People resistance included civil rebellions, tribal uprisings, peasant movements and military revolts.

The ego of traditional Zamindars and Poligars in South India was hurt due to being sidelined in rank by
govt. officials and a new class comprising of merchants and money-lenders.

Causative factors for People’s Uprising

• Colonial land revenue settlements, heavy burden of new taxes, eviction of peasants from their
lands and encroachments on tribal lands.
• Exploitation in rural society coupled with the growth of intermediary revenue collectors, tenants
and money lenders.
• Expansion of revenue administration over tribal lands leading to the loss of tribal people’s hold
over agricultural and forest land.
• Promotion of British manufactured goods, heavy duties on Indian industries, especially export
duties, lead to devastation of Indian handloom and handicraft industries.
• Destruction of indigenous industry lead to migration of workers from industry to agriculture,
increasing the pressure on land/agriculture.

Important Civil uprisings

1. Sanyasi Revolt or Fakir Rebellion (1763-1800) – After disastrous famine of 1770. Debi’s
Chaudhurani’s participation recognizes the women’s role in early resistances against the British. Warren
Hastings from EIC subdue Sanyasi. Anand math by BC Chattopadhyay based on this revolt.
2. Revolt in Midnapore (WB) and Dhalbhum (Orrisa) (1766-74) – Due to the introduction of new land
revenue system by the English in 1772. The important leaders of uprising were Damodar Singh and
Jagannath Dhal. Ultimately Midnapore disposed off their zamindaries by 1800s.
3. Revolt of Moamarias (Assam) (1769-99) – Challenge to Ahom kings of Assam. Moamarias were low
caste peasants. Rangpur (Bangladesh) and Jorhat were most affected region. The weakening of Ahom
was susceptible to attack of other groups like King of Darrang (Krishnanarayan) in 1792 so they take
British help. Although Ahom kingdom survived the rebellion, the weakened kingdom fell to a Burmese
invasion and finally came under British rule.
4. Civil uprisings in Gorakhpur, Basti and Bahraich (1781) (UP from west to east comes Bahraich, Basti
and Gorakhpur) – This was due to the oppression and excessive demand of revenue by Britishers
(Warren Hastings) to compensate the war expenses against the Marathas and Mysore. The British
officials were killed and the rebellion suppressed by the British and the revenue model (in which British
officers were involved as izaradars (revenue farmers)) removed.
5. Revolt of Raja of Vizianagaram (1794) (Andhra Pradesh) – The British and Vizianagaram signed a
treaty to jointly oust the French from the Northern Circars and successfully removed them but Britishers
denied to honour the terms of treaty and demanded tribute of Rs 3 Lakhs. Raja revolted and died in a
battle at Padmanabham (Vizag) in 1794 and British conquer Vizianagaram.
6. Revolt of Dhundia (Maratha who was converted to Islam by Tipu Sultan) in Bednur (Mysore) –
Dhundia Wagh got released with the fall of Seringapatam in 1799 after conquest of Mysore. He revolted
against British under Wellesley and killed in 1800.
7. Resistance of Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja (1797; 1800-05) – He was lion of Kerala or Pyche Raja and
was the leader of peasant’s movement in Kottayam when Britishers after 3rd Anglo-Mysore War took
charge of Kottayam violating the independence treaty of 1790 and successfully in 1797 a peaceful treaty
was made. But later conflict on Waynad again led to revolt and Raja died at Mavila Todu near KR-KN
border in 1805. Raja also fight to protect against Tipu and Haider.
8. Civil rebellion in Awadh (1799) – The whole incident is famous as Massacre of Benaras when a British
resident and two other Europeans killed by former Nawab of Awadh Wazir Ali. But Wazir Ali defeated
and fled to ruler of Jaipur. Later was passed on to Britishers under agreement.
9. Uprisings in Ganjam and Gumsur (Andhra) (1800, 1835-37) – Revolt when a zamindar of Ganjam
(Strikara Bhanj) refused to pay revenues and openly rebelled in 1800. Then that zamindar was assign
certain districts by English. His son (Dhananjaya Bhanj) rose in rebellion again in 1835 when British
captured Gumsur and Kolaida and died in Dec 1835 but struggle continued which ended in Feb 1837
when a formidable leader Doora Bisayi was arrested. The zamindari of Gumsur was forfeited.
10. Uprisings in Palamau (1800-02) (Jharkhand) – was due to the crises of agrarian landlordism and
feudal system. In 1800, Bhukhan Singh, a Chero chief rose in rebellion but suppressed in 2 years
11. Poligars’ Revolt (1795-1805) – The main centers of uprisings were Tinneveli (Thirunelveli),
Ramanathapuram, Sivaganga, Sivagiri, Madurai, and North Arcot (All in TN). The problem started when
Nawab of Arcot gave several rights to East India Company. 1st phase of revolt was ended because of the
betrayal by Raja of Pudukkottai led to capture of Kattabomman Nayakan and rebellion poligars leaders
were hanged. The 2nd phase was more violent. Then in 1803-05 poligars of North Arcot revolted. By Feb
1805 the rebels were suppressed. Fort of Panjalankurichi was razed to the ground.
12. Uprising in Bhiwani (1809) – Jats of Haryana revolted.
13. Diwan Velu Thampi’s Revolt (1808-09) (Travancore) – Travancore agreed to subsidiary alliance in
1805 under Wellesley. Velu Thampi was the PM of the state of Travancore. He supported by Nair troops
addressed a gathering in Kundara against British later known as Kundara Proclamation. A large military
operation had to be undertaken by British to restore peace as Maharaja of Travancore also defected.
14. Disturbances in Bundelkhand (1808-12) – After the 2nd Anglo Maratha Wars (1803-05) the
Bundelkhand was conquered and put under Bengal presidency. The Bundela chiefs offered resistance
which goes on several years. One famous military adventurer was Gopal Singh. To put a stop on these
disturbances the British had to adopt a policy of binding down the hereditary chieftains of Bundelkhand
by a series of contractual obligations – Ikarnamahs.
15. Parlakimedi Outbreak (1813-34) (Situated on western coast of Ganjam district now in Orissa) –
Resistance from Zamindars and Raja Narayan Deo of Parlakimedi. Suppressed by 1834.
16. Kutch Rebellion (1816-32) – In 1819, Raja Bharmal II raised Arabs and Afghans troops with firm
intention of removing British from his territory when latter started interfering in internal matters. Raja
was defeated but chieftains continued rebellion and demanded restoration of Bharmal II. Later
Britishers follow a conciliatory policy to suppress rebellion.
17. Rising at Bareilly (1816) – The immediate cause of rebellion was imposing of police tax. Also become
religious when Mufti M. Aiwaz, a venerated old man, filed a petition to magistrate in 1816. and several
Muslim rebels revolted and later suppressed with heavy forces and killing 300 rebels by Britishers.
18. Upsurge in Hathras, Aligarh (1817) – Hathras fort considered to be among the strongest in India – a
‘second Bharatpur’. But the Dayaram (talukdars of several villages in district of Aligarh) later obliges to
submission and settled down. Another noted rebel was Bhagwant Singh, Raja of Mursan.
19. Paika (Odisha) Rebellion (1817) – The Paika were traditional landed militia means foot soldier and
enjoyed rent free land tenures. The English’s conquest of Odisha in 1803 and the dethronement of Raja
of Khurda had greatly reduced the power and prestige of Paika. Land revenues affected peasants and
zamindars. Rise in price of salt due to taxes affect common men. Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar was
military chief of forces of Raja of Khurda. He got active support from the last Raja Mukunda Deva and
other zamindars & Khonds from Gumsur. The rebellion was brutally suppressed. No one betrayed that
was good thing. Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar surrendered in 1825 under negotiated terms.
20. Waghera (Baroda) Rising (1818-1820) – The Waghera chiefs of Okha Mandal take up arms and
carried out inroads into British territory against British and Gaekwad of Baroda during 1818-19. Peace
treaty in 1820.
21. Ahom Revolt (1828) – Rebellion under leadership of Gomdhar Konwar as British did not expelled
from Assam after 1st Anglo-Burmese War. Finally, the Company followed a conciliatory policy and
handed over Upper Assam to Maharaja Purandar Singh Narendra and part of Kingdom was resorted to
the Assamese King.
22. Surat Salt Agitations (1840s) – Because of additional salt levy which was removed after agitations.
23. Kohlapur and Savantvadi (Maharashtra) Revolts – The Gadkaris who were hereditary military class
in Maratha forts faced unemployment after reorganization of Kohlapur state after 1844 and revolted
and occupied the Samangarh and Bhudargarh forts. Later bring under control.
24. Wahabi (Rai Bareilly) Movement – It was essentially an Islamic revivalist movement founded by
Syed Ahmed of Rai Bareilly who was inspired by the teachings of Abdul Wahab (1703-87) of Saudi and
Shah Waliullah of Delhi. It was to bring Islam, Khilafas were set up and they tried to capture Sikh
kingdom of Punjab but after English dominion of Punjab in 1849 the English dominion in India became
the major target. A series of military operations by British in 1860s on Wahabi base (North-western
Tribal belt) in Sithana and various court cases for sedition weakened Wahabi base.
25. Kuka (western Punjab) Movement – Was founded by Bhagat Jawahar Mal (Sian Saheb) in 1840. A
major leader after him was Baba Ram Singh. (founded Namdhari Sikh Section). They started boycotting
English laws, education and products. So, the concept of Swadeshi and non-cooperation was propagated
by the Kukas. British tried to crush movement between 1863-1872. (In 1872 Baba Ram Singh was
deported to Rangoon).

Peasants Movements

1. Narkelberia Uprising - Syed Mir Nithar Ali, or Titu Mir is a peasant leader who led the Narkelberia
Uprising of Muslim tenants in West Bengal in 1831 against Hindu zamindars (imposed beard tax) and
British colonial authorities. Later merged into Wahabi movement.
2. The Pagal Panthis (1825-1835) – A semi-religious group mainly consisting of the Hajong and Garo
tribes of Mymensingh district (earlier in Bengal now in Bangladesh) was founded by Karam Shah. Later
peasants organized under Karam’s son Tipu and finally govt. introduced an equitable arrangement to
protect these peasants but movement violently suppressed.
3. Faraizi Revolt (1838-1857) - The Faraizi movement was a movement led by Haji Shariatullah and his
son Dudu Miyan in Eastern Bengal to give up un-Islamic practices and act upon their duties as Muslims
(fard). Most of them joined Wahabi movement.
4. Moplah Uprisings – Hike in revenue and reduction in field size causes the uprisings of Moplahs of
Malabar. 22 rebellions between 1836-1854. Later 2nd uprising when Moplah became supporter of
Khilafat during non-cooperation movement. Hindu-Muslim differences distanced congress and
Moplahs.
Tribal Revolt – Mainland and frontier tribal revolts
Important Tribal movements of Mainland –

Tribal Movements
a) Non-Frontier Tribal movements- These are divided in three phases

1. First Phase- 1795-1860: Santhal Rebellion and Khond uprising

2. Second Phase- 1860-1920: Munda uprising and Koya Rebellion
3. Third Phase- 1920-1947: Rampa Rebellion and Chenchu tribal Movements

b) Frontier Tribal Movements: Khasi Uprising, Singphos Rebellion and Rani Gaidiniliu’s Naga Movement

1. Pahariyas’ Rebellion (1778) – By martial pahariyas sardars of the Raj Mahal Hills of Chota Nagpur.
British made peace by declaring territory as damni-Kol area. The Damin-i-koh was a densely forested
and hilly area.
2. Chuar Uprising (1776-1772, 1795-1816) – In Midnapore and Bankura districts of WB due to Famine,
high land revenues. Tribals were basically farmers and hunters. Most significant uprising was under
Durjan Singh (Zamindar from Raipur). Chuars were predominantly in Barabhum and Manbhum. Other
leaders were Jagannath Singh (Ghatsila Zamindar). Also known as Revolt of the Jungle Mahal.
3. Kol Mutiny (1831) – Inhabitants of Chota Nagpur. This covered Ranchi, Singhbhum, Hazaribagh,
Palamau and western parts of Manbhum. Rising because of large scale transfer of lands of Kol to
outsiders and demanding huge taxes and also British policies affecting tradition and culture. Buddho
Bhagat was leader and they burned thousands of outsiders.
4. Ho and Munda Uprisings (1820-1837) – The Raja of Parahat organized Ho tribals to revolt against the
occupation of Singhbhum. Later after joining Munda in 1831 also protest against farming revenue policy
and Bengalis into their region. Extinguished in 1837. In 1899-1900 Munda in region south of Ranchi rise
under Birsa Munda popularly known as Ulgulan uprisings (one of the most significant tribal uprising in
1860-1920 period).
5. The Santhal Rebellion (1855-56) – They were agricultural people in Rajmahal Hills, Bihar and
continuously oppressed by zamindars. Later turned into Anti-British and Sidhu & Kanhu (brothers)
declared the area between Bhagalpur & Rajmahal as autonomous.
6. Khond Uprisings (1837-1856) – Khond were of the hilly tracts extending from Odisha to the
Srikakulam and Vizag districts of AP. Revolted against British rule. Leader was Chakra Bisoi and joined
by Gumsur, Kalahandi and other tribes.
7. Koya Revolts – The Koyas of the eastern Godavari track (modern AP) joined by Khonda Sara chiefs.
Also rise under Tomma Sora in 1879-80 due to oppression by police and moneylenders and another by
Raja Anantayyar in 1886.
8. Bhil Revolts (1817-19 & 1913) – Bhils of WGs revolted due to famine, economic distress and
misgovernment. Later a reformer Govind Guru also helped bhils in southern RJ (Banswara, Sunth
states).
9. Koli Risings (1829, 1839, 1844-48) – Neighbourhoods of Bhils. Their revolt lead to unemployment and
dismantling of their forts.
10. Ramosi Risings of WGs (1822, 1825-26) – The hill tribes of WGs employed by Marathas, lost their
means of livelihood after Marathas. Rose under Chittur Singh in 1822 and plundered Satara. Again, rose
in 1825-26 under Umaji Naik of Poona and Bapu Trimbakji Sawant. Finally, Britishers follow pacifist
policy against them (non-violence) and recruit them into hill police.
11. Naikada Movement (1860s MP & GJ) – against British and caste Hindus.
12. Kharwar Rebellion (1870s Bihar) – against revenue settlement activities.
13. Khonda Dora (1900 Vizag) – By Khonda Dora led by Korra Mallaya.
14. Bhuyan and Juang Rebellion (Orissa) – Rebellion by Bhuyan, Juang and Kals. 1st uprising led by
Ratna Nayak and 2nd by Dharni Dhar Nayak because of installation of British protégé on throne after
Raja death in 1867.
15. Bastar Revolt (1910 Jagdalpur Chhattisgarh) – against new feudal and forest levies.
16. Tana Bhagat Movements along the Mundas and Oraon tribes – led by Jatra Bhagat, Balram Bhagat
in Chota Nagpur region against outsider interference and began as Sanskritization movement.
17. Rampa Revolts (1916, 1922-24 Andhra Pradesh) – led by Alluri Sitarama Raju of Koyas against
British interference.
18. Jharkhand Uprising by tribals of Chottanagpur region (1920 onwards) – Adivasi Mahasabha was
formed in 1937 which was replaced later by Regional Jharkhand Party in 1949.
19. Forest Satyagraha’s – by Chenchu tribes of Guntur district in AP in 1920s and by Karwars of Bihar in
1930s
20. Gond Uprising (1940s Telangana) – to bring together the believers of Gond dharma.
21. Early Munda Uprising (1789-1832) - In the period of 1789-1832, the Munda rose up in rebellion
seven times against the landlords, dikhus, money-lenders and the British, who instead of protesting
them sided with the oppressors. Their movement identified as ‘sardariladai’ or ‘war of the leaders’ was
fought with the aim of expelling dikhus; and restoration of the Munda domination over their homeland.
The tribal chiefs rose up against the erosion of Khuntkatti System or Joint tenures.

Tribal Movements of the North-East

Before 1857
1. Ahom Revolt (1828-33 Assam) – Against non-fulfillment of pledges by British after Burmese War.
Suppressed by Company by dividing Kingdom (studied earlier).
2. Khasi Uprising (1830s hilly region between Jaintia and Garo) – After capturing hilly region between
Garo and Jaintia, Company wanted to build road linking the Brahmaputra valley with Sylhet. Large
outsiders came for building this. So, Garo, Khasis, Khamptis and the Singphos organized under Tirath
Singh and revolted. Suppressed by 1833.
3. Singphos Rebellion (1830s Assam) – 1830s revolt led to murder of British political agent in 1839.
Chief Nirang Phidu led uprising in 1843 again but ultimately suppressed after attack on British garrison
and death of many soldiers.
After 1857
1. Kukis Revolt (1917-19 Manipur) – against British policies of recruiting labor during WW1
2. Revolts in Tripura – against house rent hike and outsiders settlement i) led by Parikshit Jamatia
(1863) ii) the Reangs’ revolt led by Ratnamani (1942-43) iii) led by Bharti Singh (1920s)
3. Zeliangsong Movement (1920s Manipur) – led by Zemi, Liangmei and Rongmei tribes against failure
of British to protect them during Kuki violence in 1917-19.
4. Naga movement (1905-31 Manipur) – led by Jadonang against British rule and for setting Naga Raj.
5. Heraka Cult (1930s Manipur) – led by Gaidinliu, suppressed but Kabui Naga Association formed in
1946
6. Other smaller Movements – i) Revolt of Syntengs of Jaintia Hills in 1860-62s. ii) the Phulaguri
peasants’ rebellion in 1861 iii) the revolt of the Saflas in 1872-73 iv) uprisings of Kacha Nagas of
Cachhar in 1882 and a women’s war in Manipur in 1904.
The colonial policies of the East India Company destroyed the traditional economic fabric of the Indian
society. British rule also meant misery to the Indian artisans and handicraft people. The Indian trade and
mercantile class was deliberately crippled by the British.

The Revolt of 1857 coincided with certain outside events in which the British suffered serious losses –
the 1st Afghan War (1838-42), Punjab Wars (1845-49), and the Crimean Wars (1854-56). These had
obvious psychological repercussions. The Britishers were seen to be not so strong and it was felt that
they could be defeated.

The Indian Sepoy was made to feel a subordinate at every step and was discriminated against racially
and in matters of promotion and privileges. There had been a long history of revolts in the British Indian
Army – in Bengal (1764), Vellore (1806), Barrackpore (1825) and during the Afghan Wars (1838-42) etc.

The reports about the mixing of bone dust in flour and the introduction of the Enfield rifle enhanced the
sepoys’ growing disaffection with the government. The greased wrapping paper of the cartridge of the
new rifle had to be bitten off before loading and the grease was reportedly made of beef and pig fat.

The Revolt began at Meerut, 58 Km from Delhi, on May 10, 1857 and then, gathering force rapidly, soon
embraced a vast area from the Punjab in the North and the Narmada in the South to Bihar in the East
and Rajputana in the West. A young sepoy of 34th Native Infantry, Mangal Pande, fired at the sergeant
major of his unit at Barrackpore. And then he was executed. But he left a spark which ignite the sepoys
and then the revolt began.

The aged and powerless Bahadur Shah Zafar was proclaimed the Emperor of India. This spontaneous
raising of the last Mughal king to the leadership of the country was a recognition of the fact that the
long reign of Mughal dynasty had become the tradition symbol of India’s political unity.

It is the widespread participation in the revolt by peasantry, the artisans, shopkeepers, day laborers,
zamindars, religious mendicants, priests and civil servants which gave it real strength as well as the
character of a popular revolt.

The real command lay with a court of soldiers headed by General Bakht Khan who had led the revolt of
Bareilly troops and brought them to Delhi. At Kanpur, the natural choice was Nana Saheb, the adopted
son of the last peshwa, Baji Rao II. Begum Hazrat Mahal took over the reigns of Lucknow where the
rebellion broke out on June 4, 1857. Her son Birjis Qadie was proclaimed the nawab. At Bareilly, Khan
Bahadur, a descendent of the former ruler of Rohilkhand, was placed in command. In Bihar, the revolt
was led by Kunwar Singh, the zamindar of Jagdishpur. Maulvi Ahmadullah of Faizabad was another
outstanding leader of the revolt. The most outstanding leader of the revolt was Rani Laxmibai, Jhansi.
She was joined by Tantia Tope, a close associate of Nana Saheb, after the loss of Kanpur. The name of
Shah Mal from Baghpat, a local villager in Pargana Baraut is most notable. He organized the headmen
and peasants of 84 villages (Chaurasi desh), marching at night from village to village to rebel against
British hegemony. Shah Mal made his HQ at the bungalow of an irrigation department on the banks of
Yamuna popularly known as Hall of Justice.

The revolt was finally suppressed and Delhi was captured on September 20, 1857. By the end of 1859,
British authority over India was fully re-established. The British govt. had to pour immense supplies of
men, money and arms into the country, though the Indians had to later repay the entire cost through
their own suppression.
Rulers who did not participate included Sindhia of Gwalior, the Holkar of Indore, the rulers of Patiala,
Sindh and other Sikh chieftains and the Maharaja of Kashmir.

It had seeds of nationalism and anti-imperialism but the concept of common nationality and nationhood
was not inherent to the revolt of 1857. As each of the leaders had a personal cause for revolting; each
had a personal interest to protect.

The first combined attempt of many classes of people to challenge a foreign power.

Marxist interpretation said that the revolt of 1857 was a struggle of the soldier-peasant democratic
combine against foreign imperialism as well as indigenous landlordism.

During Revolt, the direct responsibility for the administration of the company was assumed by the
British Crown and Company rule was abolished. The assumption of the GOI by the sovereign of Great
Britain was announced by Lord Canning at a durbar at Allahabad in the Queen’s proclamation issued on
November 1, 1858. So, General Governor acquired title of Viceroy.

The Army Amalgamation Scheme 1861 moved the Company’s European troops to the services of the
crown. The policy of Divide and Rule started in earnest after the Revolt of 1857. The British used one
class/community against another unscrupulously. Thus, socially, there were irremediable deterioration.

The Indian Civil Service Act of 1861 was passed which had the effect of keeping the higher services a
close preserve of the colonizers.

Racial hatred and suspicion between the Indians and the English was probably the worst legacy of the
revolt. The proponents of imperialism in India dubbed the entire Indian population as unworthy of trust
and subject them to insults and contempt. The complete structure of the Indian govt. was remodelled
and based on the notion of a master race – justifying the philosophy of the Whiteman’s burden.

White Mutiny is related to the European soldiers and the company’s soldiers when former merged into
later and there were some structural changes.

Not quite the 1st war of independence but sowed the seeds of nationalism and quest for freedom from
alien rule.