Geophysics Reviewer – ANGELES, J.A.

Chapter 1: The principles and limitations of geophysical Engineering/construction site

E, S, Rd, (G), (M)
methods investigation
Archaelogical investigations Rd, E, EM, M, (S)
o Geophysics is a non-invasive investigation of subsurface
conditions in the Earth through measuring, analyzing and
interpreting physical fields at the surface. Chapter 2: Geophysical data processing
o The three (3) author of the book “An Introduction to
Geophysical Exploration” are:
o Sampling frequency is the number of sampling points in
1. Philip Kearey
unit time or unit distance
2. Ian Hill
o A mathematical operation defining the change of shape of
3. Michael Brooks
a waveform resulting from its passage through a filter is
o Erastosthenes is a greek Geographer, Mathematician and
called Convolution.
Astronomer who is best known to calculate the
o The three (3) common basis for many methods of
circumference of the Earth.
geophysical (waveform) processing
o GPR, although analogous in some ways to the seismic
1. Convolution
methods (similar principles to seismic reflection
2. Deconvolution or Inverse filtering
profiling), the propagation of radar waves through a
3. Correlation or Cross-correlation
medium is controlled by its electrical properties at high
o What is the dynamic range of the measured digital
frequencies
sampling scheme over the range from 32 to 1024 units of
o Some methods and their measured parameter
amplitude?
Method Parameter Physical Property Formula: 20 log (A max / A min ) = ___ dB
Travel time of Density and elastic • FACTS:
Seismic
seismic waves moduli  The geophysicist’s ask is to separate the ‘signal’ from the
Spatial variations ‘noise’ and interpret the signal in terms of ground
in the strength of structure.
Gravity Density
the gravitational  Before the general availability of digital computing, the
field of the Earth
quantity of data and the complexity of the processing
Spatial variations
Magnetic severely restricted the use of the known techniques.
in the strength of
Magnetic susceptibility and  Waveforms are referred to as functions of time and
the geomagnetic
remanence distance.
field
Electrical  The higher the dynamic range, the more faithfully the
- Resistivity - Earth resistance - Conductivity amplitude variations in the analogue waveform will be
- IP - Polarization - Capacitance represented.
voltages or f
 Nyquist frequency is equal to half of the sampling
dependent ground
- SP resistance - Conductivity frequency.
- EM - Electrical - Conductivity and  There will be no significant loss of information content as
potentials Inductance long as the frequency of sampling is much higher than the
- Radar - Response to EM - Dielectric highest frequency component in the sampled function.
radiation constant  To overcome the problem of aliasing, the sampling
- Travel times of frequency must be at least twice as high as the highest
reflected radar
frequency component present in the sampled function.
pulse
o Some applications  If the function does not contain frequencies above the
Nyquist frequency determined by the sampling, it must be
Application Approriate survey methods pass through an antialias filter prior to digitization.
Exploration for fossil fuels  The antialias filter is a low-pass frequency filter with a
S, G, M, (EM)
(oil, gas, coal) sharp cut-off that adds frequency components above the
Exploration for metalliferous Nyquist frequency.
M, EM, E, SP, IP, R
mineral deposits  The higher frequency components, at frequencies of n/T
Exploration for bulk mineral
S, (E), (G) (n = 1, 2, 3,..), are known as harmonics
deposits (sand and gravel)
Exploration for underground  Periodic waveforms are repetitive at fixed time period
E, S, (G), (Rd)  Transient waveforms are non-repetitive.
water supplies
 Signal is that part of the waveform that relates to the and can record the required range of frequencies and
geological structures under investigate. amplitudes without distortion.
 Coherent noise is the components of the waveform which o Chirp systems are electro-mechanical transducers that
are generated by the geophysical instrument produce an extended, repeatable, source waveform which
 The main application of inverse filtering is to remove the allows greater energy output. This longer signal can be
adverse effects of a previous filtering operation lie in the compressed in processing to give greater resolution and/
field of seismic data processing. or better signal-to-noise ratio.
 The goodness of the match obtained depends on both the  FACTS
signal-to-noise ratio of the waveforms and the initial  Compressional wave velocity increases with confining
choice of the model used. pressure.
 A disadvantage of imaging is that often it can be difficult  Sandstone and Shale velocities show a systematic
or impossible to extract quantitative information from the increase with depth of burial and with age.
image.  For a wide range of varieties of sedimentary rocks the
 In imaging the measured waveforms themselves are compressional wave velocities is related to density.
presented in a form in which they simulate an image of
the subsurface structure.
 Once the geophysical waveforms have been processed to
Chapter 4: Seismic Reflection Surveying
maximize the signal content, that content must be
extracted for geological interpretation. 𝑋
o NMO = V =
�2𝑡𝑜 ∆𝑇
o NMO is directly proportional to the offset distance and is
Chapter 3: Elements of Seismic Surveying inversely proportional to the square root twice the two-
way travel time.
o Vibroseis is the most common non-explosive source used o Rays from a buried explosion on land are reflected back
for reflection surveying. from the ground surface or the base of the weathered layer
o The following factors may quantitatively assessed in the to produce a reflection event known as Ghost Reflection.
laboratory when velocities are determined by measuring o The part of the reflector from which energy is returned
the travel-time of high-frequency (1 MHz) acoustic within half a wavelength of the initial reflected arrival is
pulses transmitted through cylindrical rock specimens. known as Fresnel Zone.
1. Varying Temperature o Seismic reflection method is used to detect Faults, Folds,
2. Confining Pressure Groundwater resources, Oil and Gas reservoirs.
3. Pore fluid pressure o Faulted rock layers, Pinchouts, Point sources are main
4. Composition causes of diffraction in seismic reflection surveys.
o Axial modulus defines the ratio of longitudinal stress to o Examples of inverse filtering are dereverberation,
longitudinal strain in the case when there is no lateral deghosting and whitening.
strain; that is, when the material is constrained to deform o The main application of seismic reflection method is for
uniaxially Hydrocarbon investigation.
o Body wave can propagate through the internal volume of  FACTS
an elastic solid and may be of two types. Compressional  Vertical resolution is a measure of the ability to recognize
waves (P, Primary, Longitudinal) and Shear waves (S, individual, closely-spaced reflectors and is determined by
Secondary, Transverese) the pulse length on the recorded seismic section.
o Rayleigh waves propagate along a free surface, or along  The vertical resolution of a seismic survey may be
the boundary between two dissimilar solid media, the improved at the data processing stage by a shortening of
associated particle motions being elliptical in a plane the recorded pulse length using inverse filtering
perpendicular to the surface and containing the direction (deconvolution).
of propagation.  Migration is the process of reconstructing a seismic
o In the reflection and transmission of normal incident section so that reflection events are repositioned under
seismic rays; the total energy of the transmitted and their correct surface location and at corrected vertical
reflected ray must equal the energy of the incident ray. reflection time.
o The velocity of Love waves is intermediate between the  In order to migrate a seismic section accurately, it would
shear wave velocity of the surface layer and that of deeper be necessary to define fully the velocity field of the
layers, and loves waves are inherently dispersive. ground and specify it at all points.
o Conversion of the ground motion to an electrical signal  Reflection resolved fine subsurface details.
requires a transducer which is sensitive to ground motion,  Processing can be very CPU intensive.
Chapter 5: Seismic Refraction Surveying o Direct wave is a linear function of the seismic velocity
and the shot-point to receiver distance.
o Fan-shooting is a convenient method of accurately  FACTS
delineating subsurface zone of anomalous velocity whose  The seismic refraction method provides the velocity of
approximate position and size are already known. compressional P-waves in subsurface materials.
o A generated artificial wave produced from a vibroseis on  The travel time of the seismic wave between the seismic
the ground travels at an angle of 60° starting from the energy source and a geophone(s) is a function of the
surface with a velocity of 30 m/s. Determine the angle of distance between them, the depth to the refractor and the
the refracted wave as it reaches a different layer with a seismic velocities of the materials through which the
velocity 40 m/s. wave passes.
Formula: Snell’s Law  Seismic energy transmitted from a source at the surface
o In a hidden layer, the second refracted ray may overtake will undergo refraction at boundaries between different
the direct ray first if the second layer is thin and the third media and eventually return to the surface.
layer has a much faster velocity.  The velocity of sound travelling through the sub-surface
o For hidden layers: which of the following best describes varies with material composition and compaction.
the given illustration below:  The effect of fault displacing a planar refractor is to offset
the segments of the travel-time plot on opposite sides of
the fault.
 The different between the two intercept times ∆T in fault
planar interfaces is a measure of the heave of the fault.
V2 < V1 < V3  A hidden layer does not give rise to first arrivals.

o Using the figure below: Chapter 6: Gravity Surveying

o V 1 determined from the slope of the direct arrival
o V 2 determined from the slope of the head wave o As one changes elevation there are changes in g caused by
o h 1 determined from the intercept time of the the added (or subtracted) layer of material that has been
head wave included. Thus, in moving up from a valley to a plateau
o t int-1 is the distance beyond the critical incidence the gravity decreases due to the increasing distance from
first occurs the center of mass but is also increased by the attraction
of the slab of rock whose thickness is the change in
elevation. The effect of this intervening slab is called
Bouger correction.
o The following scenarios are likely to use gravity
surveying as the best method:
- When the variation in density between the bodies
are high enough
- When the structure of interest involves bodies of
different density
- In determining the shape of a body with respect
to other surveys like magnetic surveying
o A gravity survey will show variation in g (measured by
o The cross-over distance depends on the velocities of the gravimeter) caused by following:
layer and half-space, and the thickness of the layer. - Local topography
o V3 > V2 > V1 - Changes in Latitude
- Variations in subsurface density
o The anomaly (if there is one) that remains after the
corrections (e.g. latitude correction, free-air correction,
Bouguer correction, topographic correction, etc.) have all
been applied is called Bouger Anomaly.
o The anomaly in the Bouger anomaly is caused by excess
mass associated with a volume of density of the body
(ρ body ) enclosed by a medium of density of the
surrounding rock (ρ surrounding rock ).
o The following are considered ways in measuring gravity
anomalies
 - Falling body measurements when, cos 𝑝 > sin 𝜆 sin 𝜆′ then, 𝜙 ′ = 𝜙 + 𝛽
- Mass on spring measurements
- Pendulum measurements cos 𝑝 < sin 𝜆 sin 𝜆′ then, 𝜙 ′ = 𝜙 + (180 − 𝛽)
o The two features of the earth's large-scale structure and
dynamics that affect our gravity observations are shape o Remanent magnetization is termed as the inherited
and rotation. magnetization remaining after removal of the applied
o Imagine two gravity readings taken at the same location field.
and at the same time with two perfect (no instrument drift  FACTS
and the readings contain no errors) gravimeters; one  Geomagnetic field varies in amplitude and direction while
placed on the ground, the other placed on top of a step gravitational field is vertical.
ladder. Would the two instruments record the same  Induced Magnetization are acquired when the material
gravitational acceleration? No has magnetic poles distributed over its surface which
o The following are the methods used in separating local correspond to the ends of the dipoles.
and regional gravity anomalies?  Induced Magnetization results from the alignment of
- direct estimate elementary dipoles within the material in the direction of
- graphical estimate the field.
- mathematical estimate
 FACTS
 Lower than average density bodies will cause a negative
Chapter 8: Electrical Surveying
gravity anomaly.
 A sharp high frequency anomaly will generally indicate a o The resistivity of subsurface depends on
shallow body. - The presence of a certain metallic ore
 The areal extent of the anomaly will reflect the - The temperature of the subsurface
dimensions of the causative body. - Amount of groundwater surface
o Clay < Chalk < Schist < Gabbro < Basalt
o SI unit for resistivity is ohm-m
Chapter 7: Magnetic Surveying o Galena < Chalcopyrite < Graphite < Copper < Chalcocite
< Pyrite
o Diamagnetic materials are which electronic shells are full o For Self-Potential (SP) method
and susceptibility is weak and negative. - It is useful in rapid ground reconnaissance for
o Suppose that you have a 115 cm x 210 cm rectangular base metal deposit
sample with a magnetic moment of 34 Am2, find the - It can be used in hydrological investigation
intensity of induced magnetization (J i ). - It can be used to detect air-filled drainage
FORMULA: J i = M / L*A galleries
o 70,000nT is the value of total field vector (B) at poles and - It makes use of natural current flowing in the
25,000nT at the equatorial regions. ground that is generated by electrochemical
o A Fluxgate magnetometer is a magnetic surveying processes to locate shallow bodies of anomalous
instrument which employs two identical ferromagnetic conductivity.
cores of such high permeability that the geomagnetic field
o For Resistivity method
can induce magnetization that is a substantial proportion
- Similar rocks have a wide range in resistivity
of their saturation value.
depending on water content
o Given lambda = 47degrees, phi = 20 degrees, I =
- Resistivity changes do not necessarily
30degrees, and D = 80 degrees, find lambda prime and
correspond to a lithology change
phi prime respectively.
- Lithology changes do not necessarily correspond
FORMULA:
2 to a resistivity change
𝑝 = tan−1 ( ) - It is used in geothermal resource exploration
tan 𝐼𝑚
- It is used in mineral exploration (e.g massive
copper, massive nickel, gold-silver)
sin 𝜆′ = sin 𝜆 cos 𝑝 + cos 𝜆 sin 𝑝 cos 𝐷𝑚 - It is used for civil engineering studies

o For Induced Polarization (IP) method

sin 𝑝 sin 𝐷𝑚 - It makes use of the capacitive action of the
𝛽= sin−1 ( )
cos 𝜆′
subsurface to locate zones where conductive
minerals are disseminated within their host rocks
Chapter 9: Electromagnetic Surveying - The body is located where the tilt is minimum
 FACTS
o The depth of penetration of an electromagnetic field  All anomalous bodies with high electrical conductivity
depends on
produce strong secondary electromagnetic fields
- Conductivity / Resistivity
- Frequency / Amplitude of the field  Some ore bodies containing minerals that are themselves
o GPR, EM and Magnetic method are suitable for insulators may produce secondary fields if sufficient
archaeological application. quantities of highly conductive accessory are present
o Water has a dielectric constant of 80, whereas in most dry  Electromagnetic anomalies observed over certain sulphide
geological materials the dielectric constant is 4-8. ores are due to the presence of the conducting mineral
o Limitations of EM method are: pyrrhotite distributed throughout
- Depth of penetration is 500m for ground surveys
- Depth of penetration is 50m in airborne
- Quantitative interpretations of EM anomalies is Chapter 10: Radiometric Surveying
complex
- EM anomalies can also result from non- o The radon environmental hazard is associated with the
economic sources such as graphite, water-filled radioactive decay of Uranium-238.
shear zones, bodies of water and man-made o Radiometric dating is least useful in sedimentary rocks.
features
- Superficial layers with a high conductivity such Types of Radioactivity description
as wet clays and graphite-bearing rocks may Helium nuclei 42𝐻𝑒 are
screen the effects of deeper conductors A. Alpha Particle emitted from the
- Penetration limited by the frequency range that nucleus during certain
can be generated and detected disintegration.
o Minimum operational frequencies from least to greatest An electron is given off
from the nucleus,
- Magnetotelluric < AFMAG < VLF < GPR
B. Beta Particle leaving the mass
- (10-5 – Audio range) < (1-1000Hz) < (15-25kHz) number unchanged,
< (10-1000Mhz) but the atomic number
o In AFMAG method, the absence of a conductor is evident increase by 1.
of primary fields are equal and their output is zero
o The following are basic modes in GPR: An electron combines
- Reflection Profiling with a proton and
- Vertical Sounding C. Gamma rays forms neutron, leaving
the mass number
- Transillumination
unchanged, but the
o For TELLURIC method:
atomic number
- Flow within the Earth in large circular patterns decrease by 1.
that stay fixed with respect to the Sun o U, Th and K are the three most practical elements used in
- Is applicable to oil exploration as it is capable of prospecting radioactive decays.
detecting salt domes and synclinal structure o Alpha, Beta and Gamma decay are the three modes of
- Telluric currents cause a mean potential gradient Radioactive decay.
at the Earth’s surface of about 10mV/Km o 1620 KeV is the specific emission energy of Thorium
- Telluric method can be adapted to mineral isotope.
exploration o Gamma rays are tiny burst of very high frequency, hence
o Tilt-angle method with Vertical transmitter and high energy, electromagnetic waves that are
Horizontal primary field: spontaneously emitted by the nuclei of some isotopes of
- On the side of the body nearest the transmitter some elements.
the resultant field dips upward o Geiger counter is a type of particle detector that measures
- The tilt decreases towards the body and dips Ionizing.
downwards on the side of the body remote from o What are the threedecay produces a series of daughter
the transmitter isotopes which are themselves radioactive.
- The body is located below the crossover point - U-238 / U-235 / Th-232
where the tilt-angle is zero  FACTS
o Tilt-angle method with Horizontal transmitter and  Radiometric age is often referred to as absolute age
Vertical primary field:  Radon is the only gaseous radioactive elements
 The interpretation of radiometric dating is mainly o The main applications of SP logging are
qualitative - Identification of boundaries between shale
 Carbon-14 is useful for dating materials up to 70,000 horizons and more porous beds
years old - Determination of the volume of shale in porous
 Carbon-14 is most useful for dating a very young sample beds
(<20,000 years) of wood o Gamma-ray photons collide ‘elastically’ with electrons
 During radioactive decay, the number of protons in the
and are reduced in energy, a phenomenon known as
atom changes, and one element transforms into another
Compton Scattering.
 The rate of decay is exponential
 Radioactive atoms decay at a specific rate o Microlog is also called Wall-resistivity log
 The standard unit of gamma radiation is the Roentgen (R)
 Radioactivity is an irereversible process (once they decay,
they cannot change back) o The following are borehole environment:
 The radioactive decay of any radioactive atom is - Mudcake
independent of neighboring atoms, physical conditions, - Flushed Zone
and the chemical state of the atom - Annulusof invasion
 Rb to Sr is a simple one step decay. The two U to Pb - Borehole with drilling fluid
series have a number of intermediate daughter product. - Pristine Formation
 Most common application of radiometric techniques is in o The following geological properties are obtainable from
geophysical borehole logging borehole logging:
 Gamma rays are only stopped by several centimeters of - Formation
lead. - Thickness
 In air, alpha particles can travel no more than a few cm - Lithology
 Alpha particles cannot be detected in radiometric - Porosity
surveying - Permeability
 Beta particles can only be detected in ground surveys - Proportion of water / Hydrocarbon saturation
 COMPUTATIONS - Stratal Dip
1. A rock formed with 1,000 atoms of a radioactive parent - Temperature
element, but only contains 250 radioactive parent atoms o Radioactive elements are usually contained in shales
today. If the half-life is 1,000,000 years, how old is the - K-40 / U-238 / Th-232
rock? 2 MY o Laterolog is also termed as Guard logs.
2. Using uranium isotopes, what would be the calculated age o The induction log is used in dry holes or boreholes that
of a mineral in a metamorphic rock if the half-life of contain non-conductive drilling fluids which electrically
uranium-238 is 4.5 billion years, and there has been just a
insulates the sonde.
half of 1 half-life elapsed? Assume that no daughter
isotopes were present at the beginning, and that no gain or o Permeability is a measure of the capacity of a formation
loss of parent or daughter has occurred. 2.25 BY to transmit fluid under the influence of a pressure
3. Suppose a radioactive substance decays at the rate of gradient.
2.5% per hour. What is its half-life? 27.7 H o In the normal log, only one potential and current electrode
4. The half-life of radium-226 is 1600years. What is the are mounted in the sonde.
annual decay rate? 0.0433% o
5. Suppose an animal dies today. How much of its carbon-14
will remain after 250years? 97%
6. Suppose a tree fell 400years ago. How much of its
carbon-14 remains? 95%

Chapter 11: Geophysical Borehole logging

o For Sonic log:

- It is also known as continuous velocity
- It can provide useful attenuation information,
usually from the first P-wave arrival
- Sonic log can be used to calculate the porosity of
a formation if the seismic velocity of the rock
matrix and pore fluid are known
- It is also called acoustic log that measures the
travel time of an elastic wave through the
formation