diagram for a Parallel RLC Circuit

We can see from the phasor diagram on the right hand side above that the current vectors produce a
rectangular triangle, comprising of hypotenuse IS, horizontal axis IRand vertical axis IL – IC Hopefully
you will notice then, that this forms a Current Triangle and we can therefore use Pythagoras‘s
theorem on this current triangle to mathematically obtain the magnitude of the branch currents along
the x-axis and y-axis and then determine the total current IS of these components as shown.
Current Triangle for a Parallel RLC Circuit

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 Since the voltage across the circuit is common to all three circuit elements, the current through each
branch can be found using Kirchoff‘s Current Law, (KCL). Kirchoff‘s current law or junction law
states that ―the total current entering a junction or node is exactly equal to the current leaving that
node‖, so the currents entering and leaving node ―A‖ above are given as:

Taking the derivative, dividing through the above equation by C and rearranging gives us the
following Second-order equation for the circuit current. It becomes a second-order equation because
there are two reactive elements in the circuit, the inductor and the capacitor.

The opposition to current flow in this type of AC circuit is made up of three

components: XL XC and R and the combination of these three gives the circuit impedance, Z. We
know from above that the voltage has the same amplitude and phase in all the components of a parallel
RLC circuit. Then the impedance across each component can also be described mathematically
according to the current flowing through and the voltage across each element as.

Impedance of a Parallel RLC Circuit

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You will notice that the final equation for a parallel RLC circuit produces complex impedance‘s for
each parallel branch as each element becomes the reciprocal of impedance, ( 1/Z ) with the reciprocal
of impedance being called Admittance.
In parallel AC circuits it is more convenient to use admittance, symbol ( Y ) to solve complex branch
impedance‘s especially when two or more parallel branch impedance‘s are involved (helps with the
math‘s). The total admittance of the circuit can simply be found by the addition of the parallel
admittances. Then the total impedance, ZT of the circuit will therefore be 1/YT Siemens as shown.

3.11.1 Admittance of a Parallel RLC Circuit

The new MODULE for admittance is the Siemens, abbreviated as S, ( old MODULE mho‘s , ohm‘s in
reverse ). Admittances are added together in parallel branches, whereas impedance‘s are added
together in series branches. But if we can have a reciprocal of impedance, we can also have a
reciprocal of resistance and reactance as impedance consists of two components, R and X. Then the
reciprocal of resistance is called Conductance and the reciprocal of reactance is called Susceptance.

Course Outcomes Mapped To Module II:

Students will be able to:

CO Course outcomes Blooms
taxonomy
CO 3 Make use of Superposition, Reciprocity, Thevenin‘s, Norton‘s and Apply
Maximum power theorem for simplifying complex electrical networks.
CO 4 Explain formation of incident, cut-set and tie set matrices using which Understand
characteristics of electrical circuits can be studied.

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Program Outcomes Mapped To Module II:

Program Outcomes
PO 1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.

Mapping Of CO(s) With PO(s) For Module II:

Course outcomes(COS) Program Outcomes
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
CO 3 √
CO 4 √

MODULE –II

NETWORK THEOREMS AND NETWORK TOPOLOGY

2.1 INTRODUCTION:
Network theorems are also can be termed as network reductiontechniques.Each and every
theorem got its importance of solving network. Let us see some important theorems with DC
and AC excitation with detailed procedures.

2.2 SUPER-POSITION THEOREM:

DC: “ In an any linear , bi-lateral network consisting number of sources , response in any
element(resistor) is given as sum of the individual reponses due to individual sources, while
other sources are non-operative”

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Eg:

Let V = 6v, I = 3A, R1 = 8 ohms and R2 = 4 ohms

Let us find current through 4 ohms using V source , while I is zero.then equivalent circuit is

Let i1 is the current through 4 ohms, i1 = V / (R1+R2)

Let us find current through 4 ohms using I source , while V is zero.then equivalent circuit is

Let i2 is the current through 4 ohms, i2 = I. R1 / (R1+R2)

Hence total current through 4 ohms is = I1+I1( as both currents are in same direction or
otherwise I1-I2)

Eg:

Let V = 6v, I = 3A, Z1 = 8 ohms and Z2 = 4 ohms

Let us find current through 4 ohms using V source , while I is zero.then equivalent circuit is

Let i1 is the current through 4 ohms, i1 = V / (Z1+Z2)

Let us find current through 4 ohms using I source , while V is zero.then equivalent circuit is

39 | P a g e
 Let i2 is the current through 4 ohms, i2 = I. Z1 / (Z1+Z2)

Hence total current through 4 ohms is = I1+I1( as both currents are in same direction or
otherwise I1-I2).

2.3 RECIPROCITY THEOREM:

DC & AC: ― In any linear bi-lateral network ratio of voltage in one mesh to current in other
mesh is same even if their positions are inter-changed‖.

Eg:
Find the total resistance of the circuit, Rt = R1+ [R2(R3+Rl)] / R2+R3+RL.

Hence source current, I = V1 / Rt.

Current through RL is I1 = I. R2 / (R2+R3+RL)

Take the ratio of , V1 / I1 ---1

Draw the circuit by inter changing position of V1 and I1

Find the total resistance of the circuit, Rt = (R3+RL) + [R2(Rl)] / R2+R1.

Hence source current, I = V1 / Rt.

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Current through RL is I1 = I. R2 / (R2+R1)

Take the ratio of , V1 / I1 ---2

If ratio 1 = ratio 2, then circuit is said to be satisfy reciprocity.

Eg: With AC source

:
Find the total impedance of the circuit, Zt = Z1+ [Z2(Z3+ZL)] / Z2+Z 3+Z L.

Hence source current, I = V1 / Z t.

Current through ZL is I1 = I. Z 2 / (Z2+Z3+ZL)

Take the ratio of , V1 / I1 ---1

Draw the circuit by inter changing position of V1 and I1

Find the total impedanceof the circuit, Zt = (Z3+ZL) + [Z2(ZL)] / Z2+Z1.

Hence source current, I = V1 / Z t.

Current through ZL is I1 = I. Z2 / (Z2+Z1)

Take the ratio of , V1 / I1 ---2

If ratio 1 = ratio 2, then circuit is said to be satisfy reciprocity.

*** Here only magnitudes are compared.

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2.4 THEVENIN’S THEOREM:

DC: ― An complex network consisting of number voltage and current sources cand be
replaced by simple series circuit consisting of equivalent voltage source in series with
equivalent resistance, where equivalen voltage is called as open circuit voltage and equivalent
resistance is called as thevenin‘s resistance calculated across open circuit terminals while all
energy sources are non-operative‖
AC: ― An complex network consisting of number voltage and current sources cand be
replaced by simple series circuit consisting of equivalent voltage source in series with
equivalent impedance, where equivalen voltage is called as open circuit voltage and
equivalent impedance is called as thevenin‘s impedance calculated across open circuit
terminals while all energy sources are non-operative‖

Eg:
Here we need to find current through RL using thevenin‘s theorem.

Open circuit the AB terminals to find the Thevenin‘s voltage.

Thevenin‘svoltage ,Vth = E1. R3 / (R1+R3) ----1 from figure .1

Thevenin‘s resistance, Rth = (R1.R3)/ (R1+R3) + R2 ----2 from figure 2.

Now draw the thevenin‘s equivalent circuit as shown in figure 3 with calculated values.

Eg: With AC excitation

Here we need to find current through ZL using thevenin‘s theorem.

Open circuit the AB terminals to find the Thevenin‘s voltage.

Thevenin‘svoltage ,Vth = E1. R3 / (R1+R3) ----1 from figure .1

Thevenin‘s impedance, Zth = (Z1.Z3)/ (Z1+Z3) + Z2 ----2 from figure 2.

Now draw the thevenin‘s equivalent circuit as shown in figure 3 with calculated values.

2.5 NORTON’S THEOREM:

DC: ― An complex network consisting of number voltage and current sources cand be
replaced by simple parallel circuit consisting of equivalent current source in parallel with
equivalent resistance, where equivalent current source is called as short circuit current and
equivalent resistance is called as norton‘s resistance calculated across open circuit terminals
while all energy sources are non-operative‖

AC: ―An complex network consisting of number voltage and current sources cand be
replaced by simple parallel circuit consisting of equivalent current source in parallel with

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equivalent impedance, where equivalent current source is called as short circuit current and
equivalent impedance is called as norton‘s impedance calculated across open circuit terminals
while all energy sources are non-operative‖

Here we need to find current through RL using norton‘s theorem.

Short circuit the AB terminals to find the norton‘s current.

Total resistance of circuit is, Rt = (R2.R3) / (R2+R3) + R1

Source current, I = E / Rt

Norton‘s current , IN = I. R3 / (R2+R3) ----1 from figure .1

Norton‘s resistance, RN = (R1.R3)/ (R1+R3) + R2 ----2 from figure 2.

Now draw the Norton‘s equivalent circuit as shown in figure 3 with calculated values.

Eg: With AC excitation

Here we need to find current through ZL using norton‘s theorem.

Short circuit the AB terminals to find the norton‘s current.

Total impedance of circuit is, Zt = (Z2.Z3) / (Z2+Z3) + Z1

Source current, I = E / Zt

Norton‘s current , IN = I. Z3 / (Z2+Z3) ----1 from figure .1

Norton‘s impedance, ZN = (Z1.Z3)/ (Z1+Z3) + Z2 ----2 from figure 2.

Now draw the Norton‘s equivalent circuit as shown in figure 3 with calculated values.

*** These two theorems are useful in determining the load value for which maximum power
transfer can be happened.

2.6 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM:

DC: “ In linear bi-lateral network maximum power can be transferred from source to load if
load resistance is equal to source or thevenin‘s or internal resistances‖.

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AC: “ In linear bi-lateral network maximum power can be transferred from source to load if
load impedance is equal to complex conjugate of source or thevenin‘s or internal
impedances‖

Eg: For the below circuit explain maximum power transfer theorem.

Let I be the source current, I = V / (R1+R2

Power absorbed by load resistor is, PL = I2 .R2

= [ V / (R1+R2)]2.R2.

To say that load resistor absorbed maximum power ,dPL / dR2 = 0.

When we solve above condition we get, R2 = R1.

Hence maximum power absorbed by load resistor is, PLmax= V2/ 4R2.

Eg: AC excitation

Let I be the source current, I = V / (Z1+Z 2)

Power absorbed by load impedance is, PL = I2 .Z2

= [ V / (Z1+Z2)]2.Z2.

To say that load resistor absorbed maximum power ,dPL / dZ2 = 0.

When we solve above condition we get, Z2 = Z1*.

Hence maximum power absorbed by load resistor is, PLmax= V2/ 4Z2.(magnitude)

2.7 NETWORK TOPOLOGY:

Network topology is the one of the technique to solve electrical networks consisting of
number og meshes or number of nodes,where it is difficult to apply mesh and nodal
analysis.Graph theory is the technique where all the elements of the network are represented
by straight lines irrespective of their behavior. Here matrix methods are used to solve
complex networks. Before seeing the actual matrices, the knowledge of some of the
definitions is very important.

2.7.1 DEFINITONS:

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Node :An node is junction where two or more than two elements are connected.

Degree of the node: number of elements connected to the node is defined as degree of the
node.

Branch:An branch is a element(s) connected between pair of nodes.

Path: It is traversal of signal between pair of nodes.

Loop: It is the path started from an node and ends at the same node.

Graph:An graph is formed when all the elements of the network are replaced by straight line
irrespective of their behaviour.

Oriented and non-oriented graph: If the graph of the network is represented with directions
in each and every branch then it is oriented, if atleast one branch of graph has no direction
then iti is non-oriented graph.

Planar and non-planar graph: if an graph can be on plane surface without cross over then
system is planar and vise-versa is non-linear.

Tree: Tree is the sub-graph of the graph , which consists of same number of nodes as that of
original graph without any closed path.
Branches of the tree are called as twigs. Number of possible twigs in an tree are (n - 1).
n – number of nodes

Co-tree: The set of braches which are removed to form tree are called as co-tree.
Links: Branches removed to form tree are called as links.
l = b – (n-1)

2.5.2 INCIDENCE MATRIX(A):

Incidence matrix is formed between number of nodes and number of branches. This matrix is
useful easy understanding of network and any complex network can be easily feed into
system for coding. Order of incidence matrix is (n*b)

Procedure to incidence matrix:

aij = 1, if jth branch is incidence to ith node and direction is away from node.
aij = -1, if jth branch is incidence to ith node and direction is towards from node.
aij = 0, if jth branch is not incidence to ith node .

Properties of incidence matrix:

1. Number of non zero entries of row indicates degree of the node.
2. The non zero entries of the coloumn represents branch connections.
3. If two coloumns has same entries then they are in parallel.

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Reduced incidence matrix:
Reduced incidence matrix is formed by eliminating one of the row from incidence matrix
generally ground node row is eliminating, which is representing by A!. Number of possible
trees of for any graph are det(A!A!T).

Once we form the incidence matrix , we can write KCL equations any complex without
appling KCL as follows,

A!.Ib = 0
Where, A! - reduced incidence matrix
Ib - branch current matrix( an coloumn matrix)

2..3TIE-SET MATRIX:

Tie-set matrix is formed between link currents and branch currents. The order of tie-set
matrix is
(Il*Ib). it is represented by B. Tie-set is defined as a loop which consists of one link any
number of branches. Hence total number of tie-set possible with above definition are number
of links.

Procedure to form tie-set matrix:

Bij = 1, if current direction of jth branch coincides with direction of ith link.
Bij = -1, if current direction of jth branch opposes with direction of ith link.

Bij = 0, if jth branch has no relation with ith link.

Once we form tie-set matrix KVL equations of any complex network can be written as B.Vb
=0

Where, B = tie-set matrix

Vb = branch voltage matrix(coloumn matrix)

From the knowledge of tie-set matrix we can calculate all the branch currents in terms of link
currents, which is given as

Ib = BT .Il

Where, Ib - branch current matrix( an coloumn matrix)

Il - link current matrix( an coloumn matrix)
BT- transpose of tie-set matrix

2.5.4 CUT-SET MATRIX:

Cut-set matrix is formed between twig voltages and branch voltages. The order of cut-set
matrix is ((n-1)*b). it is represented by C. Cut-set is defined as minimum set of branches by

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removing which graph is divided into two sub-graphs, where one of the part is an isolated
node. Hence total number of cut-set possible with above definition are number of twigs.
Generally cut-set direction is assumed in direction of branch, as cut-set consists of one branch
any number of links.

Procedure to form tie-set matrix:

cij = 1, if direction of jth branch coincides with direction of ith cut-set.
cij = -1, if direction of jth branch opposes with direction of ith cut-set.

cij = 0, if direction of jth branch is not in the ith cut-set.

Once we form cut-set matrix KCL equations of any complex network can be written as C.Ib
=0

Where, C= cut-set matrix

Ib = branch current matrix(coloumn matrix)

From the knowledge of cut-set matrix we can calculate all the branch voltages in terms of
twig voltages, which is given as

Vt = CT .Vb

Where, Vb - branch voltage matrix( an coloumn matrix)

Vt – twig voltage matrix( an coloumn matrix)
CT- transpose of cut-set matrix

Eg:

Determine all studied above for given circuit with its graph.

Nodes,n = 3
Branches = 4
Twigs = 3-1 = 2
Links = 4-3+1 = 2

Incidence matrix:

A = 1 2 3 4

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 a 1 1 0 0
b 0 -1 1 1
c -1 0 -1 -1

Reduced Incidence matrix:

1 2 3 4
A! = a 1 1 0 0
b 0 -1 1 1

Tie-set matrix:

As tree can be formed with two branches remaining two are links, let 2,4arethe links.

i1 i2 i3 i4
B = i2 -1 1 1 0
i4 0 0 -1 1

We can write all branch currents as, Ib = BT . Il

i1 -1 0
i2
i2 1 0
=
i3 1 -1
i4
i4 0 1

Hence , i1 = -i2
i2 = i2
i3 = i2-i4
i4 = i4

Cut-set matrix:
Let the two cut-set are (1,2) and (2,3,4) as possible cut-sets are (n-1) = (3-1) =2.
Here 1 and 3 are branches or twigs hence cutsets direction is same as these branch directions.

1 2 3 4
C = C(1,2) 1 -1 0 0
C(2,3,4) 0 -1 1 1

We can write all branch voltages as, Vb = CT . Vt

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 V1 1 0
V1
V2 -1 -1
=
V3 0 1
V3
V4 0 1

Hence, V1 = V1
V2 = -V1-V3
V3= V3
V4 = V3

2.6 DUAL AND DUALITY:

Some times for easy simplification of network we may need dual network of original
network.
Dual network is formed by using dual parameters.

Dual parameters:
Series Parallel
Parallel Series
Voltage Current
Current Voltage
Resistance Conductance
Inductance Capacitance
Capacitance Inductance
Open Short
Short Open

Procedure to draw dual network for original network:

1. Firstly assume node in each an every loop and node outside the circuit.
2. Now replace the element which purely belongs to respective loop with its dual
element between node assumed in that loop and node outside loop.
3. Now replace the element which belongs two loops with its dual element between
node assumed in that loop and node assumed in other loop.

*** Even we draw the dual network for original network the behaviour of network willnot
change.

Course Outcomes Mapped To Module III:

Students will be able to:

CO Course outcomes Blooms taxonomy
CO 5 Demonstrate the construction, principle and working of DC generator and Understand
DC motor for their performance analysis.

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Program Outcomes Mapped To Module III:

Program Outcomes
PO 1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals,
and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems .
PO 2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complexengineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences,
and engineering sciences.

Mapping Of CO(s) With PO(s) For Module III:

Course outcomes(COS) Program Outcomes
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
CO 5 √ √

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 MODULE –III

DC MACHINES
2.1 Introduction
Converters that are used to continuously translate electrical input to mechanical output or vice versa
are called electric machines. The process of translation is known as electromechanical energy
conversion. An electric machine is therefore a link between an electrical system and a mechanical
system. In these machines the conversion is reversible. If the conversion is from mechanical to
electrical energy, the machine is said to act as a generator. If the conversion is from electrical to
mechanical energy, the machine is said toact as a motor. In these machines, conversion of energy
from electrical to mechanical forms or vice versa results from the following two electromagnetic
phenomena:
 When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, voltage is induced in the conductor. (Generator
action)
 When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a
mechanical force. (Motor action)
These two effects occur simultaneously whenever energy conversion takes place from electrical to
mechanical or vice versa. In motoring action, the electrical system makes current flow through
conductors that are placed in the magnetic field. A force is produced on each conductor. If the
conductors are placed on a structure free to rotate, an electromagnetic torque will be produced, tending
to make the rotating structure rotate at some speed. If the conductors rotate in a magnetic field, a
voltage will also be induced in each conductor. In generating action, the process is reversed. In this
case, the rotating structure, the rotor, is driven by a prime mover (such as a steam turbine or a diesel
engine). A voltage will be induced in the conductors that are rotating with the rotor. If an electrical
load is connected to the winding formed by these conductors, a current i will flow, delivering
electrical power to the load. Moreover, the current flowing through the conductor will interact with the
magnetic field to produce a reaction torque, which will tend to oppose the torque applied by the prime
mover.
Note that in both the motor and generator actions, the coupling magnetic field is involved in producing
a torque and an induced voltage.

2.2 Construction of a DC Machine:

A DC generator can be used as a DC motor without any constructional changes and vice versa is also
possible. Thus, a DC generator or a DC motor can be broadly termed as a DC machine. These basic
constructional details are also valid for the construction of a DC motor. Hence, let's call this point
asconstruction of a DC machine instead of just 'construction of a dc generator'.

Figure 2.1 DC Machine construction

The above figure shows the constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC machine. A DC machine
consists of two basic parts; stator and rotor. Basic constructional parts of a DC machine are described
below.
1. Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It is made up of cast iron orsteel. It not
only provides mechanical strength to the whole assembly but also carries the magnetic flux
produced by the field winding.

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2. Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding.They carry
field winding and pole shoes are fastened to them. Pole shoes serve two purposes; (i) they
support field coils and (ii) spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.
3. Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound andplaced on
each pole and are connected in series. They are wound in such a way that, when energized,
they form alternate North and South poles.

Figure 2.2 Armature core (rotor)

4. Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of the machine. It is cylindrical in shape withslots
to carry armature winding. The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for
reducing eddy current losses. It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for
cooling purposes. Armature is keyed to the shaft.
5. Armature winding: Itis usually a former wound copper coil which rests in armatureslots. The
armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature core. Armature
winding can be wound by one of the two methods; lap winding or wave winding. Double layer
lap or wave windings are generally used. A double layer winding means that each armature
slot will carry two different coils.
6. Commutator and brushes: Physical connection to the armature winding is madethrough a
commutator-brush arrangement. The function of a commutator, in a dc generator, is to collect
the current generated in armature conductors. Whereas, in case of a dc motor, commutator
helps in providing current to the armature conductors. A commutator consists of a set of
copper segments which are insulated from each other. The number of segments is equal to the
number of armature coils. Each segment is connected to an armature coil and the commutator
is keyed to the shaft. Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite. They rest on
commutator segments and slide on the segments when the commutator rotates keeping the
physical contact to collect or supply the current

Figure 2.3 Commutator

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2.3 Classifications of DC Machines: (DC Motors and DC Generators)
Each DC machine can act as a generator or a motor. Hence, this classification is valid forboth: DC
generators and DC motors. DC machines are usually classified on the basis oftheir field excitation
method. This makes two broad categories of dc machines; (i) Separately excited and (ii) Self-excited.

Separately excited: In separately excited dc machines, the field winding is suppliedfrom a separate
power source. That means the field winding is electrically separated from the armature circuit.
Separately excited DC generators are not commonly used because they are relatively expensive due to
the requirement of an additional power source or circuitry. They are used in laboratories for research
work, for accurate speedcontrol of DC motors with Ward-Leonard system and in few other
applications where self-excited DC generators are unsatisfactory. In this type, the stator field flux may
also be provided with the help of permanent magnets (such as in the case of a permanentmagnet DC
motors). A PMDC motor may be used in a small toy car.

Self-excited: In this type, field winding and armature winding are interconnected in various ways to
achieve a wide range of performance characteristics (for example, field winding in series or parallel
with the armature winding). In self-excited type of DC generator, the field winding is energized by the
current produced by themselves. A small amount of flux is always present in the poles due to the
residual magnetism. So, initially, current induces in the armature conductors of a dc generator only
due to the residual magnetism. The field flux gradually increases as the induced current starts flowing
through the field winding.
Self-excited machines can be further classified as –
Series wound –In this type, field winding is connected in series with thearmature winding. Therefore,
the field winding carries whole load current (armature current). That is why series winding is designed
with few turns ofthick wire and the resistance is kept very low (about 0.5 Ohm).

Shunt wound –Here, field winding is connected in parallel with the armaturewinding. Hence, the full
voltage is applied across the field winding. Shunt winding is made with a large number of turns and
the resistance is kept very high (about 100 Ohm). It takes only small current which is less than 5% of
therated armature current.

Compound wound –In this type, there are two sets of field winding. Oneis connected in series and the
other is connected in parallel with thearmature winding. Compound wound machines are further
divided as –

Short shunt –field winding is connected in parallel with only thearmature winding
Long shunt –field winding is connected in parallel with thecombination of series field winding and
armature winding

Figure 2.4 Classifications of DC Machines

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DC GENERATOR:

2.4 Working Principle of A DC Generator:

According to Faraday‘s laws of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor is placed in a
varying magnetic field (OR a conductor is moved in a magnetic field), an emf (electromotive force)
gets induced in the conductor. The magnitude of induced emf can be calculated from the emf equation
of dc generator. If the conductor is provided with the closed path, the induced current will circulate
within the path. In a DC generator, field coils produce an electromagnetic field and the armature
conductors are rotated into the field. Thus, an electromagnetically induced emf is generated in the
armature conductors. The direction of induced current is given by Fleming‘s right hand rule.

Figure 2.5 Principle of DC generator

According to Fleming‘s right hand rule, the direction of induced current changes whenever the
direction of motion of the conductor changes. Let‘s consider an armature rotating clockwise and a
conductor at the left is moving upward. When the armature completes a half rotation, the direction of
motion of that particular conductor will be reversed to downward. Hence, the direction of current in
every armature conductor will be alternating. If you look at the above figure, you will know how the
direction of the induced current is alternating in an armature conductor. But with a split ring
commentator, connections of the armatureconductors also gets reversed when the current reversal
occurs. And therefore, we get unidirectional current at the terminals.

2.5 EMF Equation of A DC Generator

Consider a DC generator with the following parameters,

P = number of field poles
Ø = flux produced per pole in Wb (weber) Z = total no. of armature conductors
A = no. of parallel paths in armature
N = rotational speed of armature in revolutions per min. (rpm)
Now,
Average emfgenerated per conductor is given by dΦ/dt (Volts) ... eq. 1Flux cut by one conductor in
one revolution = dΦ = PΦ ….(Weber),
Number of revolutions per second (speed in RPS) = N/60▪ Therefore, time for one revolution = dt =
60/N (Seconds)
From eq. 1, emf generated per conductor = dΦ/dt = PΦN/60 (Volts) …..(eq. 2)
Above equation-2 gives the emf generated in one conductor of the generator. The conductors are
connected in series per parallel path, and the emf across the generator terminals is equal to the
generated emf across any parallel path.
Therefore, Eg = PΦNZ / 60A
For simplex lap winding, number of parallel paths is equal to the number of poles (i.e. A=P),
Therefore, for simplex lap wound dc generator, Eg = PΦNZ / 60P
For simplex wave winding, number of parallel paths is equal to 2 (i.e P=2), Therefore, for simplex
wave wound dc generator, Eg = PΦNZ / 120

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2.6 Types of DC Generators:
DC generators can be classified in two main categories, viz; (i) Separately excited and (ii) Self-
excited.
(i) Separately excited: In this type, field coils are energized from an independent externalDC source.
(ii) Selfexcited: In this type, field coils are energized from the current produced by thegenerator itself.
Initial emf generation is due to residual magnetism in field poles. The generated emf causes a part of
current to flow in the field coils, thus strengthening the field flux and thereby increasing emf
generation. Self excited dc generators can further be divided into three types
(a) Series wound - field Winding in series with armature winding
(b) Shunt wound - field Winding in parallel with armature winding
(c) Compound wound - combination of series and shunt winding

2.7 Characteristics of DC Generators

Generally, following three characteristics of DC generators are taken into considerations: (i) Open
Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.), (ii) Internal or Total Characteristic and (iii) External Characteristic.
These characteristics of DC generators are explained below.

Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.) (E0/If)

Open circuit characteristic is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-load saturation

characteristic. This characteristic shows the relation between generated emf at no load (E0) and the
field current (If) at a given fixed speed. The O.C.C. curve is just the magnetization curve and it is
practically similar for all type of generators. The data for O.C.C. curve is obtained by operating the
generator at no load and keeping a constant speed. Field current is gradually increased and the
corresponding terminal voltage is recorded. The connection arrangement to obtain O.C.C. curve is as
shown in the figure below. For shunt or series excited generators, the field winding is disconnected
from the machine and connected across an external supply.

Figure 2. 6 OCC characteristics of DC generator

Now, from the emf equation of dc generator, we know that Eg = kɸ. Hence, the generated emf should
be directly proportional to field flux (and hence, also directly proportional to the field current).
However, even when the field current is zero, some amount of emf is generated (represented by OA in
the figure below). This initially induced emf is due to the fact that there exists some residual
magnetism in the field poles. Due to the residual magnetism, a small initial emf is induced in the
armature. This initially induced emf aids the existing residual flux, and hence, increasing the overall
field flux. This consequently increases the induced emf. Thus, O.C.C. follows a straight line.
However, as the flux density increases, Thepoles get saturated and the ɸ becomes practically constant.
Thus, even we increase the Iffurther, ɸ remains constant and hence, Eg also remains constant. Hence,
the O.C.C. curve looks like the B-H characteristic.

The above figure shows a typical no-load saturation curve or open circuit characteristics for all types
of DC generators.
Internal Or Total Characteristic (E/Ia)
An internal characteristic curve shows the relation between the on-load generated emf (Eg) and the
armature current (Ia). The on-load generated emfEg is always less than E0 due to the armature
reaction. Eg can be determined by subtracting the drop due to demagnetizing effect of armature
reaction from no-load voltage E0. Therefore, internal characteristic curve lies below the O.C.C. curve.
External Characteristic (V/IL)
An external characteristic curve shows the relation between terminal voltage (V) and the load current
(IL). Terminal voltage V is less than the generated emfEg due to voltage drop in the armature circuit.
Therefore, external characteristic curve lies below the internal characteristic curve. External
characteristics are very important to determine the suitability of a generator for a given purpose.
Therefore, this type of characteristic is sometimes also called as performance characteristic or load
characteristic.
Internal and external characteristic curves are shown below for each type of generator.

2.7.1 Separately Excited DC Generator

If there is no armature reaction and armature voltage drop, the voltage will remain constant for any
load current. Thus, the straight line AB in above figure represents the no-load voltage vs. load current
IL. Due to the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction, the on-load generated emf is less than the
no-load voltage. The curve AC represents the on-load generated emfEg vs. load current IL i.e. internal
characteristic (as Ia = IL for a separately excited dc generator). Also, the terminal voltage is lesser due
to ohmic drop occurring in the armature and brushes. The curve AD represents the terminal voltage vs.
load current i.e. external characteristic.
2.7.2 Characteristics of DC Shunt Generator
To determine the internal and external load characteristics of a DC shunt generator the machine is
allowed to build up its voltage before applying any external load. To build up voltage of a shunt
generator, the generator is driven at the rated speed by a prime mover. Initial voltage is induced due to
residual magnetism in the field poles.

The generator builds up its voltage as explained by the O.C.C. curve. When the generator has built up
the voltage, it is gradually loaded with resistive load and readings are taken at suitable intervals.
Connection arrangement is as shown in the figure below.

Unlike, separately excited DC generator, here, IL≠Ia. For a shunt generator, Ia=IL+If. Hence, the
internal characteristic can be easily transmitted to Eg vs. IL by subtracting the correct value of If from
Ia. During a normal running condition, when load resistance is decreased, the load current increases.
But, as we go on decreasing the load resistance, terminal voltage also falls. So, load resistance can be
decreased up to a certain limit, after which the terminal voltage drastically decreases due to excessive
armature reaction at very high armature current and increased I2R losses. Hence, beyond this limit any
further decrease in load resistance results in decreasing load current. Consequently, the external
characteristic curve turns back as shown by dotted line in the above figure.
2.7.3 Characteristics of DC Series Generator

The curve AB in above figure identical to open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.) curve. This is because in
DC series generators field winding is connected in series with armature and load. Hence, here load
current is similar to field current (i.e. IL=If). The curve OC and OD
represent internal and external characteristic respectively. In a DC series generator, terminal voltage
increases with the load current. This is because, as the load current increases, field current also
increases. However, beyond a certain limit, terminal voltage starts decreasing with increase in load.
This is due to excessive demagnetizing effects of the armature reaction.
2.7.4 Characteristics of DC Compound Generator

The above figure shows the external characteristics of DC compound generators. If series winding
amp-turns are adjusted so that, increase in load current causes increase in terminal voltage then the
generator is called to be over compounded. The external characteristic for over compounded generator
is shown by the curve AB in above figure.
If series winding amp-turns are adjusted so that, the terminal voltage remains constant even the load
current is increased, then the generator is called to be flat compounded. The external characteristic for
a flat compounded generator is shown by the curve AC.
If the series winding has lesser number of turns than that would be required to be flat compounded,
then the generator is called to be under compounded. The external characteristics for an under
compounded generator are shown by the curve AD.

DC MOTOR:
A same DC machine can be used as a motor or generator. Construction of a DC motoris same as that
of a DC generator.

2.8 Working Principle of A DC Motor

A motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The
principle of working of a DC motor is that "whenever a current carrying conductor is placedin a
magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force". The direction of this force is given by Fleming's
left hand rule and it's magnitude is given by F = BIL. Where, B = magnetic flux density, I = current
and L = length of the conductor within the magnetic field.
Fleming's left hand rule:If we stretch the first finger, second finger and thumb of our lefthand to be
perpendicular to each other AND direction of magnetic field is represented by the first finger,
direction of the current is represented by second finger then the thumb represents the direction of the
force experienced by the current carrying conductor.

Working of DC Motor
When armature windingsareconnected to a DC supply, current sets up in the winding. Magnetic field
may be provided by field winding (electromagnetism) or by using permanentmagnets. In this case,
current carrying armature conductors experience force due to the magnetic field, according to the
principle stated above.
Commutator is made segmented to achieve unidirectional torque. Otherwise, the direction of force
would have reversed every time when the direction of movement of conductor is reversed the
magnetic field.

Back EMF
According to fundamental laws of nature, no energy conversion is possible until there is something to
oppose the conversion. In case of generators this opposition is provided by magnetic drag, but in case
of dc motors there is back emf.When the armature of the motor is rotating, the conductors are also
cutting the magnetic flux lines and hence according to the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction,
an emf induces in the armature conductors. The direction of this induced emf is such that it opposes
the armature current (Ia) . The circuit diagram below illustrates the direction of the backemf and
armature current. Magnitude of Back emf can be given by the emf equation of DCgenerator.

Significance Of Back Emf:

Magnitude of back emf is directly proportional to speed of the motor. Consider the load on a dc motor
is suddenly reduced. In this case, required torque will be small as compared to the current torque.
Speed of the motor will start increasing due to the excess torque. Hence, being proportional to the
speed, magnitude of the back emf will also increase. With increasing back emf armature current will
start decreasing. Torque being proportional to the armature current, it will also decrease until it
becomes sufficient for the load. Thus, speed of the motor will regulate.On the other hand, if a dc
motor is suddenly loaded, the load will cause decrease in the speed. Due to decrease in speed, back
emf will also decrease allowing more armature current. Increased armature current will increase the
torque to satisfy the load requirement. Hence, presence of the back emf makes a dc motor ‗self-
regulating‘.

2.9 Types of DC Motors

DC motors are usually classified of the basis of their excitation configuration, as follows Separately
excited (field winding is fed by external source)
Self excited

Series wound (field winding is connected in series with the armature)

Shunt wound (field winding is connected in parallel with the armature)

Compound wound

Long shunt

Short shunt

2.10 Torque Equation of A DC Motor

When armature conductors of a DC motor carry current in the presence of stator field flux, a
mechanical torque is developed between the armature and the stator. Torque is given by the product of
the force and the radius at which this force acts.
Torque T = F × r (N-m) …where, F = force and r = radius of the armature
Work done by this force in once revolution = Force × distance = F × 2πr=circumference of the
armature)
Net power developed in the armature = word done / time
= (force × circumference × no. of revolutions) / time
= (F × 2πr × N) / 60 (Joules per second) .... eq. 2.1
But, F × r = T and 2πN/60 = angular velocity ω in radians per second. Putting these in the above
equation 2.1
Net power developed in the armature = P = T × ω (Joules per second)
Armature Torque (Ta)

The power developed in the armature can be given as, Pa = Ta × ω = Ta × 2πN/60

The mechanical power developed in the armature is converted from the electrical power,
We know, Eb = PΦNZ / 60A
Therefore, Ta × 2πN/60 = (PΦNZ / 60A) × Ia
Rearranging the above equation,
Ta = (PZ / 2πA) × Φ.Ia(N-m)
The term (PZ / 2πA) is practically constant for a DC machine. Thus, armature torque is directly
proportional to the product of the flux and the armature current i.e. Ta Φ.Ia
Shaft Torque (Tsh)
Due to iron and friction losses in a dc machine, the total developed armature torque is not available at
the shaft of the machine. Some torque is lost, and therefore, shaft torque is always less than the
armature torque.
Shaft torque of a DC motor is given as,
Tsh = output in watts / (2πN/60) ....(where, N is speed in RPM)

2.11 Characteristics of DC Motors

Generally, three characteristic curves are considered important for DC motors which are, (i) Torque
vs. armature current, (ii) Speed vs. armature current and (iii) Speed vs. torque.

These are explained below for each type of DC motor. These characteristics are determined by
keeping the following two relations in mind
Ta α ɸ.Iaand
N α Eb/ɸ

These above equations can be studied at - emf and torque equation of dc machine. For a DC motor,
magnitude of the back emf is given by the same emf equation of a dc generator i.e. Eb = PɸNZ / 60A.
For a machine, P, Z and A are constant, therefore, N Eb/ɸ

2.11.1 Characteristics of DC Series Motors

Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)

This characteristic is also known as electrical characteristic. We know that torque is directly
proportional to the product of armature current and field flux, Ta ɸ.Ia. In DC series motors, field
winding is connected in series with the armature, i.e. Ia = If. Therefore, before magnetic saturation of
the field, flux ɸ is directly proportional to Ia.Hence, before magnetic saturation Ta α Ia 2. Therefore,
the Ta-Ia curve is parabola for smaller values of Ia.After magnetic saturation of the field poles, flux ɸ
is independent of armature current Ia. Therefore, the torque varies proportionally to Ia only, T
Ia.Therefore, after magnetic saturation, Ta-Ia curve becomes a straight line.The shaft torque (Tsh) is
less than armature torque (Ta) due to stray losses. Hence, the curve TshvsIa lies slightly lower.In DC
series motors, (prior to magnetic saturation) torque increases as the square of armature current, these
motors are used where high starting torque is required.
Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia)

We know the relation, N=Eb/ɸ

For small load current (and hence for small armature current) change
in back emfEb is small and it may be neglected. Hence, for small currents speed is inversely
proportional to ɸ. As we know, flux is directly proportional to Ia, speed is inversely proportional to Ia.
Therefore, when armature current is very small the speed becomes dangerously high. That is why
aseries motor should never be started without some mechanical load.
But, at heavy loads, armature current Ia is large. And hence, speed is low which results in decreased
back emfEb. Due to decreased Eb, more armature current is allowed.

Speed Vs. Torque (N-Ta)

This characteristic is also called as mechanical characteristic. From the above two characteristics of
DC series motor, it can be found that when speed is high, torque is lowand vice versa.

2.11.2 Characteristics of DC Shunt Motors

Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)

In case of DC shunt motors, we can assume the field flux ɸ to be constant. Though at heavy loads, ɸ
decreases in a small amount due to increased armature reaction. As we are neglecting the change in
the flux ɸ, we can say that torque is proportional to armature current. Hence, the Ta-Ia characteristic
for a dc shunt motor will be a straight line through the origin. Since heavy starting load needs heavy
starting current, shunt motor should never be started on aheavy load.

Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia)

As flux ɸ is assumed to be constant, we can say N Eb. But, as back emf is also almost constant, the
speed should remain constant. But practically, ɸ as well as Eb decreases with increase in load. Back
emfEb decreases slightly more than ɸ, therefore, the speed decreases slightly. Generally, the speed
decreases only by 5 to 15% of full load speed. Therefore, ashunt motor can be assumed as a
constant speed motor. In speed vs. armature currentcharacteristic in the following figure, the straight
horizontal line represents the ideal characteristic and the actual characteristic is shown by the dotted
line.

2.11.3 Characteristics of DC Compound Motor

DC compound motors have both series as well as shunt winding. In a compound motor, if series and
shunt windings are connected such that series flux is in direction as that of the shunt flux then the
motor is said to be cumulatively compounded. And if the series flux is opposite to the direction of the
shunt flux, then the motor is said to be differentially compounded. Characteristics of both these
compound motors are explained below.
 (a) Cumulative compound motor

Cumulative compound motors are used where series characteristics are required but the load is likely
to be removed completely. Series winding takes care of the heavy load, whereas the shunt winding
prevents the motor from running at dangerously high speed when the load is suddenly removed. These
motors have generally employed a flywheel, where sudden and temporary loads are applied like in
rolling mills.

(b) Differential compound motor

Since in differential field motors, series flux opposes shunt flux, the total flux decreases with increase
in load. Due to this, the speed remains almost constant or even it may increase slightly with increase in
load (N Eb/ɸ). Differential compound motors are not commonly used, but they find limited
applications in experimental and research work.

2.12 Starting of A DC Motor

Basic operational voltage equation of a DC motor is given as E = Eb + IaRa and hence Ia = (E - Eb) /
Ra
Now, when the motor is at rest, obviously, there is no back emfEb, hence armature current will be
high at starting.

This excessive current will

1. blow out the fuses and may damage the armature winding and/or commutator brush arrangement.
2. produce very high starting torque (as torque is directly proportional to armature current), and this
high starting toque will produce huge centrifugal force which may throw off the armature windings.
Thus to avoid above two drawbacks, starters are used for starting of DC machine.
Starting Methods of a DC Motor
Thus, to avoid the above dangers while starting a DC motor, it is necessary to limit the starting
current. For that purpose, starters are used to start a DC motor. There are various starters like, 3 point
starter, 4 point starter, No load release coil starter, thyristor starter etc. The main concept behind every
DC motor starter is, adding external resistance to the armature winding at starting.
(a) 3 Point Starter
The internal wiring of a 3 point starter is as shown in the figure.

When motor is to be started, the lever is turned gradually to the right. When lever touches point 1, the
field winding gets directly connected across the supply, and the armature winding gets connected with
resistances R1 to R5 in series. Hence at starting full resistance is added in series with armature. Then
as the lever is moved further, the resistance is gradually is cut out from the armature circuit. Now, as
the lever reaches to position 6, all the resistance is cut out from the armature circuit and armature gets
directly connected across the supply. The electromagnet E (no voltage coil) holds the lever at this
position. This electromagnet releases the lever when there is no (or low) supply voltage. When the
motor is overloaded beyond a predefined value, overcurrent release electromagnet D gets activated,
which short circuits electromagnet E , and hence releases the lever and motor is turned off.

b) 4 Point Starter:

The main difference between a 3 point starter and a 4 point starter is that the no voltage coil is not
connected in series with field coil. The field gets directly connected to the supply, as the lever moves
touching the brass arc. The no voltage coil (or Hold on coil) is connected with a current limiting
resistance Rh. This arrangement ensures that any change of current in the shunt field does not affect
the current through hold on coil at all. This means that electromagnet pull of the hold-on coil will
always be sufficient so that the spring does not unnecessarily restore the lever to the off position.This
starter is used where field current is to be adjusted by means of a field rheostat.
c) DC series motor starter:
Construction of DC series motor starters is very basic as shown in the figure. A start armis simply
moved towards right to start the motor. Thus at first maximum resistance is connected in series with
the armature and then gradually decreased as the start arm moves towards right.The no load release
coil holds the start arm to the run position and leaves it at no load.

2.13 Losses in A DC Generator and DC Motor

A dc generator converts mechanical power into electrical power and a dc motor converts electrical
power into mechanical power. Thus, for a dc generator, input power is in the form of mechanical and
the output power is in the form of electrical. On the other hand, for a dc motor, input power is in the
form of electrical and output power is in the form of mechanical. In a practical machine, whole of the
input power cannot be converted into output power as some power is lost in the process. This causes
the efficiency of the machine to be reduced. Efficiency is the ratio of output power to the input power.
Thus, in order to design rotating dc machines with higher efficiency, it is important to study the losses
occurring in them.
Various losses in a rotating DC machine (DC generator or DC motor) can be characterized as
follows:
1.Copper losses
2.armature Cu loss
3.Field Cu loss
4.Loss due to brush contact resistance
5.Iron Losses
6.Hysteresis loss
7.Eddy current loss
8.Mechanical losses
9.Friction loss
10.Windage loss
The above tree categorizes various types of losses that occur in a dc generator or a dc motor.
Each of these is explained in details below.

a) Copper Losses

These losses occur in armature and field copper windings. Copper losses consist of Armature copper
loss, Field copper loss and loss due to brush contact resistance.
Armature copper loss = Ia2Ra(where, Ia= Armature current and Ra= Armatureresistance)
This loss contributes about 30 to 40% to full load losses. The armature copper loss is variable and
depends upon the amount of loading of the machine.
In the case of a shunt wounded field, field copper loss is practically constant. It contributes about 20 to
30% to full load losses.Brush contact resistance also contributes to the copper losses. Generally, this
loss is included into armature copper loss.

b) Iron Losses (Core Losses)

As the armature core is made of iron and it rotates in a magnetic field, a small current gets induced in
the core itself too. Due to this current, eddy current loss and hysteresis loss occur in the armature iron
core. Iron losses are also called as Core losses or magnetic losses.
Hysteresis loss is due to the reversal of magnetization of the armature core. When the core passes
under one pair of poles, it undergoes one complete cycle of magnetic reversal. The frequency of
magnetic reversal if given by, f=P.N/120 (where, P = no. of poles and N = Speed in rpm).The loss
depends upon the volume and grade of the iron, frequency of magnetic reversals and value of flux
density. Hysteresis loss is given by, Steinmetz formula
h=ηBmax1.6fV (watts) where, η = Steinmetz hysteresis constant
V = volume of the core in m3

Eddy current loss: When the armature core rotates in the magnetic field, an emf is alsoinduced in the
core (just like it induces in armature conductors), according to the Faraday'slaw of electromagnetic
induction. Though this induced emf is small, it causes a large current to flow in the body due to the
low resistance of the core. This current is known as eddy current. The power loss due to this current is
known as eddy current loss.

c) Mechanical Losses
Mechanical losses consist of the losses due to friction in bearings and commutator. Air friction loss of
rotating armature also contributes to these.These losses are about 10 to 20% of full load losses.

Stray Losses
In addition to the losses stated above, there may be small losses present which are called as stray
losses or miscellaneous losses. These losses are difficult to account. They are usually due to
inaccuracies in the designing and modeling of the machine. Most of the times, stray losses are
assumed to be 1% of the full load.

2.14 Power Flow Diagram

The most convenient method to understand these losses in a dc generator or a dc motor is using the
power flow diagram. The diagram visualizes the amount of power that has been lost in various types
of losses and the amount of power which has been actually converted into the output. Following are
the typical power flow diagrams for a dc generator and a dc motor.
 2.15 Applications of DC Motors

1. D.C. Shunt Motors:

It is a constant speed motor. Where the speed is required to remain almost constant from no load to
full load.Where the load has to be driven at a number of speeds and any one of which is nearly
constant.
 Industrial use:
 Lathes
 Drills
 Boring mills
 Shapers
 Spinning and weaving machines

2. D.C. Series motor:

It is a variable speed motor. The speed is low at high Page on torque at light or no load ,the motor
speed attains dangerously high speed. The motor has a high starting torque.(elevators, electric traction)
Industrial use:
 electric traction
 cranes
 elevators
 air compressor
 vaccum cleaner
 hair dryer
 sewing machine

3. D.C. Compound motor:

Differential compound motors are rarely used because of its poortorque characteristics.
Industrial uses:
 Presses Shears
 Reciprocating machine

Course Outcomes Mapped To Module IV:

Students will be able to:

 CO Course outcomes Blooms taxonomy
CO 6 Illustrate the construction, principle and working of single phase Understand
transformer to obtain its regulation and efficiency.

Program Outcomes Mapped To Module IV:

Program Outcomes
PO 1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals,
and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems .
PO 2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complexengineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences,
and engineering sciences.

Mapping Of CO(s) With PO(s) For Module IV:

Course outcomes(COS) Program Outcomes
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
CO 6 √ √

MODULE- IV

SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

Transformer is electromagnetic static electrical equipment (with no moving parts) which

transforms magnetic energy to electrical energy. It consists of a magnetic iron core
serving as a magnetic transformer part and transformer cooper winding serving as
electrical part. The transformer is high-efficiency equipment, and its losses are very low
because there isn’t any mechanical friction inside. Transformers are used in almost all
electrical systems from low voltage up to the highest voltage level. It operates only with
alternating current (AC), because the direct current (DC) does not create any
electromagnetic induction. Depending on the electrical network where the transformer is
installed, there are two transformer types, three-phase transformers and single phase
transformers. The operation principle of the single-phase transformer is: the AC voltage
source injects the AC current through the transformer primary winding.
The AC current generates the alternating electromagnetic field. The magnetic field lines
are moving through iron transformer core and comprise the transformer secondary
circuit. Thus the voltage is induced in the secondary winding with the same frequency as
the voltage of the primary side. The induced voltage value is determine by Faraday‘s Law.

Where,
f → frequency Hz
N → number of winding turns
Φ → flux density Wb
If the load is connected on the secondary transformer side the current will flow through
secondary winding. Basically, the single phase transformers can operate as step up transformer or
step down transformers.

The main parts of a transformer are windings, core, and isolation. The windings should have
small resistance value and usually they are made of copper (rarely of aluminum). They are wound
around the core and must be isolated from it. Also, the windings turns have to be isolated from
each other. The transformer core is made from very thin steel laminations which have high
permeability. The laminations have to be thin (between 0.25 mm and 0.5 mm) because of
decreasing power losses (known as eddy current losses). They have to be isolated from each
other, and usually, the insulating varnish is used for that purpose. The transformer insulation can
be provided as dry or as liquid-filled type. The dry-type insulation is provided by synthetic resins,
air, gas or vacuum. It is used only for small size transformers (below 500 kVA). The liquid
insulation type usually means using mineral oils. The oil has a long life cycle, good isolation
characteristics, overload capability and also provides transformer cooling. Oil insulation is
always used for big transformers.

The single phase transformer contains two windings, one on primary and the other on the
secondary side. They are mostly used in the single-phase electrical power system. The three-
phase system application means using three single phase units connected in the three-phase
system. This is a more expensive solution, and it is used in the high voltage power system.
Applications of Single Phase Transformer
The advantages of three single-phase units are transportation, maintenance, and spare unit
availability. The single-phase transformers are widely used in commercial low voltage
application as electronic devices. They operate as a step-down voltage transformer and decrease
the home voltage value to the value suitable for electronics supplying. On the secondary side,
rectifier is usually connected to convert a AC voltage to the DC voltage which is used in
electronics application.
Construction of Single Phase Transformer
A simple single-phase transformer has each winding being wound cylindrically on a soft iron
limb separately to provide a necessary magnetic circuit, which is commonly referred to as
―transformer core‖. It offers a path for the flow of the magnetic field to induce voltage between
two windings.
As seen in the figure above, the two windings are not close enough to have an efficient magnetic
coupling. Thus, converging and increasing the magnetic circuit near the coils can enhance the
magnetic coupling between primary and secondary windings. Thin steel laminations shall be
employed to prevent power losses from the core.
Based on how the windings are wound around the central steel laminated core, the transformer
construction is divided into two types
Core-type Transformer
In this type of construction, only half of the windings are wound cylindrically around each leg of
a transformer to enhance magnetic coupling as shown in the figure below. This type of
construction ensures that magnetic lines of force flow across both the windings simultaneously.
The main disadvantage of the core-type transformer is the leakage flux that occurs due to the flow
of a small proportion of magnetic lines of force outside the core.

core-type-transformer
Shell-type Transformer
In this type of transformer construction, the primary and secondary windings are positioned
cylindrically on the center limb resulting in twice the cross-sectional area than the outer limbs.
There are two closed magnetic paths in this type of construction and the outer limb has the
magnetic flux ɸ/2 flowing. Shell type transformer overcomes leakage flux, reduces core losses
and increases efficiency.
 single-phase-transformer-shell-type
Applications
The applications of a single-phase transformer are mentioned below.
 To step-down long-distance signals to support both residential and light-commercial electronic
devices
 In television sets for voltage regulation
 To step-up power in home inverters
 To supply power to non-urban areas
 To isolate two circuits electrically as primary and secondary are placed far from each other

Consider that an alternating voltage V1 of frequency f is applied to the primary as shown in Fig.. The
sinusoidal flux Φ produced by the primary can berepresented as:
Ideal Transformer on No Load
Consider an ideal transformer in Fig. For no load I2 =0. I1 is just necessary to produce flux in the
core, which is called magnetising current denoted as Im. Im is very small and lagsvV1 by 900 as the
winding is purely inductive. According to Lenz's law, the induced e.m.f.opposes the cause producing it
which is supply voltage V1. Hence E1 and E2 are in antiphase with V1 but equal in magnitude and E1
and E2 are in phase.

This can be illustrated in the phase diagram as shown below:

Equivalent Circuit of a Loaded Transformer

If I0 of a transformer is small as compared to the rated primary current I1, voltage drops in R1 and X1
due to I0 are negligible. Hence, the exact equivalent circuit can be simplified by transferring the shunt
circuit R0 - X0 to the input terminals as shown below:
If all the secondary quantities are referred to the primary, we can get the simplified equivalent circuit
of the transformer referred to the primary as shown below

From the above circuits:

Hence the phasor diagram can be obtained as:

Based on the above phasor diagram we can notice the following:
► The referred value of load voltage V'2 is chosen as the reference phasor.
► I'2 is lagging V'2 by phase angle 2.
► I'2 R01 is in phase with I'2 and the voltage drop I'2 X01, leads I'2 by 90°.
► IW is in phase with V1 while Im lags behind V1 by 90°.
► Thephasor sum of IW and Im is I0.
► Thephasor sum of I0 and I'2 is the input current I1.

If all the primary quantities are referred to the secondary, we can get the simplified equivalent circuit
of the transformer referred to the secondary as shown below

From the above circuit:

Hence the phasor diagram can be obtained as:

Based on the above phasor diagram we can notice the following:
► The referred value of load voltage V2 is chosen as the reference phasor.
► I2 is lagging V2 by phase angle 2.
► I2 R02 is in phase with I2 and the voltage drop I2 X02, leads I2 by 90°.
► I'W is in phase with V'1 while I'm lags behind V'1 by 90°.
► Thephasor sum of I'W and I'm is I'0.
► Thephasor sum of I'0 and I2 is the input current I'1.

Efficiency of a Transformer
Like any other electrical machine, the efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output
power (in watts or kW) to input power (watts or kW) i.e.

In practice, open-circuit and short-circuit tests are carried out to find the efficiency,

Course Outcomes Mapped To Module V:

Students will be able to:

CO Course outcomes Blooms
taxonomy
CO7 Draw the torque slip characteristics of three phase induction motor Remember
for its analysis under different loading conditions.
CO8 Make use of synchronous impedance method for obtaining regulation Understand
of alternator.

Program Outcomes Mapped To Module V:

Program Outcomes
PO 1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals,
and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems .
 PO 2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complexengineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences,
and engineering sciences.

Mapping Of CO(s) With PO(s) For Module V:

Course outcomes(COS) Program Outcomes
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
CO 7 √ √
CO 8 √ √

MODULE- V

AC MACHINES

Three Phase Induction Motor

Introduction
The induction motor with a wrapped rotor was invented by Nikola Tesla Nikola Tesla in 1882 in
France but the initial patent was issued in 1888 after Tesla had moved to the United States. In his
scientific work, Tesla laid the foundations for understanding the way the motor operates. The
induction motor with a cage was invented by Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky about a year later in
Europe. Technological development in the field has improved to where a 100 hp (74.6 kW) motor
from 1976 takes the same volume as a 7.5 hp (5.5 kW) motor did in 1897. Currently, the most
common induction motor is the cage rotor motor. An electric motor converts electrical power to
mechanical power in its rotor (rotating part). There are several ways to supply power to the rotor. In a
DC motor this power is supplied to the armature directly from a DC source, while in an induction
motor this power is induced in the rotating device. An induction motor is sometimes called a rotating
transformer because the stator (stationary part) is essentially the primary side of the transformer and
the rotor (rotating part) is the secondary side. Induction motors are widely used, especially polyphase
induction motors, which are frequently used in industrial drives. Induction motors are now the
preferred choice for industrial motors due to their rugged construction, absence of brushes (which are
required in most DC motors) and the ability to control the speed of the motor.

CONSTRUCTION
A typical motor consists of two parts namely stator and rotor like other type of
motors.
1. An outside stationary stator having coils supplied with AC current to produce a
rotating magnetic field,
2. An inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque by the rotating
field.
Stator construction
The stator of an induction motor is laminated iron core with slots similar to a stator of a synchronous
machine. Coils are placed in the slots to form a three or single phase winding.
Type of rotors
Rotor is of two different types.
1. Squirrel cage rotor
2. Wound rotor
Squirrel-Cage Rotor
In the squirrel-cage rotor, the rotor winding consists of single copper or aluminium bars placed in the
slots and short-circuited by end-rings on both sides of the rotor. Most of single phase induction motors
have Squirrel-Cage rotor. One or 2 fans are attached to the shaft in the sides of rotor to cool the circuit.
Wound Rotor
In the wound rotor, an insulated 3-phase winding similar to the stator winding wound for the same
number of poles as stator, is placed in the rotor slots. The ends of the star-connected rotor winding are
brought to three slip rings on the shaft so that a connection can be made to it for starting or speed
control.
It is usually for large 3 phase induction motors.
Rotor has a winding the same as stator and the end of each phase is connected to a slip ring.
Compared to squirrel cage rotors, wound rotor motors are expensive and require maintenance of the
slip rings and brushes, so it is not so common in industry applications.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
An AC current is applied in the stator armature which generates a flux in the stator magnetic circuit.
This flux induces an emf in the conducting bars of rotor as they are ―cut‖ by the flux while the
magnet is being moved (E = BVL (Faraday‘s Law))
A current flows in the rotor circuit due to the induced emf, which in term produces a force, (F =
BIL) can be changed to the torque as the output.
In a 3-phase induction motor, the three-phase currents ia, ib and ic, each of equal magnitude, but
differing in phase by 120°. Each phase current produces a magnetic flux and there is physical 120
°shift between each flux. The total flux in the machine is the sum of the three fluxes. The summation
of the three ac fluxes results in a rotating flux, which turns with constant speed and has constant
amplitude. Such a magnetic flux produced by balanced three phase currents flowing in thee-phase
windings is called a rotating magnetic flux or rotating magnetic field (RMF).RMF rotates with a
constant speed (Synchronous Speed). Existence of a RFM is an essential condition for the operation of
an induction motor. If stator is energized by an ac current, RMF is generated due to the applied current
to the stator winding. This flux produces magnetic field and the field revolves in the air gap between
stator and rotor. So, the magnetic field induces a voltage in the shortcircuited bars of the rotor. This
voltage drives current through the bars. The interaction of the rotating flux and the rotor current
generates a force that drives the motor and a torque is developed consequently. The torque is
proportional with the flux density and the rotor bar current (F=BLI). The motor speed is less than the
synchronous speed. The direction of the rotation of the rotor is the same as the direction of the rotation
of the revolving magnetic field in the air gap. However, for these currents to be induced, the speed of
the physical rotor and the speed of the rotating magnetic field in the stator must be different, or else
the magnetic field will not be moving relative to the rotor conductors and no currents will be induced.
If by some chance this happens, the rotor typically slows slightly until a current is reinduced and then
the rotor continues as before. This difference between the speed of the rotor and speed of the rotating
magnetic field in the stator is called slip. It is unitless and is the ratio between the relative speed of the
magnetic field as seen by the rotor the (slip speed) to the speed of the rotating stator field. Due to this
an induction motor is sometimes referred to as an asynchronous machine.

Slip of an induction motor.

Slip of the induction motor is defined as the difference between the synchronous speed (Ns) and actual
speed of rotor i.e. motor (N) expressed as a fraction of the synchronous speed (Ns). This is also called
absolute

The percentage slip is expressed as,

In terms of slip, the actual speed of motor (N) can be expressed as,

At start, motor is at rest and hence its speed N is zero.

s = 1 at start
This is maximum value of slip s possible for induction motor which occurs at start. While s = 0 gives
us N = Ns which is not possible for an induction motor. So slip of induction motor cannot be zero
under any circumstances. Practically motor operates in the slip range of 0.01 to 0.05 i.e. 1 % to 5 %.
The slip corresponding to full load speed of the motor is called full load slip.
Torque Slip Characteristics of Three Phase Induction Motor
The torque slip curve for an induction motor gives us the information about the variation of torque
with the slip. The slip is defined as the ratio of difference of synchronous speed and actual rotor speed
to the synchronous speed of the machine. The variation of slip can be obtained with the variation of
speed that is when speed varies the slip will also vary and the torque corresponding to that speed will
also vary.The curve can be described in three modes of operation-

ALTERNATOR - CONSRUCTION AND WORKING PRINCIPLE

Synchronous generator or AC generator is a device which converts mechanical power in the form of
A.C. It works on the principle of ELECTRO MAGNETIC INDUCTION and it is also called as
Alternator. An alternator consists of armature winding and field magnet, but the difference between
the alternator and DC generator is that in the DC generator armature rotates and the field system is
stationary. This arrangement is the alternator is just reverse of it there the armature is stationary called
as stator and field system is rotating called as Rotor.
For generating EMF, three things are essential:
1) Magnetic field
2) System of conductors
3) Relative motion between those two.
The conductors are mounted on the stators and the field poles are mounted on the Rotor core Relative
motion between the stator conductors and the field is brought about rotating the field system. The rotor
is coupled mechanically to a suitable print mover. When the prime mover runs, the rotor core also
rotates and the field flux is cut by the stationary stator conductors and emf‘s are induced in them. If a
load is connected across the stator terminals electric power would be delivered to it.
CONSTRUCTION:- An alternator consists of mainly two parts
1. Stator
2. Rotor
1. Stator:-
The armature core is supported by the stator frame and is built up of laminations of special magnetic
iron or steel iron alloy the core is laminated to minimize the loss due to Eddy currents. The
laminations are stamped out in complete rings or segments. The laminations are insulated from each
other and have space between them for allowing the cooling air to pass through. The inner periphery
of the stator is slotted and copper conductors which are joined to one another constituting armature
winding housed in these slots. The other ends of the winding are brought out are connected to fixed
terminal from which the generator power can be taken out. Different shapes of the armature slots are
shown in the fig. The wide open type slot also used in DC machines has the advantage of permitting
easy installation of form-wound coils and there easy removal in case of repair but it has the
disadvantage of distributing the air gaps flux into bunches that produce ripples in the wave of
generated EMF. The semi closed type slots are better in this respect but do not allow the use of form
wound coils. The fully closed slots do not disturb the air gap flux but they try to increase the
inductance of the windings. The armature conductors have to be threaded through, there by increasing
the initial labour and cost of the winding. Hence, these are rarely used.

2. Rotor:-
Depending upon the type of application, these are classified into two types 1) Salient-pole or
projecting pole type 2) Non silent-pole or round

Salient-pole or projecting pole type rotor or cylindrical rotor

 It is used for and medium speed alternators used in hydro and diesel power generating station.
  The poles are made of laminated sheets and fixed to the rotor by dove tail joint.
 Short circuited damper bars are placed in the slots provided on the pole surfaces.
 These are used to prevent hunting and to provide starting torque in synchronous motors
 The field coils are placed on the poles as shown in the figure

Key features:-
 It has non-uniform air gap.
 The diameter of the rotor is more than of the cylindrical rotor.
 The no. of holes is higher than that of the non salient-pole rotor
 Axial length is less.
 The prime mover speed is less and is driven in hydal turbines
 These generators are used in hydro electric stations so these are called as hydro generators.

Non-Salient pole type (or) Cylindrical type (or) Round rotor:

Slots are provided in between the poles and these slots are placed with field winding Conductors.
Features :-

 No. of poles are less when compared to salient pole type.

 Diameter is less
 Axial length is more

 Air gap is uniform

 Prime mover speed is more and is driven in thermal turbines.
 These are used in thermal stations so, these are called as turbo Generators.

EMF EQUATION:-
Consider a 3Ø alternator with ―p‖ no. of poles driven at a constant speed N rpm.
Let Ep be the rms values of the induced emf per pole.
Ø is the average flux per pole in Webbers
Z is the no. of stator conductor per phase
T is the no. of stator turns per phase
And we know T=Z/2
F is the frequency of indusedemf in hz
Therefore total flux cut per revolution by any one stator conductor is equal to PØ Webbers.
Time taken for one revolution is equal to 1/N min or 60/N sec
Therefore rate of cutting of flux is equal to = dØ/dt = ―PØ‖ / ―60/N‖ (wb/sec) = PØN/60 (wb/sec)
But we have F=PN/120
Therefore 2F=PN/60 dØ/dt = 2ØF
According to faraday‘s second law of EMI
The average value of the induced emf = 2FØ volts
In any one phase Z conductors are joined in series, therefore average induced emf per phase = 2FØZ
volts = 2FØ(2T) volts
Avg. value of induced emf per phase = 4FØT volts
For a sine wave form factor = rms value/avg value = 1:11
RMS value of induced emf per phase = 1.11 × 4FØT = 4.44FØT volts
In a practical alternator the space distribution of the filed flex is not purely sinusoidal, it is having
some distortion and moreover in a practical alternator short pitch winding is used, therefore by these
two reasons , the actual EMF that is induced is somewhat less than the emf that is arrived at. Therefore
by pitch factor (or) chording factor (or) coil span factor ( Kc or Kp) and Distribution or breadth factor
(Kd or Kb) in the above emf equation , we with get the actual emf equations as E= 4,44fØTKcKd
volts .
Synchronous Impedance or E.M.F. Method for finding a Voltage Regulation

The Synchronous Impedance Method or Emf Method is based on the concept of replacing the
effect of armature reaction by an imaginary reactance. The method requires following data
to calculate the regulation.
1. The open -circuit characteristic (O.C.C) :
 The O.C.C is a plot of the armature terminal voltage as a function of field current with a
symmetrical three phase short-circuit applied across the armature terminals with the machine
running at rated speed.
 At any value of field current, if E is the open circuit voltage and Isc is the short circuit current
then for this value of excitation
 Zs = E/Sic
 At higher values of field current, saturation increases and the synchronous impedance
decreases.
 The value of Zs calculated for the unsaturated region.
 The O.C.C is called the unsaturated value of the synchronous impedance.

2. The short-circuit characteristic (S.C.C)

The S.C.C is a plot of short-circuit armature current versus the field current.
The current range of the instrument should be about 25-50 % more than the full load current of
the alternator.
Starting with zero field current, increase the field current gradually and cautiously till rated
current flows in the armature.
The speed of the set in this test also is tom be maintained at the rated speed of the alternator.
3. Resistance of the armature winding.

Measure the D.C. resistance of the armature circuit of the alternator.

The effective a.c resistance may be taken to be 1.2 times the D.C. resistance.
Regulation Calculation
From O.C.C. and S.C.C., Zs can be determined for any load condition.
The armature resistance per phase can be measured by different methods.
One of the method is applying d.c. known voltage across the two terminals and measuring
current. So value of Ra per phase is known.

So synchronous reactance per phase can be determined.

No load induced e.m.f. per phase, Eph can be determined by the mathematical expression
derived earlier.
Eph= [ √ I(V cosφ+IRa)² + I(V Sinφ +IXs)² ]
whereVph = Phase value of rated voltage
Ia = Phase value of current depending on the load condition
cosΦ = p.f. of load

Positive sign for lagging power factor while negative sign for leading power factor, Ra and Xs
values are known from the various tests performed.
The regulation then can be determined by using formula,